1. Hinduism
Hinduism is the major religion[1][2]of the Indian subcontinent,particularly of Nepal and India.Hinduism
includes Shaivism,Vaishnavismand Śrautaamongnumerous other traditions.Among other practices and
philosophies,Hinduismincludes a widespectrum of laws and prescriptionsof "daily morality"based
on karma, dharma,and societal norms.Hinduismis a categorisation of distinctintellectual or philosophical points
of view, rather than a rigid,common set of beliefs.[3]
Hinduismconsistsof many diverse traditions and has no singlefounder.[4] Among its directroots is the historical
Vedic religion of Iron Age India[5] and,as such,Hinduismis often called the "oldestlivingreligion"[6] or the "oldest
livingmajor religion"in the world.[1][7][8][9]SinceVedic times, "people from many strata of society throughout the
subcontinent tended to adapttheir religious and social lifeto Brahmanic norms", a process sometimes
calledSanskritization.[10]
One orthodox classification of Hindu texts is to divideinto Śruti ("revealed") and Smriti ("remembered")
texts.[11] These texts discuss theology,philosophy,mythology, rituals and temple building amongother
topics.[12] Major scriptures include
the Vedas, Upanishads,Purāṇas,Mahābhārata,Rāmāyaṇa,Manusmriti,Bhagavad Gītā and Āgamas.[13]
Hinduism,with about one billion followers[14] (950 million estimated in India),[15]is theworld's third largest
religion,after Christianity and Islam.
Etymology
Valmiki,a contemporary of Rama, composes the Ramayana.
The word Hindu is derived (through Persian) from the Sanskritword Sindhu, the historic local appellation for
the Indus River in the northwestern partof theIndian subcontinent. The word Sindhu is firstmentioned in the Rig
Veda.[16][17][18]
The word Hindu was borrowed by European languages from the Arabic term al-Hind, referringto the land of the
people who liveacross theRiver Indus,[19]itself fromthe Persian term Hindū, which refers to all Indians.By the 13th
century, Hindustan emerged as a popular alternative nameof India,meaningthe "land of Hindus".[20]
The term Hinduismlater found mention sporadically in certain Sanskrittexts such as the later Rajataranginis of
Kashmir (Hinduka,c.1450), some 16th- to 18th-century Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava texts,including Chaitanya
Charitamrita and Chaitanya Bhagavata, usually to contrastHindus with Yavanas orMlecchas.[21] Itwas only
towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonistsbegan to refer to the followers
of Indian religionscollectively as Hindus.The term Hinduism was introduced into the English languagein the 19th
century to denote the religious,philosophical,and cultural traditionsnativeto India.
History

2. The so-called Shiva Pashupati seal
Navy shoulderboard for Hindu military chaplain,South African military
Main article: History of Hinduism
James Mill (1773-1836),in his TheHistory of British India (1817),[22] distinguished three phases in the history of
India,namely Hindu, Muslimand British civilisations.[22][23]This periodisation hasbeen criticised,for the
misconceptions ithas given riseto.[24] Another periodisation isthedivision into "ancient,classical,medieaval and
modern periods".[25] Smart[26] and Michaels[27] seemto followMill'speriodisation,[note 1],whileFlood[28] and
Muesse[30][31]followthe"ancient, classical,medieaval and modern periods"periodisation.[32]
Different periods aredesignated as "classical Hinduism":
 Smart calls theperiod between 1000 BCE and 100 CE "pre-classical".It's the formative period for the
Upanishads and Brahmanism[note 2],Jainismand Buddhism.For Smart, the "classical period"lastsfrom100 to
1000 CE, and coincides with the floweringof "classical Hinduism"and the floweringand deterioration of
Mahayana-buddhismin India.[34]
 For Michaels,the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of "Ascetic reformism"[35],whereas the
period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of "classical Hinduism",sincethere is "a turning point
between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions".[36]
 Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, which he calls the
"Classical Period":
...this was a time when traditional religiouspractices and beliefs werereassessed.The brahmins and the rituals
they performed no longer enjoyed the same prestige they had in the Vedic pariod".[37]
Accordingto Muesse, some of the fundamental concepts of Hinduism,namely karma,reincarnation and "personal
enlightenment and transformation",which did not existin the Vedic religion,developed in this time:
Indian philosophers cameto regard the human as an immortal soul encased in a perishablebody and bound by
action,or karma,to a cycleof endless existences.[38]
Accordingto Muesse, reincarnation is"a fundamental principleof virtually all religionsformed in Indias".[39]
The period of the ascetic reforms sawthe riseof Buddhismand Jainism,whileSikhismoriginated duringthe time
of Islamic rule.[40]
Beliefs
Temple carvingatHoysaleswaratemple representing the Trimurti: Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu.
Hinduismrefers to a religious mainstreamwhich evolved organically and spread over a largeterritory marked by
significantethnic and cultural diversity.This mainstreamevolved both by innovation from within,and by

3. assimilation of external traditions or cults into the Hindu fold. The resultis an enormous variety of religious
traditions,rangingfrominnumerablesmall,unsophisticated cults to major religious movements with millionsof
adherents spread over the entire subcontinent. The identification of Hinduismas an independent religion separate
from Buddhism or Jainismconsequently hinges on the affirmation of its adherents that it is such.[121]
Hinduismgrants absoluteand complete freedom of belief and worship.[122][123][124] Hinduismconceives thewhole
world as a singlefamily thatdeifies the one truth, and therefore it accepts all forms of beliefs and dismisses la bels
of distinctreligionswhich would imply a division of identity.[125] Hence,Hinduismis devoid of the concepts
of apostasy,heresy and blasphemy.[126][127][128][129]
Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include(butare not restricted to), Dharma (ethics/duties),Samsāra (the
continuingcycleof birth,life,death and rebirth), Karma (action and subsequent reaction), Moksha (liberation
from samsara), and the various Yogas (paths or practices).[130]
Modern Hinduism (from c. 1850)
Indology as an academic disciplineof studyingIndian culturefrom a European perspective was established in the
19th century, led by scholarssuch as Max Müller and John Woodroffe. They
brought Vedic, Puranic and Tantric literatureand philosophy to Europe and the United States. At the same time,
societies such as the Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society attempted to reconcileand fuse Abrahamic and
Dharmic philosophies,endeavouringto institutesocietal reform. This period sawthe emergence of movements
which, whilehighly innovative,were rooted in indigenous tradition.They were based on the personalities and
teachings of individuals,as with Ramakrishna and Ramana Maharshi.ProminentHindu philosophers,
including Aurobindo andPrabhupada (founder of ISKCON), translated,reformulated and presented Hinduism's
foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new iterations,attractingfollowers and attention in India and
abroad.Others such as Vivekananda,Paramahansa Yogananda,Sri Chinmoy,B.K.S. Iyengar and Swami Rama have
also been instrumental in raising the profiles of Yoga and Vedanta in the West.
Practices
Hindu practices generally involveseekingawareness of God and sometimes also seekingblessingsfromDevas.
Therefore, Hinduismhas developed numerous practices meant to help one think of divinity in the midstof
everyday life. Hindus can engage in pūjā (worship or veneration),[146] either at home or at a temple. At home,
Hindus often create a shrinewith icons dedicated to their chosen form(s) of God. Temples areusually dedicated to
a primary deity alongwith associated subordinatedeities though some commemorate multipledeities.Visiting
temples is not obligatory,[187]and many visittemples only duringreligious festivals.Hindus performtheir worship
through icons (murtis).The icon serves as a tangiblelink between the worshiper and God.[188] The image is often
considered a manifestation of God, sinceGod is immanent. The Padma Purana states that the mūrti is notto be
thought of as mere stone or wood but as a manifestform of the Divinity.[189] Afew Hindu sects, such as the Ārya
Samāj,do not believe in worshipingGod through icons.
Hinduismhas a developed system of symbolismand iconography to represent the sacred in art,architecture,
literatureand worship.These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures,mythology, or cultural traditions.
The syllableOm(which represents the Parabrahman) and the Swastika sign (which symbolises auspiciousness)
have grown to represent Hinduismitself,whileother markings such as tilaka identify a follower of the faith.
Hinduismassociates many symbols,which includethe lotus, chakra and veena, with particular deities.
Mantras areinvocations,praiseand prayers thatthrough their meaning, sound,and chantingstylehelp a devotee
focus the mind on holy thoughts or express devotion to God/the deities.Many devotees perform morning

4. ablutions atthe bank of a sacred river whilechantingthe Gayatri Mantra or Mahamrityunjayamantras.[190] The
epic Mahabharata extols Japa (ritualistic chanting) as thegreatest duty in the Kali Yuga (what Hindus believe to be
the current age).[191] Many adopt Japa as their primary spiritual practice.[191]Yoga is a Hindu disciplinewhich trains
the consciousnessfor tranquility,health and spiritual insight.This is donethrough a system of postures and
exercises to practisecontrol of the body and mind.[192]
Rituals
Offerings to Agni during Vivah-homa in a Hindu wedding
The vastmajority of Hindus engage in religious ritualson a daily basis.[193][194] MostHindus observereligious rituals
at home.[195] but observation of rituals greatly vary amongregions,villages,and individuals.Devout Hindus
perform daily chores such as worshipingatdawn after bathing(usually ata family shrine,and typically includes
lightinga lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities),recitation from religi ous scripts,
singing devotional hymns,meditation,chantingmantras,recitingscriptures etc.[195] Anotablefeature in religious
ritual is thedivision between purity and pollution.Religious acts presupposesome degree of impurity or
defilement for the practitioner,which must be overcome or neutralised before or duringritual procedures.
Purification,usually with water, is thus a typical feature of most religious action.[195] Other characteristicsincludea
belief in the efficacy of sacrificeand concept of merit, gained through the performance of charity or good works,
that will accumulateover time and reduce sufferings in the next world.[195] Vedic rites of fire-oblation (yajna) are
now only occasional practices,although they arehighly revered in theory. In Hindu wedding and burial
ceremonies, however, the yajñaand chantingof Vedic mantras arestill thenorm.[196] The rituals,upacharas,
change with time. For instance,in the pastfew hundred years some rituals,such as sacred danceand music
offerings in the standard Sodasa Upacharassetprescribed by the Agama Shastra,were replaced by the offerings of
riceand sweets.
Occasionslikebirth,marriage,and death involvewhat areoften elaboratesets of religious customs.In Hinduism,
life-cycleritualsincludeAnnaprashan (a baby's firstintakeof solid food), Upanayanam ("sacred thread ceremony"
undergone by upper-caste children attheir initiation into formal education) andŚrāddha (ritual of treatingpeople
to a meal in return for prayers to 'God' to give peace to the soul of the deceased).[197][198]For mostpeople in India,
the betrothal of the young coupleand the exact date and time of the wedding are matters deci ded by the parents
in consultation with astrologers.[197] On death,cremation is considered obligatory for all except sanyasis, hijra, and
children under five.[199] Cremation is typically performed by wrappingthe corpsein cloth and burningiton a pyre.