3 CHAMBERED TEMPLES.docx

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Development ofthe Garbagriha
Dr Uday Dokras
Some Original Photographs by the author Dr Uday Dokras

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3 CHAMBEREDTEMPLES and the Development
of the Garbagriha
Who really knows?
Who will here proclaim it?
Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?
The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.
Who then knows whence it has arisen?
— Nasadiya Sukta, concerns the origin of the universe, Rig Veda, 10:129-6
AYODHYSAS RAM MANDIR
EVOLUTION OF FRELIGION: The exact time when humans first became religious remains
unknown, however research in evolutionary archaeology shows credible evidence of religious-
cum-ritualistic behavior from around the Middle Paleolithic era (45-200 thousand years ago).
The use of symbolism in religion is a universal established phenomenon. Archeologist Steven
Mithen contends that it is common for religious practices to involve the creation of images and
symbols to represent supernatural beings and ideas. Because supernatural beings violate the
principles of the natural world, there will always be difficulty in communicating and sharing
supernatural concepts with others. This problem can be overcome by anchoring these

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supernatural beings in material form through representational art. When translated into material
form, supernatural concepts become easier to communicate and understand. Organized religion
traces its roots to the neolithic revolution that began 11,000 years ago in the Near East but may
have occurred independently in several other locations around the world. The invention of
agriculture transformed many human societies from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to a sedentary
lifestyle. The consequences of the neolithic revolution included a population explosion and an
acceleration in the pace of technological development.
The history of Hinduism covers a wide variety of related religious traditions native to the Indian
subcontinent. Its history overlaps or coincides with the development of religion in the Indian
subcontinent since the Iron Age, with some of its traditions tracing back to prehistoric
religions such as those of the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization. It has thus been called the
"oldest religion" in the world. Scholars regard Hinduism as a synthesis of various Indian
cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no single founder. This Hindu synthesis emerged
after the Vedic period, between ca. 500-200 BCE and ca. 300 CE. in the period of the Second
Urbanisation and the early classical period of Hinduism, when the Epics and the first Purānas
were composed.[12][22] It flourished in the medieval period, with the decline of Buddhism in
India.
The history of Hinduism is often divided into periods of development. The first period is the pre-
Vedic period, which includes the Indus Valley Civilization and local pre-historic religions,
ending at about 1750 BCE. This period was followed in northern India by the Vedic period,
which saw the introduction of the historical Vedic religion with the Indo-Aryan migrations,
starting somewhere between 1900 BCE and 1400 BCE. The subsequent period, between 800
BCE and 200 BCE, is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions", and a
formative period for Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. The Epic and Early Puranic period, from
c. 200 BCE to 500 CE, saw the classical "Golden Age" of Hinduism (c. 320-650 CE), which
coincides with the Gupta Empire. In this period the six branches of Hindu philosophy evolved,
namely Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedānta. Monotheistic sects
like Shaivism and Vaishnavism developed during this same period through the Bhakti
movement. The period from roughly 650 to 1100 CE forms the late Classical period or early
Middle Ages, in which classical Puranic Hinduism is established, and Adi Shankara's influential
consolidation of Advaita Vedanta.
The concept of God in Hinduism varies in its diverse traditions. Hinduism spans a wide range
of beliefs suchmonotheism, agnosticism, atheism and nontheism. Forms of theism find mention
in the Bhagavad Gita. Emotional or loving devotion (bhakti) to a primary god such
as avatars of Vishnu (Krishna for example), Shiva and Devi emerged in the early medieval
period, and is now known as Bhakti movement.
Contemporary Hinduism can be categorized into four major
traditions: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and
Shaktism worship Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi - the Divine Mother — as the Supreme respectively,
or consider all Hindu deities as aspects of the formless Supreme Reality or Brahman. Other
minor sects such as Ganapatya and Saura focus on Ganesha and Surya as the Supreme.
Hindus following Advaita Vedanta consider Ātman within every living being to be the same as
Vishnu or Shiva or Devi, or alternatively identical to the eternal metaphysical Absolute,
called Brahman in Hinduism. Such a philosophical system of Advaita or non-dualism as it

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developed in the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy, especially as set out in
the Upanishads and popularised by Adi Shankara in the 9th century has been influential on
Hinduism.
In the beginning there was only one God and that was Narayana or Vishnu and refused to accept
any claims that other Hindu deities, such as Brahma or Shiva, might be equally the highest.
A Mandir or Hindu temple is a symbolic house, seat and body of divinity for Hindus. It is a
structure designed to bring human beings and gods together, using symbolism to express the
ideas and beliefs of Hinduism. The symbolism and structure of a Hindu temple are rooted in
Vedic traditions, deploying circles and squares. It also represents recursion and the
representation of the equivalence of the macrocosm and the microcosm by astronomical
numbers, and by "specific alignments related to the geography of the place and the presumed
linkages of the deity and the patron". A temple incorporates all elements of the Hindu cosmos —
presenting the good, the evil and the human, as well as the elements of the Hindu sense of cyclic
time and the essence of life-symbolically presenting dharma, kama, artha, moksa, and karma.
ARCHITECTURE & DESIGN ELEMENTS
The spiritual principles symbolically represented in Hindu temples are given in the ancient
Sanskrit texts of India (for example, the Vedas and Upanishads), while their structural rules are
described in various ancient Sanskrit treatises on architecture (Bṛhat Saṃhitā, Vāstu Śāstras).
The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric
symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism. A Hindu
temple is a spiritual destination for many Hindus, as well as landmarks around which ancient
arts, community celebrations and economy have flourished.
Hindu temples come in many styles, are situated in diverse locations, deploy different
construction methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs, yet almost all of
them share certain core ideas, symbolism and themes. The current state and outer appearance of
Hindu temples reflect arts, materials and designs as they evolved over two millennia; they also
reflect the effect of conflicts between Hinduism and Islam since the 12th century.
If we compare Hinduism with Judaism we can get a perspective on the design elements of the
temple or mandir and its consequential inner sanctum where the idols are kept.
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The Latin phrase sanctum sanctorum is a translation of the Hebrew term Holy of Holies which
generally refers in Latin texts to the holiest place of the Tabernacle of the Israelites and later
the Temple in Jerusalem, but also has some derivative use in application to imitations of the
Tabernacle in church architecture.In Hinduism, a temple's innermost part where the cult
image (Murti) of the deity is kept forms the Garbha griha, also referred to as a sanctum
sanctorum.
1.This is my way of explaination which I feel comes closest to the sanctum designs. Others may
find other ways to explain- all avenues are possible

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According to the Hebrew Bible, the tabernacle meaning "residence" or "dwelling place", also
known as the Tent of the Congregation also Tent of Meeting, etc., was the portable earthly
dwelling place of Yahweh (the God of Israel) used by the Israelites from the Exodus until the
conquest of Canaan. Moses was instructed at Mount Sinai to construct and transport the
tabernacle with the Israelites on their journey through the wilderness and their subsequent
conquest of the Promised Land. After 440 years, Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem superseded it
as the dwelling-place of God.
The main source describing the tabernacle is the biblical Book of Exodus, specifically Exodus
25–31 and 35–40. Those passages describe an inner sanctuary, the Holy of Holies, created by the
veil suspended by four pillars. This sanctuary contained the Ark of the Covenant, with
its cherubim-covered mercy seat. An outer sanctuary (the "Holy Place") contained a gold lamp-
stand or candlestick. On the north side stood a table, on which lay the showbread. On the south
side was the Menorah, holding seven oil lamps to give light. On the west side, just before the
veil, was the golden altar of incense. It was constructed of 4 woven layers of curtains and 48 15-
foot tall standing wood boards overlaid in gold and held in place by its bars and silver sockets
and was richly furnished with valuable materials taken from Egypt at God's command.
This description is generally identified as part of the Priestly source ("P"),written in the sixth or
fifth century BCE. However while the first Priestly source takes the form of instructions, the
second is largely a repetition of the first in the past tense, i.e., it describes the execution of the
instructions. Many scholars contend that it is of a far later date than the time of Moses, and that
the description reflects the structure of Solomon's Temple, while some hold that the description
derives from memories of a real pre-monarchic shrine, perhaps the sanctuary at Shiloh.

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Traditional scholars contend that it describes an actual tabernacle used in the time of Moses and
thereafter. According to historical criticism, an earlier, pre-exilic source, the Elohist ("E"),
describes the tabernacle as a simple tent-sanctuary
In the Wilderness of Sinai desert, the Tablernacle was the special "tent of meeting" that God
instructed Moses to build. Drawn to Bible measurements, all the important features are pointed
out here in full color: the High Priest, the Brazen Altar, the Holy Place, the Holy of Holies, the
Ark of the Covenant, the Pillar of Fire, etc. More than a dozen illustrations and diagrams explain
the sacrificial system, symbolism that points to Jesus, and the pattern of worship. Find out the
importance of these in Moses' time, Jesus' time, and today.
However, For those Christian traditions which practice the rite known as Eucharist or Holy
Communion, a tabernacle or sacrament house is a fixed, locked box in which
the Eucharist (consecrated communion hosts) is stored as part of the "reserved sacrament" rite. A
container for the same purpose, which is set directly into a wall, is called an aumbry.
Within Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy and in some traditions of Anglicanism and Lutheranism,
the Tabernacle is a box-like or dome-like vessel for the exclusive reservation of the consecrated
Eucharist.

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So as we can see most religions have a house of worship with a special chamber to keep the
holiest physical effects that point to the idol or god and MARK HIS PRESENCE TO THE
ATTENTION OF THE DEVOTEE.

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The people of Israel have built two temples to God in Jerusalem, and both have been destroyed.
What does the Bible say about a third temple?
Aerial view of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. Will a third temple be built here? (Photo by
Godot13 [CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia
Commons)

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The temple of God in Jerusalem is a major theme in Bible history and prophecy. Since the
second temple was destroyed in A.D. 70 and the temple currently does not exist in Jerusalem,
many students of Bible prophecy wonder when it will be rebuilt.
Because the Bible prophesies that end-time sacrifices will be halted (Daniel 12:11), many
conclude the temple must be rebuilt before that can happen. What does the Bible say about the
third temple and when it might be built?
To really understand the third temple, it is helpful to understand the history and significance of
the first two temples in Jerusalem.
Solomon’s temple
As promised by God, one of David’s sons, Solomon, built “the house of the LORD” (1 Kings
6:1). This temple was located on Mount Moriah in Jerusalem and is commonly referred to as
Solomon’s temple.
Upon completion, this temple became the center of religious worship in Israel. It lasted about
400 years from its construction during the reign of Solomon to its destruction by the Babylonians
in 586 B.C. (2 Kings 25:9).
The second temple
After 70 years of captivity in the Babylonian Empire, the Jews, via a decree by King Cyrus, were
allowed to return to Jerusalem and begin rebuilding the temple. God had prophesied this many
years before Cyrus was even born. Isaiah 44:28 records a prophecy of God, “Who says of Cyrus,
‘He is My shepherd, and he shall perform all My pleasure, saying to Jerusalem, “You shall be
built,” and to the temple, “Your foundation shall be laid.”’”
Although the Jews began working on the temple almost immediately after their return,
opposition by neighboring peoples and a laxness among the Jews themselves hindered the
construction.
Through Haggai the prophet, God admonished the Jews to finish the project. “Then the word of
the LORD came by Haggai the prophet, saying, ‘Is it time for you yourselves to dwell in your
paneled houses, and this temple to lie in ruins?’” (Haggai 1:3-4).
Finally, in approximately 515 B.C. the temple was rebuilt on the same site on which it had
previously stood.
Many sources, such as the International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, refer to this second
temple as the temple of Zerubbabel (article, “Temple”), the “governor of Judah” (Haggai 1:1)
who helped coordinate its construction (Ezra 3:8; 5:2).
This temple was standing when Jesus came to earth as a human, although it had undergone major
renovations by King Herod. After these renovations, it was referred to as Herod’s temple.

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Altogether this building stood for almost 600 years until its destruction by the Romans in A.D.
70.
For additional information about the location of the temple and the history of the first and second
temples, see the article “Temple Mount: Its History and Future.”
A third temple?
Since a temple has been such an important fixture in the history of the ancient Israelites (and
especially the Jews, who are also Israelites), many have wondered what the Bible says about a
third temple.
While the biblical texts are not always as explicit as we would like, there are three scriptural
indications of another temple. Two of these represent a literal temple; the third is symbolic.
Why were temples built? Why do we worship idols?
The science of Temple Construction
There is no set day for worship in Hinduism. That said, different deities are linked to different
days of the week and may be remembered on those days. Worship is less formal than some other
forms of religious worship and those attending can come and go as they please. Hindus will often
worship in the early morning or evening, at home, in a temple, or during a pilgrimage. But why
were temples built? Why do we worship idols? The very nature of human perception is such that,
right now, whatever a human being is involved with, that will be the only truth for him in his
experience. Rulers built temples to demonstrate their devotion to various deities. They also endowed
temples with grants of land and money to carry out elaborate rituals, feed pilgrims and priests and
celebrate festivals. Pilgrims who flocked to the temples also made donations.
Various Kings who could afford to, built temples to favour their favourite deities. For example
The Cola Kings built temples such as the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur which is supposed
to be the greatest achievement of Chola architects and the highlight of Dravidian architecture.
The temple was built by the Chola King Rajaraja I between 1003 and 1010 AD. The sculptures
and inscriptions here are related to Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism. The quality of the
sculpture here is also famous and the temple is one of the most visited religious sites in Tamil
Nadu.

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The other example one can give is that of Narasingha Deva I who is mentioned as
Paramamahesvara, Durga-Putra and Purushottamaputra in the Chandrashekhera temple
inscription. The titles show that he was a protector and a follower of the Shaiva, Shakti and
Jagannath sects during his rule. A sculpture from the Konark sun temple build by him shows
bowing before the three lead deities of the sects as per his titles and a priest. The Lingaraj temple
inscriptions says that he had constructed a Matha (monastery) called as Sadashiva Matha to give
shelter to the fleeing refugees from Radha and Gauda after the incursion by Muslim forces there.
According to the Srikurmam temple inscription, he was a sober person without any bad nature
and agitation. He possessed valuable articles and was a sincere learner of art, architecture and
religion.
He administered the state by the traditions of Marici and Parasara while following the Niti
sashtra (book of law). Due to his dedication towards faith and spirituality, he commissioned and
completed the building projects for many temples like Konark, Kapilash, Khirachora Gopinatha,
Srikurmam, Varaha Lakshmi Narasimha temple at Simhanchalam and Ananta Vasudeva temple
which was built by the interest of his widowed sister, Chandrika. Sanskrit and Odia were both
patronized as court languages during his rule and the Sanskrit masterpieces like Ekavali of
Vidhydhara were written during this time. An inscription at Kapilash temple built by him
compares him to the Varaha avatar (incarnation) of Vishnu who saved and raised the Vedas and
the world from the oceans of uncertainty. He was the first king to use the title of 'Gajapati' or
lord of war elephants among the Odishan kings.
The Konark temple complex is the creation of architects of his era and is a marvel of
architecture is dedicated to Indian God of Sun, Surya. The temple has been built in the shape of
his chariot which is drawn by seven horses. It was built in the 13th century by Narasimhadeva.
IDOL

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Murti (Sanskrit: मूर्ति, ISO: Mūrti; lit. 'form, embodiment, or solid object')[1 is a general term for
an image, statue or idol of a deity or mortal in Hindu culture. In Hindu temples, it is a symbolic
icon. A murti is itself not a god in Hinduism, but it is a shape, embodiment or manifestation of a
deity. Murti are also found in some nontheistic Jainism traditions, where they serve as symbols
of revered mortals inside Jain temples, and are worshiped in murtipujaka rituals.
A murti is typically made by carving stone, wood working, metal casting or through pottery.
Ancient era texts describing their proper proportions, positions and gestures include
the Puranas, Agamas and Samhitas. The expressions in a murti vary in diverse Hindu traditions,
ranging from Ugra symbolism to express destruction, fear and violence (Durga, Kali), as well
as Saumya symbolism to express joy, knowledge and harmony (Saraswati, Lakshmi). Saumya
images are most common in Hindu temples.[8] Other murti forms found in Hinduism include
the linga.
A murti is an embodiment of the divine, the Ultimate Reality or Brahman to some Hindus. In
religious context, they are found in Hindu temples or homes, where they may be treated as a
beloved guest and serve as a participant of puja in Hinduism. In other occasions, it serves as the
centre of attention in annual festive processions and these are called utsava murti. The earliest
murti are mentioned by Pāṇini in 4th century BCE. Prior to that the agnicayana ritual ground
seemed to served as a template for the temple.
Murti is sometimes referred to as murthi, or vigraha or pratima. Murti, when produced properly,
are made according to the design rules of the Shilpa Shastras. They recommend materials,
measurements, proportion, decoration and symbolism of the murti. Explanation of the
metaphysical significance of each stage of manufacture and the prescription of specific mantras
to sanctify the process and evoke and invoke the power of the deity in the image are found in the
liturgical handbooks the Agamas and Tantras. In Tantric traditions, a murti is installed by priests
through the Prana pratishta ceremony, where mantras are recited sometimes
with yantras (mystic diagrams), whereby state Harold Coward and David Goa, the "divine vital
energy of the cosmos is infused into the sculpture" and then the divine is welcomed as one would
welcome a friend. According to Gudrun Buhnemann, the esoteric Hindu tantric traditions
through texts such as Tantra-tattva follow elaborate rituals to infuse life into a murti. Some
tantra texts such as the Pancaratraraksa state that anyone who considers an icon of Vishnu as
nothing but "an ordinary object" made of iron "goes to hell”. The use of murti and particularly
the prana pratistha consecration ceremony, states Buhnemann, has been criticised by Hindu
groups. These groups state that this practice came from more recent "false tantra books", and
there is not a single word in the Vedas about such a ceremony.
A Hindu prayer before cutting a tree for a murti
Oh Tree! you have been selected for the worship of a deity,
Salutations to you!
I worship you per rules, kindly accept it.
May all who live in this tree, find residence elsewhere,
May they forgive us now, we bow to them.
—Brihat Samhita 59.10 - 59.11

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The artists who make any art or craft, including murti, were known as shilpins. The formally
trained Shilpins shape the murti not in accordance with fancy but in accordance with canonical
manuals such as the Agamas and the Shilpa Shastras texts such as Vishvakarma. The material of
construction range from clay to wood to marble to metal alloys such as panchaloha. The sixth
century Brihat Samhita and eighth century text Manasara-Silpasastra (literally: "treatise on art
using method of measurement"), identify nine materials for murti construction – gold, silver,
copper, stone, wood, sudha (a type of stucco, mortar plaster), sarkara (gravel,
grit), abhasa (marble types), and earth (clay, terracotta). For abhasa, the texts describe working
methods for various types of marble, specialised stones, colours, and a range of opacity
(transparent, translucent and crystal).
Brihat Samhita, a 6th-century encyclopaedia of a range of topics from horticulture to astrology to
gemology to murti and temple design, specifies in Chapter 56 that the pratima (murti) height
should be of the sanctum sanctorum's door height, the Pratima height and the sanctum
sanctorum room's width be in the ratio of 0.292, it stand on a pedestal that is 0.146 of sanctum
room width, thereafter the text describes 20 types of temples with their dimensions.[35] Chapter
58 of the text describes the ratios of various anatomical parts of a murti, from head to toe, along
with the recommendation in verse 59.29 that generally accepted variations in dress, decoration
and dimensions of local regional traditions for the murti is the artistic tradition.
Proper murti design is described in ancient and medieval Indian texts. They describe proportions,
posture, expressions among other details, often referencing to nature.
The texts recommend materials of construction, proportions, postures and mudra, symbolic items
the murti holds in its hands, colours, garments and ornaments to go with the murti of each god or
goddess, vehicles of deities such as Garuda, bull and lion, and other details. The texts also
include chapters on the design of Jaina and Buddhist murti, as well as reliefs of sages, apsaras,
different types of devotees (based on bhakti yoga, jnana yoga, karma yoga, ascetics) to decorate
the area near the murti. The texts recommend that the material of construction and relative scale
of murti be correlated to the scale of the temple dimensions, using twelve types of comparative
measurements.

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In Southern India, the material used predominantly for murti is black granite, while material in
North India is white marble. However, for some Hindus, it is not the materials used that matter,
but the faith and meditation on the universal Absolute Brahman. More particularly, devotees
meditate or worship on the formless God (nirguna Brahman) through murti symbolism of God
(saguna Brahman) during a puja before a murti, or the meditation on a Tirthankara in the case of
Jainism, thus making the material of construction or the specific shape of the murti not spiritually
important.
According to John Keay, "Only after achieving remarkable expertise in the portrayal of the
Buddha figure and of animal and human, did Indian stonemasons turn to producing images of the
orthodox 'Hindu' deities” This view is, however, not shared by other scholars. Trudy King et al.
state that stone images of reverential figures and guardian spirits (yaksha) were first produced in
Jainism and Hinduism, by about 2 century BCE, as suggested by Mathura region excavations,
and this knowledge grew into iconographic traditions and stone monuments in India including
those for Buddhism
The temples face sunrise, and the entrance for the devotee is typically this east side. The mandala
pada facing sunrise is dedicated to Surya deity (Sun). The Surya pada is flanked by the padas of
Satya (Truth) deity on one side and Indra (king of gods) deity on other.
Temples are built for deities, not gods.
Deities are “attributeless, formless” energy, or often “attributed formless” energy that can be
invoked and “made resident” in any material representation - a material abstraction,
personification or image. This process is known as the pranapratishta. And it is done so as to
make it visible & relatable for the purpose of worship, even though we know that the process of
worship is entirely internal.
We are all physical or material forms of deities as there is a “life force” within us. Deities in
temples are thus just a physical representation of the divinity within. Divinity has many
attributes, all of which can be worshipped individually or collectively based on the objective of
the specific tantric practice.
So while a church is a church is a church (leave aside denominations), and a mosque is a
mosque, each temple is different. Churches and mosques are not places of worship, they are
places of congregation. A temple however, is always a place of worship, never a place of
congregation.

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The form and function of temples is thus very variable, though they are often considered by
believers to be in some sense the "house" of one or more deities. Typically offerings of some sort
are made to the deity, and other rituals enacted, and a special group of clergy maintain, and
operate the temple.
Deities at our Temples
As a universal concept Hinduism accepts all formulations of Truth, According to the universal
view there is only One Reality, but no particular name shape or form can adequately describe
that Reality. Though Truth is One it is also Universal, not an exclusive formulation It is an
inclusive Oneness – a spiritual reality of the Supreme Being – Consciousness – Bliss, which
could be called God but which transcends all names and forms. The different Gods and
Goddesses of Hinduism represent various functions of this One Supreme Divinity, and they are
not separate Gods. Acceptance of other faiths, tolerance and pluralism are obvious corollaries to
this great socio-religious principle of antiquity, Around the 6th century BC, the great Hindu
philosopher, Adi Shankara grouped the various forms of worship in Sanatana Dharma (Eternal
code of conduct, Hinduism) into six sects (Shanmathas). They are:
 Ganapathyam … The devotion to Lord Ganesha,
 Saivam … The devotion of Lord Siva.
 Vaishnavam … The devotion to Lord Vishnu.
 Sauram … The devotion to the Sun God, or Fire.
 Shaktham … The devotion to Sri Shakti (Durgaji)
 Kaumaram … The devotion to Lord Kartikeya
Our temple has physical representations of all of the above except the Sun God. However, during
Yajnas, Homas and other Poojas, we always worship the Fire God.
Minor Deities
Administrative Gods
Indra, “the King of Heaven,” was apparently very popular in early Vedic Hinduism and is
considered to be in charge of the administrative demigods. Here he is offering his obeisances to
Lord Krishna in connection with the pastime, “The Lifting of Govardhan Hill.”

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In addition to the twelve main deities listed previously there are also a number of minor deities
(keeping in mind that certain Hindus may consider them more exalted or even Supreme!). They
are generally considered to have specific roles within this universe.
The main ones are also considered to have charge over the eight directions, beginning with the
East and moving clockwise (i.e. Indra is in charge of the East, Agni the South East,Yama the
South, etc.).
 Indra: King of Heaven/ god of rain
 Agni: deity in charge of fire
 Yama: deity presiding over death
 Surya: presiding deity of the sun
 Varuna: presiding deity of water
 Vayu: presiding deity of the wind (air)
 Kuvera: treasurer of the demigods (god of wealth)
 Soma (Chandra): presiding deity of the moon
These deities are usually associated with earlier, “Vedic” Hinduism, and are rarely worshipped
today, except perhaps Surya. Still prominent, especially in South Indian temples, is the worship
of the “nine planets”.
Minor Deities
Deva or devata means demigod. Sthala-devata specifically refers to a
minor deity who has jurisdiction over a particular place – a river, forest or village. They are often
worshipped in village shrines. A popular deity is Sitala (right), the goddess of smallpox, who is
worshipped in the hope of avoiding the disease
Other “Higher Beings”
There are many other lesser deities and higher beings, who often appear in the various stories.
These include:
 The Asuras (demons) who always fight
 The Devas (the gods or demigods)
 The Apsaras (celestial nymphs)
 The Nagas (celestial serpents)
 The Gandharvas (heavenly singers)
 The Rakshasas (a race of man-eaters)
 The Prajapatis (progenitors of mankind)
“Modern” Deities

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Some deities have risen to prominence more recently. They include:
 Santoshi Ma – the goddess of contentment, worshipped mainly by ladies
 Ayyappan – popular in Kerala, he is considered the son of Shiva and Mohini (the female
incarnation of Vishnu)
Construction of a Temple The main deity was often complemented by one or more minor
deities carefully positioned along the path of approach to the main deity. Looking at these
structures, it is apparent that the temples were built to a certain pattern, certain understanding,
and purpose, catering to the needs of the individual and the society. Scientific reasons for visiting
the temples There are thousands of temples all over India in different size, shape, and locations
but not all of them are considered to be built in a Vedic way. It is said that in the ancient times, a
temple should be located at a place where the earth magnetic wave path passes through densely.
How the energy quotient of a place was measured is not known but keeping in mind the lost
advance science fundas of our ancient saints, they would have figured a way out. Location of the
diety Temples are located where there is positive energy available from magnetic and electric
wave distributions of north or south pole thrust. The main idol is placed in the core center of the
temple. In fact, the temple structure is built after the idol has been placed. The place of the deity
is where earth's magnetic waves are found to be maximum. There is a metal plate beneath the
statue Did you notice a copper place beneath the main idol in the temples? what could be the
reason for this? It is believed that these copper plates absorb the magnetic force and radiates it to
the surroundings. The person visiting the temple would receive the beamed magnetic waves.
This a very slow process and a regular visitor would eventually start feeling the positive vibes.
The holy water The curd, honey, milk, sugar and coconut water made by which we clean the
copper idol is believed to make the amrit a blessing. Moreover, the holy water that comprises
basil leaves and karpor(camphor) help to fight diseases like cold and cough. The magic of temple
bells A temple bell is another scientific phenomena; it is not just your ordinary metal; It is made
of various metals earth including cadmium, lead, copper, zinc, nickel, chromium, and
manganese. The proportion at which each one them mixed is real science behind a bell. Each of
these bells is made to produce such a distinct sound that it can create unity of your left and right
brain. What happens when you ring the temple bell The moment you ring the bell, it produces
the lasting sound which lasts for a minimum of seven echo mode which is good enough to touch
your 7 healing chakras. Th ebreian empties all your thoughts. Invariably you enter into a state of
trans where you are very receptive. the trans-state the one with awareness.
Temples as places of energy Charging: Don't just visit the temple, sit. The belief is never to
visit the temple and go. traditionally, the belief is that one who visits and goes the visit would be
fruitless. This is so because temples are built like a public charging place, people can charge
themselves with their inner energies. People visited the temple before they entered into their
daily work so that they could go about with a certain sense of balance and depth in their lives. No
Footwear in Temple. Temples are a place where it contains pure vibrations of magnetic and
electric fields with positive energies. In olden days the floor at the center of the temple were
good conductors of these positive vibration allowing them to pass throughout feet to the body.
Hence it is necessary to walk barefooted while you enter the core center of the temple. Parikrama
The idol inside the chamber absorbs all the energy from the bell sound., Camphor heat and
vibrates the positive energy within the chamber for a certain duration of time. When you do the

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circumambulation at this point of time, you tend to absorb all these positive vibrations once your
five senses are activated. https://www.thehansindia.com/life-style/spiritual/temple-thursdays-temple-
science-shocking-science-behind-hindu-temples-
541564?infinitescroll=1https://shekharsk.wordpress.com/shocking-science-behind-hindu-temples/
Earth’s magnetic fields and Temple Construction and Location
-AUTHOR Saarthak Dulgaj in Culture-Vulture, Sci-Tech, Society, 2020
Earth is a giant magnet. It has magnetic North and South poles, where the magnetic field of lines
are in a dense state. People who claim dense magnetic field in temples fraudulent because they
don’t have any measurement to prove their claims. It is impossible to find a magnetic field in
dense state at a small place such as the moolasthanam. Magnetic poles are spread over
kilometres.
Earth’s liquid iron core convects because it is heated from beneath by the inner core. Because
iron is a metal and conducts electricity (even when molten), its motion generates a magnetic
field.
Earth’s magnetic field is defined by north and south poles representing lines of magnetic force
flowing into Earth in the northern hemisphere and out of Earth in the southern hemisphere
(Figure 3.15). Because of the shape of the field lines, the magnetic force is oriented at different
angles to the surface in different locations. The tilt, or inclination of magnetic field lines is
represented by the tilt of compass needles in Figure 3.15. At the north and south poles, the force

20
is vertical. The force is horizontal at the equator. Everywhere in between, the magnetic force is at
an intermediate angle to the surface.
In Advances in Residential Design Related to the Influence of Geomagnetism,Francisco Glaria et
al, (Int J Environ Res Public Health.(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5858456/)
2018 ) describe that geomagnetic aspects can affect health of humans if the geomagnetic field
variability of the rest of the variables exceeds the minimum required dosimetry and one can
conclude that the causes of architectural components that can influence, to a greater or lesser
extent, geomagnetic field variability are as follows:
 The arrangement of parking spaces in the basement floors of the building.
 The arrangement of metal masses in the basement floors of the building.
 Variability in storm water due to the flow of underground streams.
You may have come across many articles and videos where they give scientific reasons behind
the geography and architecture of temples. Their choice of explanation makes you feel that it is
very scientific — they cleverly use appealing scientific words like energy, vibration, magnetic
field and electric field, amongst others. The most persistent rumour is that temples were
purposely constructed at a place where the Earth’s magnetic wave densely pass through.
Apparently, these temples are located strategically at a place where there is abundant positive
energy from the magnetic and electric wave distribution of the north/south pole thrust.
Before jumping into the discussion about myths on Hindu temples, first, we should try to
understand how these magnetic fields and electric fields originated on Earth and how they
interact with the human body. As we know, iron is a magnetic material and the Earth’s core is
filled with iron in a molten state, which generates a magnetic field on Earth. This is why we call
our blue planet a giant magnet. Earth is surrounded by an infinite number of charged particles, or
ions, and these particles, present in the core of Earth, are the source of electric field lines.

21
F= qE + q(v x B),
where F is the force exerted by the electric field E and magnetic field B on the charged
particle q moving with the velocity v.
This is the famous Lorentz Equation that describes the effect of the magnetic and electric field on
charged particles. The first term is contributed by the electric field, while the second is
contributed by the magnetic field. Our body contains charged particles, and nerve cells
communicate through electric signals, which can get affected by the magnetic and electric field.
Now, let’s talk about some myths surrounding Hindu temples.-Temples are found deliberately at
places where abundant positive energy is available from the magnetic and electric wave
conveyances of north/south post push. The main idol is placed at the core centre of the temple,
known as ‘Garbhagriha’, ‘Garbhagriya’ or ‘Moolasthanam’. In fact, the temple structure is built
after the idol has been placed. This moolasthanam is where Earth’s magnetic waves are found to
be maximum.
Positive energy? What does that really mean? It sounds very scientific and attractive, surely.
Energy is the measurement of the ability to do work. If this magnetic field is concentrated in
temples and gives out so-called positive energy, then people who live at the magnetic poles must
have this energy, too. “Copper plates are buried at the moolasthanam that absorb the Earth’s
magnetic field and radiate it out to the surroundings.” Copper is a non-magnetic material,
whereas iron, cobalt and nickel are attracted to magnets, as their magnetic permeability is very
high. Copper doesn’t radiate magnetic field lines.
“Remove footwear before entering the temple because temples are places that contain pure
vibrations of magnetic and electric fields with positive energy. It will be easy to pass positive
energy through the feet.” There is nothing like positive or negative vibrations. Vibrations are
simply vibrations — the to and fro motion of particles. Superconductors are the only materials
that show obstacles to a magnetic field. Magnetic field lines can penetrate any material except
superconductors. Our body contains charged particles that can be affected by the magnetic field.
If this magnetic field gives out so-called positive energy, then it will be better to go to the
magnetic North or South poles. And surely, people who live there must be full of this positive
energy.
In Temple Science- Shocking science behind Hindu Temples -Suhasini Reddy says that the
purpose behind building Temples is to create a pathway between the divine and the human- a
link between God and Man. The building f temples is not just a mere art; it is a science involving
every single facet of it - from the size of the idol to the directions and the sanctum.Temple
architecture is and was -a highly developed science.
India is the country which is known for its rich Hindu Culture and Tradition. There are hundreds
of mesmerizing Hindu temples across the country in different design, shape, locations; but not all
temples are built as described in Vedic literature.
Temples are found deliberately at a place where the positive energy is available abundantly from
the magnetic and electric wave conveyances of north/south post push. The idol of God is set in
the core center of the temple, known as" Grabhagriha" or "Moolasthanam". Ideally, the structure
of the temple is built after the idol has been placed in a high positive wave centric place.

22
In olden days, temples were built in such a way that the floor at the center of the temple were
good conductors of these positive vibrations allowing them to pass through our feet to the body.
Hence it is necessary to walk barefooted while you enter the center of the temple. Five senses of
the body get activated when you are inside the temple if the positive energy inside the temple is
absorbed properly that is only if you ensure that all the five senses are activated in your body
while in the temple. The senses of the Human Body are Sight, Hearing, Taste, Sight, And Smell.
Also, the place of worship is said to be pleased only if your five senses are pleased. A Temple is
more than a Building. People put aside any constraints of money to erect inspiring structures
which we can say are built on faith, science, and mystery. For most of us, the science of temples
built on thousands of years of research and development has been lost.By understanding the
science of Indian temples, one can experience the intelligence, power, and miracles that these
structures were made from and for.
The Divine aspects of a Temple: The temple is comprised of five senses and a presiding deity.
The temple is an outgrowth of the deity which has its own independent intelligence and from
which energy is constantly radiating. Temples are places where mind spontaneously moves
within and meditation happens effortlessly. Every aspect of the temple, from the architecture to
the rituals to the kinds of worship offered, has been consciously created to make this experience
happen.
Energy Centres If you look into the ancient past and the temples, it reveals the fundamental
science and purpose behind temple building. Far from being a place of prayer or worship,
temples were created as powerful spaces where an individual could imbibe the enshrined
energies. Most temples were created to address a particular aspect of life and were thus
consecrated to activate one or two particular chakras, the main energy centers within the human
system. The chakra means “wheel” and refers to energy points in your body. They are thought to
be spinning disks of energy that should stay “open” and aligned, as they correspond to bundles of
nerves, major organs, and areas of our energetic body that affect our emotional and physical
well-being.
Deities are not gods! They are just the mirrors of spiritual reality
Vedic Temple design
A temple has a very unique design according to Hindu mythology. The construction of a
normal house and a temple are very different. There are many points which are to be taken
care of while constructing a temple. It is supposed to be connected with the nature, the
universe and the Supreme Power that is controlling and driving the whole universe. We
specialize in in the designing of Vedic temples.
We take care of all the important points that are to be considered while constructing a fruitful
Temple. A temple is considered to be a place where we connect ourselves with gods. If there is
any error in building a temple, the results are exactly opposite. A temple must be promote the
constructive elements of the universe and control the negative energies. The purpose of the
Vedic Knowledge of Sthåpatya Veda—Våstu Vidyå—is to maintain individual life in harmony
with Cosmic Life, and save the individual from being torn apart by the disharmonious inﬂuence of the
surroundings he has created around him—his house, his village, his city, etc.

23
This is being mentioned here to explain the need for everyone in the world to live and
workin an auspiciousVåstubuilding and enjoythe supportof NaturalLaw in daily
life.In Vedic Architecture, the geographical centre of the country holds special
signiﬁcance for the support of Natural Law for the progressand prosperity of the
whole country.ThisscienceofVedicArchitectureisnotamatter ofbelief orfaith; it is
asconcrete as the burning nature of ﬁre and the cooling nature of ice.
Selecting the site
We first of all examine the site to consider it to be perfect for the site for a temple. It is not an
individual’s choice. One must consider the presence of other temples. If there is temple of a
particular God, it is advisable to build another Temple of some other god or goddess. This is to
help the society. Temples are not built only to fulfill an individual’s wish. Suppose a temple is
being built to give a tribute to a beloved person whose soul is taking a rest in peace, then the site
of the temple must be definitely taken care of. Facilities available near the temples must be
considered. There has to be water supply 24 by 7. The soil has to be fertile. If all these
parameters are getting fulfilled, then only our architects and sculptors approve the site.

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Direction of Idols
We take good care of the direction of the placement of the deities and idols. There are different
stories associated with the direction of different Gods and Goddesses. If they are placed in the
respective directions, the results achieved are quick according to Vedic astrology. For example,
the idols of most of the Gods and Goddesses are south facing or west facing but the idol of Lord
Hanuman must be placed in the manner it faces the north direction. It is so because Lord
Hanuman went to Sri Lanka and got victory over Sri Lanka. It is in the south direction.
Therefore, Lord Hanuman was victorious in the southern direction. Thus, it is believed that if we
worship the idol of Lord Hanuman that faces the north direction shall give the best results. It is
also said that, the direction of riddles actually does not matter but it is the direction of the human
beings that matters. We must face the north and the east direction while worshipping.
There is one more reason to support the placement of most of the idols in north east direction.
There is magnetism in this direction of any place, be it a house or a temple. We need to attract
the Gods, therefore we plce their idols in this direction so that the idols for the souls of the Gods
can remain attracted to the place with the help of magnetism.
Determining the size
Before beginning the construction, we determine the size of the idol or the deity that is to be
built. There is a dome that is built in correspondence with the temple. A Hindu temple is
believed to have the dome for sure. After determining the size of the idol, the architect will make
a complete plan and then the construction will begin.
Ganesh Pooja and Vastu Pooja
We Indians never begin anything without worshipping Lord Ganesha. After worshipping Lord
Ganesha, we also go for Vastu Pooja to please Vastu Devta. It is very necessary to do everything
in the construction of a temple absolutely correctly. It is said that, what starts well, gets

26
completed perfectly.
Consideration of Vedic astrology
We consider Vedic astrology at every step of construction. Every inch is constructed keeping in
mind the rules and regulations mentioned by the Vedic Shastra. Our architects and sculptors are
well trained in all the aspects that are to be considered as per Vedic astrology.
Using the Nakshatra
Before the construction of the temple takes place, our Vedic astrologers check.
The Nakshatra of the founder of the temple. It has to be in correspondence with the possibilities
or yog of construction of a temple. The Nakshatra of the place or the village is also taken into
consideration.
Material used
The kinds of material that are used for the construction of a temple are gold, silver, copper, etc;
but not iron. Iron attracts negative energy. It is very necessary to avoid the usage of iron. In case
iron is used in the construction of the temple, it becomes necessary to make sure that all other
particulars are followed while building the temple so that it can attract the positive energy only.
Formation of grid
While building the temple, it is very necessary that there must be strict grids. The grids are made
up of equilateral Triangles and squares. Everything has a very strong and in-depth religious
significance. Even if we do not know the scientific reason behind it, we don’t hesitate in

27
following it because we have complete faith in Vedic astrology. There must be either 64 or 81
squares. The idol of the temple is with the square that is in the center.
The plan or GRID
The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan, according to Vastupurusamandala. The 64 grid is the
most sacred and common Hindu temple template. The bright saffron centre, where diagonals intersect above,
represents the Purusha of Hindu philosophy.
The design, especially the floor plan, of the part of a Hindu temple around the sanctum or shrine
follows a geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala. The name is a composite Sanskrit
word with three of the most important components of the plan. Mandala means
circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the
dwelling structure. Vastupurushamandala is a yantra.[32] The design lays out a Hindu temple in a
symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and
mathematical principles.
The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is formed a
perfect square in the space available. The circle of mandala circumscribes the square. The square
is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human
thought, while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun,
horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other. The square is divided into perfect square
grids. In large temples, this is often a 8x8 or 64 grid structure. In ceremonial temple
superstructures, this is an 81 sub-square grid. The squares are called ‘‘padas’’. The square is
symbolic and has Vedic origins from fire altar, Agni. The alignment along cardinal direction,
similarly is an extension of Vedic rituals of three fires. This symbolism is also found among
Greek and other ancient civilizations, through the gnomon. In Hindu temple manuals, design
plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 up to 1024 squares; 1 pada is considered
the simplest plan, as a seat for a hermit or devotee to sit and meditate on, do yoga, or make

28
offerings with Vedic fire in front. The second design of 4 padas has a symbolic central core at
the diagonal intersection, and is also a meditative layout.
The 9 pada design has a sacred surrounded centre, and is the template for the smallest temple.
Older Hindu temple vastumandalas may use the 9 through 49 pada series, but 64 is considered
the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu temples. It is also called Manduka, Bhekapada or Ajira
in various ancient Sanskrit texts. Each pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element,
sometimes in the form of a deity or to a spirit or apasara. The central square(s) of the 64 is
dedicated to the Brahman (not to be confused with Brahmin), and are called Brahma padas
In a Hindu temple's structure of symmetry and concentric squares, each concentric layer has
significance. The outermost layer, Paisachika padas, signify aspects of Asuras and evil; the next
inner concentric layer is Manusha padas signifying human life; while Devika padas signify
aspects of Devas and good. The Manusha padas typically houses the ambulatory. The devotees,
as they walk around in clockwise fashion through this ambulatory to complete Parikrama (or
Pradakshina), walk between good on inner side and evil on the outer side. In smaller temples, the
Paisachika pada is not part of the temple superstructure, but may be on the boundary of the
temple or just symbolically represented.
The Paisachika padas, Manusha padas and Devika padas surround Brahma padas, which signifies
creative energy and serves as the location for temple's primary idol for darsana. Finally at the
very centre of Brahma padas is Garbhagruha(Garbha- Centre, gruha- house; literally the centre
of the house) (Purusa Space), signifying Universal Principle present in everything and
everyone.[2] The spire of a Hindu temple, called Shikhara in north India and Vimana in south
India, is perfectly aligned above the Brahma pada(s).
A Hindu temple has a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core
of the temple. These spires come in many designs and shapes, but they all have mathematical
precision and geometric symbolism. One of the common principles found in Hindu temple spires
is circles and turning-squares theme (left), and a concentric layering design (right) that flows
from one to the other as it rises towards the sky.
Beneath the mandala's central square(s) is the space for the formless shapeless all pervasive all
connecting Universal Spirit, the Purusha. This space is sometimes referred to as garbha-
griya (literally womb house) - a small, perfect square, windowless, enclosed space without
ornamentation that represents universal essence. In or near this space is typically a murti. This is
the main deity image, and this varies with each temple. Often it is this idol that gives it a local
name, such as Vishnu temple, Krishna temple, Rama temple, Narayana temple, Siva temple,
Lakshmi temple, Ganesha temple, Durga temple, Hanuman temple, Surya temple, and others. It

29
is this garbha-griya which devotees seek for ‘‘darsana’’ (literally, a sight of knowledge, or
vision[).
Above the vastu-purusha-mandala is a high superstructure called the shikhara in north India,
and vimana in south India, that stretches towards the sky.[31] Sometimes, in makeshift temples,
the superstructure may be replaced with symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top. The
vertical dimension's cupola or dome is designed as a pyramid, conical or other mountain-like
shape, once again using principle of concentric circles and squares (see below). Scholars such as
Lewandowski state that this shape is inspired by cosmic mountain of Mount Meru or
Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of gods according to its ancient mythology.
Mandapa of a temple in South India. Much temple sculpture was originally painted.
In larger temples, the outer three padas are visually decorated with carvings, paintings or images
meant to inspire the devotee. In some temples, these images or wall reliefs may be stories from
Hindu Epics, in others they may be Vedic tales about right and wrong or virtues and vice, in
some they may be idols of minor or regional deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings typically also
have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life—kama,
artha, dharma, and moksa. This walk around is called pradakshina.
Large temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One on the east side, serves as the waiting
room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapa may be a separate structure in older temples, but
in newer temples this space is integrated into the temple superstructure. Mega temple sites have a
main temple surrounded by smaller temples and shrines, but these are still arranged by principles
of symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. An important principle found in the layout of
Hindu temples is mirroring and repeating fractal-like design structure, each unique yet also
repeating the central common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as “an
organism of repeating cells”
Exceptions to the square grid principle
Predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect square grid principle. However, there
are some exceptions. For example, the Teli ka Mandir in Gwalior, built in the 8th century CE is
not a square but is a rectangle consisting of stacked squares. Further, the temple explores a
number of structures and shrines in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These ratios are exact,
suggesting the architect intended to use these harmonic ratios, and the rectangle pattern was not a
mistake, nor an arbitrary approximation. Other examples of non-square harmonic ratios are
found at Naresar temple site of Madhya Pradesh and Nakti-Mata temple near Jaipur,
Rajasthan. Michael Meister states that these exceptions mean the ancient Sanskrit manuals for
temple building were guidelines, and Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility in expression
and aesthetic independence.

30
The Hindu text Sthapatya Veda describes many plans and styles of temples of which the
following are found in other derivative
literature: Chaturasra (square), Ashtasra (octagonal), Vritta (circular), Ayatasra (rectangular), A
yata Ashtasra (rectangular-octagonal fusion), Ayata Vritta (elliptical), Hasti
Prishta (apsidal), Dwayasra Vrita (rectangular-circular fusion); in Tamil literature, the Prana
Vikara (shaped like a Tamil Om sign, ) is also found. Methods of combining squares and
circles to produce all of these plans are described in the Hindu texts.
Entrance: North or East
It is preferred that the entrance of the temple must be in the east direction. It means that the
sunlight of the rising Sun must enter the temple. Sunlight has the power to kill the bacteria and
microbes present in the air. Therefore it is very good, if sunlight can enter the temple. The purity
of a place is decided with cleanliness. All the rights and rituals are directed towards killing the
bacteria and microbes and ultimately the negative energy. This makes the environment positive
and therefore people feel nice and light-hearted when they come to a temple. If it is not possible
to make the entrance of the temple from the east direction, at least it must be the north direction.
Major elements of a temple
There are four important elements of a temple. The first one is the porch. The porch has to be at
the entrance of the temple. The second element is a Mandap or hall. This Mandap can be
attached with the temple or detached. But it has to be there. The third element happens to be
Garbh Griha. It can be understood as the womb chamber or the inner sanctum. The fourth
element is the Dom or the tower that is constructed directly above the womb chamber.
Importance of proper orientation
It is very necessary to understand that a temple that is not built in in accordance with the proper
orientation may bring misfortunes. Please take the services of Himani Agyani to save you from
the destructive results. Show that whenever the spiritual rites and rituals are performed, only the
positive results and blessings I received by the people. If the construction does not take place in
the right manner, it will be difficult for the souls of human beings to get connected with the souls
of gods and it will result in the attraction of negative energy.
Checking the geo thermal energy

31
Every place has its own geo thermal energy. We take care of the different kinds of energies and
the construction of the temple should take in the manner that the negative energies get purified
and the temples constructed give the positive results. First used in Italy in 1904, geothermal has
been a consistent – and expanding – source of energy in recent years. According to
the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), geothermal energy has grown steadily
from around 10GW worldwide in 2010 to 13.3GW in 2018.
So what is geothermal energy, how does it work and where is it prevalent?
Where does geothermal energy come from?
Geothermal energy is the heat that comes from the sub-surface of the earth. It is contained in the
rocks and fluids beneath the earth’s crust and can be found as far down to the earth’s hot molten
rock, magma.
To produce power from geothermal energy, wells are dug a mile deep into underground
reservoirs to access the steam and hot water there, which can then be used to drive turbines
connected to electricity generators. There are three types of geothermal power plants; dry steam,
flash and binary.
Dry steam is the oldest form of geothermal technology and takes steam out of the ground and
uses it to directly drive a turbine. Flash plants use high-pressure hot water into cool, low-pressure
water whilst binary plants pass hot water through a secondary liquid with a lower boiling point,
which turns to vapour to drive the turbine.
Where it’s used
Geothermal energy is used in over 20 countries. The United States is the largest producer of
geothermal energy in the world, and hosts the largest geothermal field.
Known as “The Geysers” in California, the field is spread over 117 square kilometres and
formed of 22 power plants, with an installed capacity of over 1.5GW.
The energy source is also prevalent in Iceland, where it has been used since 1907. Describing
itself as a ‘pioneer’ of geothermal power, the country produces 25% of its energy from five
geothermal power plants. This is due to the 600 hot springs and 200 volcanoes in the country.
Problems due to wrong construction
There can be many problems faced by the founder of the temple or the family associated with the
temple if there is any error in construction of the temple or the placement of the idol or statue.
1) Restlessness and tensions at home and workplace
2) Health issues
3) More unnecessary expenses
4) Poor relations among family members
5) Poverty, anxiety, aggression and constant fear
6) Unnecessary struggle
7) Less income

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Intricacy: The prominent feature
The designs of the temples must be highly intricate. You can see the complexity in the designs of
the temples in the ancient times also. It is very minute work. It takes a long time and effort to
construct a temple. It is not so easy to create the complex designs with accuracy. Himani Agyani
has a lot of experience in designing such intricate temples.

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Very few people know that in the Hindu temple, once ot is concecrated, the diety is supposed
to live in the sanctum sanctorum as if a living bring,hence the temple closes in the afternoon to
let the God take a nap;closes at night, the clothes of the diety are changed and he is given a bath
etc. Even during doing a puja at home or in the temple, bathing is a pronounced ritual.
Hindu kings had a close link between the deities they worshipped and their own political
authority. As Richard H. David, professor of Religion and Asian Studies, Bard College, writes in
his essay, Indian Art Objects as Loot, “In the prevailing ideological formations of medieval
India, worshippers of Vishnu, Shiva, or Durga considered ruling authority to emanate from the
lord of the cosmos downward to the human lords of more limited domains such as empires,
kingdoms, territories, or villages.”
Shared sovereignty
From this perspective, the king and the deity had a shared sovereignty; the king’s authority was
legitimised because it emanated from the deity he patronised. This conception turned the deity
into the most exalted symbol of the state. To vanquish the king was therefore not enough.
Victory was complete only when the victorious took away the state deity, effectively sundering
the vanquished from the very source from which he drew his authority.
As early as 642 CE (or Common Era, equivalent to AD), the Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman I
vanquished the Chalukyas, sacked their capital of Vatapi, and brought the image of Ganesha to
his kingdom in Tamil Nadu. The image acquired the sobriquet of Vatapi Ganapati. At times,
temple images passed on from one king to another because of their fortunes fluctuating in
battlefields, known to us because of the inscriptions proudly detailing who the previous owners
were.
Thus, in 950 CE, the Chandella ruler Yashovarman built the Lakshman temple at Khajuraho to
house the Vishnu Vaikunth, made of gold. This image was obtained from Mount Kailash by the
“Lord of Tibet”, from whom the Sahi King of Orissa wrested it. It was seized from the Sahis
after they were defeated by the Pratihara ruler Herambapala. Yashovarman then overwhelmed
Herambapala’s son, Devapala, and ferreted it away to Khajuraho.

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Among the most charming stories of image appropriation is one narrated by the Buddhist
chronicler Dhammakitti. According to him, the Pandyan ruler Srimara Srivallabha invaded Sri
Lanka around 835 CE and routed the army of the Sinhala king, Sena I, who fled to the
mountains. Srimara plundered the royal treasury and took away, among other things, “the statue
of the Teacher (Buddha)”, which had been made in gold and placed on a pedestal in the Jewel
Palace about 50 years earlier.
Once the Pandyan army departed, Sena I returned and, to quote Prof Davis, “took up sovereignty
once again, but sovereignty of a decidedly diminished nature.” Sena I was succeeded by his
nephew, Sena II (ruled between 851-885 CE), who found it odd that the pedestal was empty and
asked his ministers about it. Dhammakitti quotes ministers telling Sena II, “Does the king not
know? During the time of your uncle…the Pandyan king came here, laid waste to the island, and
left, taking that which had become valuable to us.” On hearing this Sena II felt so ashamed he
ordered the minister to assemble troops forthwith.
By then, the Pandyan army had been weakened because of the three battles it had fought against
the Pallavas. The Lankan army swept its way to Madurai, and Srimara died of the wounds
sustained in the conflict. The Lankan army entered Madurai, sacked the city, and took back the
gold statue of the Buddha. Amidst much festivity, the statue was placed on the pedestal in the
Jewel Palace.
Prof Davis sees a deeper meaning between the image and sovereignty. As he writes, “The stolen
image, disclosed to the young king by its empty pedestal, serves as an objectification of defeat
not only for his uncle, who had suffered the loss, but for the very institution of Sinhala
sovereignty.”
Voluntary gifting of images to a challenging power implied accepting his superiority. A couple
of decades before the expropriation of the statue of Buddha, the rise of the Rashtrakuta king
Govinda III alarmed the Lankan king Aggabodhi VIII into buying peace. He sent to Govinda two
images. The meaning of this voluntary submission a Rashtrakuta inscription celebrates thus:
“Govinda received from Lanka two images of their Lord and then set them up” in a Shiva temple
at his capital city of Manyakheta, “like two pillars of his fame.”
Image appropriation
Another charming instance of image appropriation is the insistence of three Deccan dynasties –
the Chalukyas of Vatapi, the Rashtrakutas, and the Cholas – that they brought the Ganga and
Yamuna to the south. Only those who share the Hindutva literalism will believe the three
dynasties had changed the course of the two rivers!
Historians feel what the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas did was to appropriate the images of the
two rivers often found even today at the entrance of temples of North India. Or perhaps these
rivers were represented as insignias on the royal banners of the rulers from whom it was taken
after their defeat.
But the Chola king Rajendra I went a step further. In the 11th century, his army defeated an array

35
of rulers in the North and reached the banks of the holy river Ganga. Chola inscriptions will have
us believe that the vanquished were made to carry water in golden pots all the way to the South.
A “liquid pillar of victory” made of Ganga water, called the Chola-Ganga, was constructed in the
new capital city of Gangaikondacholapuram, or the city of the Chola king who took the Ganga,
where Rajendra I also built a Shiva temple. In it were placed images he had captured from other
kings – Durga and Ganesha images from the Chalukyas; Bhairava, Bhairavi, and Kali images
from the Kalingas of Orrisa, a bronze Shiva image from the Palas of Bengal, etc.
To this list of images the Chola kings appropriated was added yet another one in 1045 CE, when
the Chola King Rajadhiraja defeated the Chalukyas, which prompted its ruler Somesvara to flee.
Before reducing to ashes the Chalukyan capital of Kalyani, Rajadhiraja carted away a massive
stone-guardian, made in black stone, to Gangaikondacholapuram.
It is a mystery why Rajadhiraja appropriated the stone-guardian, not the presiding deity of the
Chalukyas. It is suggested he was merely following a historical precedent established a good
three centuries earlier. Then, roughly in the mid-eighth century, the Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga
had defeated the Gurjara-Pratihara king, Nagabhata I, and marched to the latter’s capital city of
Ujjain. There Dantidurga performed the royal gift-giving ceremony, the Golden-Womb ritual, for
which the vanquished Nagabhata and other chieftains were compelled to serve as door-keepers.
Likewise, in Kalyani, Rajadhiraja performed the ritual of Royal Consecration. Since the Kalyani
ruler Somesvara had fled, he couldn’t be made to serve as a door-keeper. Therefore, Rajadhiraja
took away the stone-guardian. Both Somesvara and the door-guardian were united through their
failures. As Prof Davis says, “The hapless door-guardian had been unable to stop the destruction
of its temple, and likewise Somesvara had failed to prevent the Chola armies from entering and
destroying his capital.” As the Lord, so the king, you’d say.
Demolition of temples
The dominant trend in the pre-Islamic period was of Hindu kings looting temples and whisking
away images, but there are also instances of demolition of temples and idols.
In the early 10th century, the Rashtrakuta king Indra III destroyed the temple of Kalapriya,
which their arch enemy, the Pratiharas, patronised. Then again, when the Kashmiri ruler
Lalitaditya treacherously killed the king of Gauda (Bengal), his attendants sought to seek
revenge. They clandestinely entered Lalitaditya’s capital and made their way to the temple of
Vishnu Parihasakesava, the principal deity of the Kashmiri kingdom. However, they mistook a
silver image of another deity for Parihasakesava, and took to grounding it to dust even as
Kashmiri soldiers fell upon them.
Though the Gaudas failed to achieve the desired result, their act of retribution does illustrate the
symbolism inherent in destroying the image the ruler worshipped. “There is no question that
medieval Hindu kings frequently destroyed religious images as part of more general rampages,”
notes Davis.

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The above account shows that the iconoclasm of Muslim invaders from the 11th century onwards
was already an established political behaviour in large parts of India. The destruction of temples
by Muslim rulers couldn’t have been consequently traumatic, as the proponents of Hindutva
argue. As mentioned earlier,the oldest written references to temples are from 300 and 400 CE,
and the earliest surviving temple structures date back to 500 and 600 CE. The temple was not a
Vedic institution.
The unique understanding in Hinduism is that God is not far away, living in a remote heaven, but
is inside each and every soul, in the heart and consciousness, waiting to be discovered. And the
goal of Hinduism is knowing God in this intimate and experiential way.
Hinduism is both monotheistic and henotheistic. Hinduism is not polytheistic. Henotheism
(literally “one God”) better defines the Hindu view. It means the worship of one God without
denying the existence of other Gods. Hindus believe in the one all-pervasive God who energizes
the entire universe. It is believed that God is both in the world and beyond it. That is the highest
Hindu view
Hinduism gives the freedom to approach God in one’s own way, encouraging a multiplicity of
paths, not asking for conformity to just one. It allows people to believe in and pray to their own
conceptualizations of the Divine in whatever form they choose, while at the same time elevating
all of them to their ultimate reality, which is the singular omnipotent, omnipresent and
omniscient Divinity, who demands no allegiance, punishes no one for lack of belief, yet provides
wisdom, comfort, compassion and freedom to those who seek it. All they need to do is look
within, according to Ramdas Lamb, an associate professor at the University of Hawaii
specializing in religious studies, mysticism, Indic religions, the interface between religions and
society, and field-studies.
Garbhagriha( Womb Chamber) or Deoghar( house of God)
It literally means 'womb-house' and is a cave like a sanctum. In the earliest temples, it was a
small cubical structure with a single entrance. Later it grew into a larger complex. The
Garbhagriha is made to house the main icon (main deity) which is itself the focus of much ritual
attention. The garbhagriha in Hindu temple architecture (a shrine inside a temple complex where
the main deity is installed in a separate building by itself inside the complex) has also been
compared to a "sanctum sanctorum" in texts on Hindu temple architecture, though the Sanskrit
term actually means "enclosed house" or "the deep interior of the house". However, some Indian
English authors seem to have translated the Sanskrit term literally as "womb house"

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Vimana is the structure over the garbhagriha or inner sanctum in the Hindu temples of South
India and Odisha in East India. By contrast, in large South Indian temples, it is typically smaller
than the great gatehouses or gopuram, which are the most immediately striking architectural
elements in a temple complex. If we trace the Hindu Temple design we come across early
elliptical shrines discovered in Besnagar (3rd-2nd century BCE) and Nagari (1st century BCE),
may be the earliest known Hindu temple structures, associated to the early Bhagavata tradition, a
precursor of Vaishnavism.
The earliest preserved Hindu temples are simple cell-like stone temples, some rock-cut and
others structural, as at Temple 17 at Sanchi. By the 6th or 7th century, these evolved into high
shikhara stone superstructures. However, there is inscriptional evidence such as the ancient
Gangadhara inscription from about 424, states Meister, that towering temples existed before this
time and these were possibly made from more perishable material. These temples have not
survived.
Earlier structures in timber-based architecture preceded the Gupta period. and there are hardly
any remains of stone Hindu temples before the Gupta dynasty in the 5th century CE, there
probably were The rock-cut Udayagiri Caves (401 CE) are among the most important early sites,
built with royal sponsorship, recorded by inscriptions, and with impressive sculpture.

39
Cave like Temple
In every religion the devotees and the designers wanted to place the image of the Diety/ God in
manner most attractive to those who looked upon it. The Garbagriha of the temples shown above
point towards the system of courtyard structures with assorted buildings surrounding the main
diety place- much like the South Indian temples showing the universality of thought associated
with Holy Structures regardless of the religion.

40
The three religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam readily fit the definition of monotheism,
which is to worship one god while denying the existence of other gods. But, the relationship of
the three religions is closer than that: They claim to worship the same god.
There are four main types of worship that Christians can engage in:
 Liturgical worship.
 Non-liturgical worship.
 Informal worship.
 Private worship.
Hindu worship is also liturgical. In its verbal form, liturgy can be sung, chanted, repeated, or
communicated in words that are grounded in a frequently sacred language such as Sanskrit for
Hinduism. ... Besides reciting hymns of the various Vedic texts and singing verses of praise,
priests today recite sacred mantras.
PRIVATE WORSHIP IN HINDUISM
A lot of Hindus worship every day at home, at a shrine in their house. Other objects placed
in a home shrine can include water and diva candles or lights. The bell is rung, which
indicates the start of the puja ceremony. The incense is lit, which fills the room with a scent
to show that God is everywhere. What is Hindu worship at home called? Hindus may worship
at home or in temples called mandirs. Hindus tend to worship at home more often than they
worship in a temple. They commonly use their home shrine to make offerings. The shrine is
considered the most holy area of the home. Worship at holy places – In Hinduism, worship does
not need to be undertaken in a temple or other building.
One important type of puja in Indian temple and private worship is arati, the waving of lighted
lamps before an image of a deity or a person to be honoured. In performing the rite,
the worshipper circles the lamp three or more times in a clockwise direction while chanting
a prayer or singing a hymn.

41
Puja
Hindu worship, or puja, involves images (murtis), prayers (mantras) and diagrams of the
universe (yantras).
Central to Hindu worship is the image, or icon, which can be worshipped either at home or in the
temple.
A shrine to Ganesh
Individual rather than communal
Hindu worship is primarily an individual act rather than a communal one, as it involves making
personal offerings to the deity.
Worshippers repeat the names of their favourite gods and goddesses, and repeat mantras. Water,
fruit, flowers and incense are offered to god.
Worship at home
The majority of Hindu homes have a shrine where offerings are made and prayers are said.
A shrine can be anything: a room, a small altar or simply pictures or statues of the deity.
Family members often worship together. Rituals should strictly speaking be performed three
times a day. Some Hindus, but not all, worship wearing the sacred thread (over the left shoulder
and hanging to the right hip). This is cotton for the Brahmin (priest), hemp for the Kshatriya
(ruler) and wool for the vaishya (merchants).
At the temple for a festival
Temple worship

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At a Hindu temple, different parts of the building have a different spiritual or symbolic meaning.
 The central shrine is the heart of the worshipper
 The tower represents the flight of the spirit to heaven
 A priest may read, or more usually recite, the Vedas to the assembled worshippers, but any
"twice-born" Hindu can perform the reading of prayers and mantras
Religious rites
Hindu religious rites are classified into three categories:
 Nitya
 Nitya rituals are performed daily and consist in offerings made at the home shrine or
performing puja to the family deities.
 Naimittika
 Naimittika rituals are important but only occur at certain times during the year, such as
celebrations of the festivals, thanksgiving and so on.
 Kamya
 Kamya are rituals which are "optional" but highly desirable. Pilgrimage is one such.
Worship and pilgrimage
Pilgrimage is an important aspect of Hinduism. It's an undertaking to see and be seen by the
deity.
Indian women worshipping Shiva on the Ganges
Popular pilgrimage places are rivers, but temples, mountains, and other sacred sites in India are
also destinations for pilgrimages, as sites where the gods may have appeared or become manifest
in the world.

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Fig. 6. The plate shows the evolution of the sanctum sanctorum (hereafter 'shrine') during
Momentum II (ca. 460-ca. 470 ce) through Bāgh, Dhārāshiva, Mahāḍ, Ajanta, and Banōṭī. There
were at least five stages: (1) stupa-shrine with ambulatory, but, without antechamber; (2) stupa-
shrine with ambulatory, and, antechamber; (3) 'central block' for stupa; (4) stupa supplanted by
Buddha figure; (5) central block and ambulatory supplanted by Bodhisattva, gandharva, and
donor figures. The above are the earliest shrines to have been commenced after Rup-ture I in W.
India (ca. 300-ca. 460 ce). Except Bāgh and Banōṭī, the above caves had begun as Type II
(dormitories), but were converted midway into Type V (res-idence-cum-temple). Bāgh caves 4
and 2 were the first projects that brought Type V from the margins of Momentum I (ca. 250 bce-
ca. 300 ce) and established as the most preferred variety of the rock-cut temples for all times,
regions, and religions. The Bāgh blueprints had not only the shrines but also the stupas and
ambulatories to which the initial planners of the above Ajanta caves were quite oblivious during
the same Momentum II. Figs. 6.1-6.4: These sancta sanctorum were commenced earlier because
there is no antechamber. Figs. 6.5-6.11: Commenced somewhat later because they have
antechambers (in Cave 16, antechamber excavation was aborted). Figs. 6.1-6.5: Remarkably, the
first rock-cut temples initiated after a gap of nearly one and a half century of Rupture I (ca. 300-
ca. 460 ce) was not planned as the standard Type I (apsidal-and-vault-roofed) of Momentum I.
The Bāgh planners radically chose Type V (residence-cum-temple) variety, partly because of the
porous rock but mostly because Type V was much more economical and practical. One building

44
was enough for two functions: worship and lodging. Fig. 6.2: Although a Jaina temple,
Dhārāshiva Cave 2 followed the Type V variety of the Buddhists. The central block was reserved
for the figure of God Pārśvanāth Śeṣaphanī, but then the work was halted due to Rupture II (ca.
470-ca. 472 ce), and the image could only be carved at the end of Momentum III (ca. late 460s-
ca. 480 ce). Fig. 6.3: The older dormitory, Mahāḍ 1 (Type II.B.iii.b) was retrofitted with a stupa-
shrine during Momentum II. Like Dhārāshiva 2 (Fig. 2), the ambulatory was mostly excavated
while reserving the central block for the stupa. Then, the work was similarly halted due to
Rupture II, and the image could only be carved at the end of Momentum III. Fig. 6.4: The
erstwhile cell 'c' was re-worked to retrofit a stupa shrine. The ambulatory 'a' and stupa 's' were
being ex-cavated when came the Rupture II. However, during Momentum III, the planners had
changed the mind; they neither completed the stupa nor the ambulatory. Instead, a Buddha image
'b' was carved on the front of the stupa. The central block had not been concieved so far. Fig. 6.5:
The shrine-antechamber, first seen in Nasik Cave 17 (Burgess No. 2) of Momentum I was re-
introduced. From here on it became a standard component of the Indian temple architecture.
Whereas the same could not have been retrofitted in the shrines already excavated (Figs. 1-4) it
was retrofitted in those that commenced a bit later (Figs. 7-10). Fig. 6.6: The shrine of Ajanta
Cave 16 had five distinct stages: (1) The doorways of the five rear cells 'c' having equal gaps
among them were already excavated before the frenzy of converting Type II into Type V gripped
Ajanta. (2) After Bāgh Cave 2, a shrine antechamber was planned for retrofitment, which was
partly excavated with two antechamber pillars. (3) But, the work on the antechamber was abort-
ed for unknown reason. (4) Focus now to carve out the stupa and ambulatory. From the available
matrix of rock a 'central block' was somehow shaped up for the stupa, which automatically
created the so-called ambulatory. The adjacent cells posed limitations. So, they worked on the
walls in between to create the pillars inside the shrine. Soon came Rupture II. (5) In Momentum
III, the idea of the stupa was dead. Instead, a colossal Buddha figure was created. Work on the
so-called ambulatory never resumed. It had become an eyesore long ago, for it consumed much
space that was needed (later) for the new ideas of the Bodhisattva, gandharva, and donor figures.
Thus, the rear side of the central block 'sf' did not require an apsidal shape. Hence, there
remained the 'corridors.' These stages, more or less, are a pattern seen in other shrines too. Figs.
6.7-6.9: During certain years of Momentum II, the moonstone before the shrine antechamber had
made a temporary appearance. Figs. 6.7-6.8: The central blocks 'cb' meant for the stupas were
already excavated when the idea to replace the stupa with the Buddha figure 'b' descended the
site. Nothing could be done about the ambulatories but the Buddha figures were somehow
accommodated within the central blocks. Fig. 6.7: The evidence of the erstwhile stupa is the
unique inverted lotus above the Buddha's head (see inset), which originally was the umbrella of
the stupa. Another evidence is the enigmatic 'loft' over the rear wall, which resulted due to the
deeper cut for reaching down to the planned depth of the chamber at a time when they were
working downwards from the top to excavate the stupa and ambulatory. Figs. 6.9-6.11: What
appears to be the 'half ambulatories' are actually the aborted extent of the excavations at a time
when they were revealing the central block. The work was simultaneously progressing on the
stupa blocks when suddenly the idea came that the Buddha figure was better than the stupa. The
cut is shallow in Fig. 9 and deeper in Figs. 10 & 11. They had, subsequently, to level up the
horizontal and vertical surfaces of the half-cut ambulatories to cleverly hide the aborted plans.
Fig. 6.11: Banōṭī cave, Phase I, ca. late 460s-the conjectural plan is unmistakably close to Ajanta
Cave 7, for the hall is absent and the pillared shrine antechamber is present. But the absence of
the central block, stupa, or image connects the interior to the shrine of Ajanta Cave 8. Was a

45
portable Buddha image likewise installed upon the platform abutting the rear wall? Phase II, late
6th c. ce: based on the Type VI caves of Aurangabad, there was retrofitted a quadrangular
ambulatory outside, and surrounding, the inner chamber. Residential cells were also being
excavated. Phase III, 8th c. ce?: perhaps an attempt was made to convert the cave to a Śaivite
temple indicated by a Naṭarāja image on the right porch pilaster. Was the Buddha image, if it
was there inside the shrine, removed for a Śivalinga, as in Ellora caves 15, 19B, and 27?
Hinduism under Islam (11th–19th century)-Temple building and challenge of Islam and
popular religion
The advent of Islam in the Ganges basin at the end of the 12th century resulted in the withdrawal
of royal patronage from Hinduism in much of the area. The attitude of the Muslim rulers toward
Hinduism varied. Some, like Fīrūz Tughluq (ruled 1351–88) and Aurangzeb (ruled 1658–1707),
were strongly anti-Hindu and enforced payment of jizya, a poll tax on unbelievers. Others, like
the Bengali sultan Ḥusayn Shah ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn (reigned 1493–1519) and the great Akbar (reigned
1556–1605), were well disposed toward their Hindu subjects. Many temples were destroyed by
the more fanatical rulers, however. Conversion to Islam was more common in areas
where Buddhism had once been strongest—Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Kashmir.
On the eve of the Muslim occupation, Hinduism was by no means sterile in northern India, but
its vitality was centred in the southern areas. Throughout the centuries, the system of class and
caste had become more rigid; in each region there was a complex hierarchy of castes strictly
forbidden to intermarry or dine together, controlled and regulated by secular powers who acted
on the advice of the court Brahmans. The large-scale Vedic sacrifices had practically vanished,
but simple domestic Vedic sacrifices continued, and new forms of animal, and sometimes
vegetable, sacrifice had appeared, especially connected with the worship of the mother goddess.
By that time, most of the main divinities of later Hinduism were worshipped. Rama, the hero of
the epic poem, had become the eighth avatar of Vishnu, and his popularity was growing, though
it was not yet as prominent as it later became. Similarly, Rama’s monkey helper, Hanuman, now
one of the most popular divinities of India and the most ready helper in time of need, was rising
in importance. Krishna was worshipped, though his consort, Radha, did not become popular until
after the 12th century. Harihara, a combination of Vishnu and Shiva, and Ardhanarishvara, a
synthesis of Shiva and his consort Shakti, also became popular deities.
Temple complexes
Although early temples in south India may have been made of disposable materials as early as
the first few centuries of the Common Era, permanent temple structures appear about the 3rd and
4th centuries, as attested in early Tamil literature. From the Gupta period onward, Hindu temples
became larger and more prominent, and their architecture developed in distinctive regional
styles. In northern India the best remaining Hindu temples are found in the Orissa region and in
the town of Khajuraho in northern Madhya Pradesh. The best example of Orissan temple
architecture is the Lingaraja temple of Bhubaneswar, built about 1000. The largest temple of the
region, however, is the famous Black Pagoda, the Sun Temple (Surya Deula) of Konarak, built in
the mid-13th century. Its tower has long since collapsed, and only the assembly hall remains. The

46
most important Khajuraho temples were built during the 11th century. Individual architectural
styles also arose in Gujarat and Rajasthan, but their surviving products are less impressive than
those of Orissa and Khajuraho. By the end of the 1st millennium CE the south Indian style had
reached its apogee in the great Brihadeshwara temple of Thanjavur (Tanjore).
Surya Deula, Konarak, Orissa, India.Frederick M. Asher
In the temple the god was worshipped by the rites of puja or archana (reverencing a sacred being
or object) as though the worshipers were serving a great king. In the important temples a large
staff of trained officiants waited on the god. He was awakened in the morning along with his
goddess; washed, clothed, and fed; placed in his shrine to give audience to his subjects; praised
and entertained throughout the day; and ceremoniously fed, undressed, and put to bed at night.
Worshipers sang, burned lamps, waved lights before the divine image, and performed other acts
of homage. The god’s handmaidens (devadasis) performed before him at regular intervals,
watched by the officiants and lay worshipers, who were his courtiers. The association of
dedicated prostitutes with certain Hindu shrines may be traceable to the beginning of the
Common Era. It became more widespread in post-Gupta times, especially in south India, and
aroused the reprobation of 19th-century Europeans. Through the efforts of Hindu reformers, the
office of the devadasis was discontinued. The role of devadasi is best understood in
the context of the analogy between the temple and the royal court, for the Hindu king also had
his dancing girls, who bestowed their favours on his courtiers.
Parallels between the temple and the royal palace also were in evidence in the Rathayatras
(Chariot Festivals). The deity was paraded in a splendid procession, together with the lesser gods
of the minor shrines, in a manner similar to that of the king, who issued from his palace
on festival days and paraded around his city, escorted by courtiers, troops, and musicians. The
deity rode on a tremendous and ornate moving shrine (ratha), which was often pulled by large
bands of devotees. Rathayatras still take place in many cities of India. The best-known is the
annual procession of Jagannatha (“Juggernaut”), a form of Vishnu, at Puri in Orissa.

47
The Chariot Festival of the Jagannatha temple, Puri, Orissa, India.© Dinodia/Dinodia Photo Library
The great temples were—and still are—wealthy institutions. The patrons who endowed them
with land, money, and cattle included royalty as well as men and women from several classes of
society. As early as the 5th century, Kulaprabhavati, a Cambodian queen, endowed a Vishnu
temple in her realm. The temples were also supported by the transfer of the taxes levied by kings
on specific areas of the nearby countryside, by donations of the pious, and by the fees of
worshipers. Their immense wealth was one of the factors that encouraged
the Ghaznavid and Ghūrid Turks to invade India after the 11th century. The temples were
controlled by self-perpetuating committees—whose membership was usually a hereditary
privilege—and by a large staff of priests and temple servants under a high priest who wielded
tremendous power and influence.
In keeping with their wealth, the great walled temple complexes of south India were—and still
are—small cities, containing the central and numerous lesser shrines, bathing tanks,
administrative offices, homes of the temple employees, workshops, bazaars, and public buildings
of many kinds. As some of the largest employers and greatest landowners in their areas, the
temples played an important part in the economy. They also performed valuable social functions,
serving as schools, dispensaries, poorhouses, banks, and concert halls.
The temple complexes suffered during the Muslim occupation. In the sacred cities
of Varanasi (Benares) and Mathura, no large temple from any period before the 17th century has
survived. The same is true of most of the main religious centres of northern India but not of the
regions where the Muslim hold was less firm, such as Orissa, Rajasthan, and south India. Despite
the widespread destruction of the temples, Hinduism endured, in part because of the absence of a
centralized authority; rituals and sacrifices were performed in places other than temples.
The purohitas, or family priests who performed the domestic rituals and personal sacraments for
the laypeople, continued to function, as did the thousands of ascetics.

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Sectarian movements
Before the Muslim invasion of the subcontinent, the new forms of south Indian bhakti had spread
beyond the bounds of the Tamil-, Kannada-, and Telugu-speaking areas.
Certain Vaishnava theologians of the Pancharatra and Bhagavata schools gave the growing
Vaishnava bhakti cults a philosophical framework that also influenced some Shaivite schools.
Several Vaishnava teachers deserve mention, including Ramanuja, a Tamil Brahman of the 11th
century who was for a time chief priest of the Vaishnava temple of Srirangam, and Nimbarka, a
Telugu Brahman of the 12th or 13th century who spread the cult of the divine cowherd and
of Radha, his favourite gopi (cowherdess, especially associated with the legends of Krishna’s
youth). His sect survives near Mathura but has made little impact elsewhere. More important
was Vallabha (Vallabhacharya; 1479–1531), who emphasized the erotic imagery of the
Vaishnava doctrine of grace and established a sect that stressed absolute obedience to
the guru (teacher). Early in its existence the sect was organized with a hierarchy of senior leaders
(gosvami), many of whom became very rich. The Vallabhacharya sect, once very influential in
the western half of north India, declined in the 19th century, in part because of a number of
lawsuits against the chief guru, the descendant of Vallabha.
The Shaiva sects also developed from the 10th century onward. In south India there emerged the
school of Shaiva-siddhanta, still one of the most significant religious forces in that region and
one that, unlike the school of Shankara, does not accept the full identity of the soul and God. A
completely monistic school of Shaivism appeared in Kashmir in the early 9th century. Its
doctrines differ from those of Shankara chiefly because it attributes personality to the absolute
spirit, who is the god Shiva and not the impersonal brahman.
An important sect, founded in the 12th century in the Kannada-speaking area of the Deccan, was
that of the Lingayats, or Virashaivas (“Heroes of the Shaiva Religion”). Its traditional
founder, Basava, taught doctrines and practices of surprising unorthodoxy: he opposed all forms
of image worship and accepted only the lingam of Shiva as a sacred symbol. Virashaivism
rejected the Vedas, the Brahman priesthood, and all caste distinctions. It also consciously
rejected several religious and social conventions, such as the ban against the remarriage of
widows, and practiced burial rather than cremation of the dead.
Shaivism underwent significant growth in northern India. In the 13th century Gorakhnath (also
known as Gorakshanatha), who became leader of a sect of Shaivite ascetics known as Nathas
(“Lords”) from the title of their chief teachers, introduced new ideas and practices to Shaivism.
The Gorakhnathis were particularly important as propagators of Hatha Yoga, a form of Yoga that
requires complex and difficult physical exercises and that has become popular in the West. These
yogis, who are still numerous, influenced the teachings of several of the bhakti poets.
Bhakti movements
The poets and saints (highly respected ascetics who were at times believed to be incarnations of a
deity) of medieval bhakti appeared throughout India. Although all had their individual genius,
the bhakti lyricists shared a number of common features. Unlike Sanskrit authors, mainly well-

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