1. Bhakti Movement: Causes,
Hindu Society and Features
Bhakti movement constitutes a very important chapter in
the socio-cultural history of India.
The movement started in the 9th century A.D. by
Shankaracharya which continued up to 16th century A.D. by a
number of Hindu devotees, preachers and religious reformers.
The word Bhakti is a very familiar word in the Hindu religious
system.
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It is derived from the Sanskrit root word Bhaja whose literal
meaning is ‘to utter’. But the inner significance of the word Bhaja
is ‘to adore’ or ‘to love with honour’. In the devotional literature
2. the word is used to mean ‘unquestionable faith and utter
devotion to God’. Thus in a general sense Bhakti means devotion
to God.
The concept of Bhakti is an age-old one. Right from the time of
the compilation of the Vedas, the word Bhakti has come into
vogue. In Rig Veda Samhita, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad,
Chhandyoga Upanishad, Katha and Kausitaki Upanishad, the
word Bhakti has been referred to several times. The Bhakti Yoga
of Shrimad Bhagavad Gita is more descriptive on this point. It
prescribes Gnana (knowledge), Karma (action) and Bhakti
(devotion) as the three essential features to shatter the bondage
of material world and to serve the Almighty God. Thus Bhakti is
one of the three recognized means of achieving salvation.
Causes for the Origin of Bhakti Movement:
The concept of Bhakti was not a new one in the Indian tradition.
It is as old as Hinduism itself. But when we talk of Bhakti
movement in the context of socio-religious background it has a
different connotation. Bhakti movement deals with the Indian
response to face a new challenge that appeared in the form of
Islamic religion. As a matter of fact Bhakti movement was the
direct outcome of the emergence of Islam in India. The reasons
for the birth and growth of this movement are therefore not far
to seek.
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Evils in the Hindu Society:
The genesis of the Bhakti movement lies in the social evils
prevalent in the-then Hindu society. During the time of Muslim
rule in India the Hindu society was full of many social anomalies
like rigidity of caste system, irrelevant rituals and religious
practices, blind faiths and social dogmas. The society also
suffered from polytheism, segregation, severe economic disparity
due to casteism, untouchability etc.
4. The religion itself was monopolized by the Brahmins who
themselves led a degenerated and corrupt moral life. Common
men in general had developed an averse attitude towards these
social evils and were in need of a liberal form of religion where
they could identify themselves with simple religious practices.
Therefore, popular dissatisfaction against the existing social
religious evils was a major catalyst behind the spread of Bhakti
movement all over India for a long period of time.
Challenge from Rival Religion:
In the ancient period Hinduism had to face challenges from new
religions like Buddhism and Jainism. Even some of the
prominent rulers of India became ardent followers of these
religions. They not only patronized these new religions but also
extended whole-hearted support to the spread of these religions.
But in due course of time both these religions lost much of their
vitality due to the tolerant and liberal outlook of Hinduism. Even
5. Lord Buddha came to be regarded as the ninth incarnation of
Lord Krishna in the Hindu pantheon.
However, the case of Islam was totally different. The Muslims
first arrived in India in the 8th century AD. Subsequently by the
beginning of the 13th century AD they began to rule over the
destiny of the Indians. So it became the religion of the ruling
community. This religion had its own individual characteristics
like universal brotherhood, equality of all in the society, absence
of any caste system or untouchability, opposition to idol worship
and above all, practice of monotheism or oneness of God.
Among all these, absolute monotheism or equality of all men
greatly appealed to the Hindus, especially the Sudras who were
the worst sufferers and had no religious freedom. These Islamic
ideas threw a powerful challenge to the existing corrupt aspect of
Hinduism and the accompanying social evils.
After living together for generations and continuous interaction
between the people of two communities there grew a feeling of
magnanimity and generosity among the Hindus and Muslims.
Both consciously and unconsciously the ideals of Islam produced
a benevolent effect upon the minds of a section of Hindus and
fostered the growth of a liberal attitude. Giving up their mutual
suspicion, hatred and rivalry a new bond of unity and fraternity
6. began to emerge. There was an absolute need to change the
existing system as well as bring radical changes in the fabric of
Hindu beliefs. Prof Srivastav remarks,
“Hinduism, therefore, tried to defend itself by purging off some
of its evil practices particularly those related to regions of caste
and image worship.” Thus, Hinduism needed purification. The
Bhakti movement aimed at the purification of Hindu religion and
liberation of the people from the monopoly and injustices of the
priestly classes.
Influence of Sufism:
The influence of Sufism cannot be set aside from the origin of
Bhakti movement in India. Sufism is an old religious sect of
Islam. It is a reform movement within the Islamic religion which
started in Persia. It came to India towards the beginning of the
13th century A.D. and with the rise of the Muslim power Sufism
became more popular.
The term Sufi has come from the word Safa meaning pure which
implies purity of thought and action. In the words of Sheikh- al-
Islam Zakariyah Ansari, “Sufism teaches how to purify one’s self,
improve one’s morals and build up one’s inner and outer life in
order to attain perpetual bliss.” Thus, according to Sufists, self-
purification is the best way to attain eternal bliss.
7. Prominent Sufists like Hazrat Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti, Hazrat
Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya and Naseeruddin Chirag fostered a
spirit of reconciliation among the Hindus and Muslims in the
medieval society. The Hindu saints of India were influenced by
the liberal approach of Sufism.
The high philosophy of the Vedas and Upanishads were very
complicated for the common people. They wanted a simple way
of worship, simple religious practices and simple social customs.
The paths of Gnana marga and Karma marga were difficult for
them to practise in day to day life. So the next alternative was
Bhakti marga—a simple way of devotion to get salvation from
worldly life.
Role of Religious Reformers:
In the words of Srivastav,
“The Bhakti movement received its impetus from the presence of
iconoclastic Muslim preachers who stressed upon the unity of
God, vehemently criticized the Hindu religion and thought and
attempted to convert Hindus to their religion by resorting to all
kinds of means.” That is why Bhakti movement has often been
presented as a Hindu response to the egalitarian message of
Islam and its spread among the lower classes of Hindu society.
8. It was a challenge to the Hindu religious leaders. They, therefore,
felt the urgent necessity of making the dormant Hinduism more
active and a living force among the common masses. Put
differently, Bhakti movement was a reply to Islam’s monotheism
and egalitarianism by way of a new interpretation of Hinduism.
K.M. Panikkar observes,
“The medieval period witnessed many revivalist movements in
Hinduism under different sages and saints. They were based on
Bhakti which was the outcome of the feeling of escapism which
dominated the Hindu mind as a result of the conquest of its
sacred places in Islam.”
The Bhakti movement started in the South in response to the
conquest of northern India by Muslim rulers. From 8th century
A.D. to 15th century A.D. this movement gathered its momentum
in the south. The earliest reformer-saint in South was Adi
Shankaracharya who had a unique success. Further, the
movement was carried forward by twelve Alwar saints and sixty
three Nayanar saints of the South. It is to be noted that Southern
Vaishnavite saints are called Alwars and the Saivite saints are
called Nayanars. In course of time the saints of Northern India
got themselves involved in this Bhakti movement.
The period witnessed the emergence of a number of saints and
reformers who tried to purge Hinduism of its evils and blind
practices. The chief exponents of the movement were Shankara,
Ramanuja, Kabir, Nanak, Shri Chaitanya, Mirabai, Ramananda,
Namdev, Nimbarka, Madhava, Eknath, Surdas, Tulsidas,
Tukaram, Vallabhacharya and Chandidas. They were the
propounders of Bhakti movement who made Bhakti their
principal theme and gave a call to the people to worship in the
simplest possible way of devotion and love.
Besides, the fifteenth century is generally regarded as the century
of tolerance. The character of the age revealed itself for the
9. growth of Bhakti movement. It gave a new dimension, a sense of
harmony and a spirit of liberalism to religious belief of the
people. The spirit of synthesis manifested itself in the teachings
of the preachers.
Though the movement originated in the South, very soon North
India came under its spell. Its real impact was felt when
prominent saints like Kabir, Nanak and Shri Chaitanya spread
the ideas of fraternity, equality and love inherent in both the
religions. Due to this synthesising attitude Bhakti movement
attained tremendous success.
A brief summary of the main features of the movement are given
below.
Features of the Bhakti Movement:
Although the preachers of the movement were from different
parts of India, spoke different languages and presented different
sermons there was a marked similarity in their thoughts and
philosophy.
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The major similarities and common ideas can be
summarized in the following manner:
10. 1. Bhakti movement centred round monotheism or the worship
of one God. To them Ram and Rahim, Ishwar and Allah were but
different names of one God that is the Supreme Being. In other
words, they emphasized upon the unity of Godhead.
2. The other prominent feature of Bhakti movement was its
emphasis on Bhakti or devotion to God as the only means to
achieve salvation. With supreme devotion to the Almighty one
could realize Him. Thus Bhakti was superior to Gnana or
knowledge and Karma, or Action. No other formalities like
ceremonies or rituals were required to worship God.
3. Bhakti movement advocated the need of a preceptor or guru
who would guide the devotee to this ultimate goal. A true guru
was the main source to attain God. He alone could show the path
of light to reach the proper destination. A guru could lead the
devotee from the material world to the spiritual world.
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4. Equality of men or universal brotherhood was another
cardinal philosophy of the Bhakti cult. As a matter of fact Bhakti
movement had raised its voice against racial discrimination,
caste hierarchy and such social differentiations. It was believed
that all creations of God were equal and hence, all men should be
treated equally.
11. 5. The Bhakti saints strongly denounce image-worship of the
Hindus. They condemned ritualism, false practices, blind faiths
and dogmas. To them, rituals and sacrifices were meaningless.
They believed in a formless and shapeless God which was the
Supreme power. Anybody, irrespective of caste, colour and creed,
could reach Him and realize Him through the simple method of
selfless devotion.
6. As Bhakti movement stressed upon Bhakti or a passionate
feeling of love for God, purification of the self was very essential
for them. This purification could be achieved through a high
standard of morality in one’s thought and action. Positive
principles of truthfulness, non-violence, harmony, morality and
humanistic values were their creed and motto.
7. The attitude of self-surrender constituted another important
tenet of the movement. Formalities or external rituals were of no
avail to realize God. Observing fasts, going on pilgrimages,
reading namaz or worshipping deities were totally useless if they
were not done with purity of thought or a sense of surrender to
God. Complete surrender alone leads to salvation.
With the above mentioned characteristics Bhakti
movement began a new chapter in the Indian society. The
founder of this movement was a Keralite Brahmin named
Shankaracharya who started it in the 9th century A.D. Gradually
it spread to various parts of the country. By the 15th century A.D.
it was a prominent movement to reckon with both socially and
culturally and left a lasting influence on the people.
Three most prominent propounders of this movement were
Santh Kabir, Guru Nanak and Shri Chaitanva.
Impact of Bhakti Movement:
Bhakti movement that originally began in South India in the 9th
century with Shankaracharya spread over all parts of India
and by the 16th century was a great spiritual force to reckon with,
12. especially after the great wave made by Kabir, Nanak and Shri
Chaitanya. M.G. Ranade, in his book, The Rise of Maratha
Power, sums up the deep impact of this spiritual awakening.
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“The main results of Bhakti movement were the development of
vernacular literature, modification of caste exclusiveness,
sanctification of family life, elevation of status of women,
preaching of humaneness and tolerance, partial reconciliation
with Islam, subordination of rites and ceremonies, pilgrimages,
fasts etc, learning and contemplation to worship God with love
and faith, the limitation of excess of polytheism and the uplift of
the nation to a higher level of capacity both of thought and
action.”
To be specific, the impact of Bhakti movement was felt in all
spheres of Hinduism. It reformed the religion to a great extent.
The evils of caste system, the unnecessary ritualism and
Brahmanical orthodoxy of Hinduism received a setback due to
the powerful voices of eminent socio-religious reformers during
the movement.
Following are the major changes that took place during
and after the Bhakti movement:
13. 1. The Bhakti exponents raised their powerful voice against
different types of immoral acts like infanticide and sati and
encouraged prohibition of wine, tobacco and toddy. Adultery and
sodomy were also discouraged. They aimed to set up a good
social order upholding high moral values.
2. Another remarkable impact was bringing about a unity among
the Hindu and Muslim communities. The movement tried to
reduce the growing bitterness between the two and bridge the
gap. The saints of Bhakti movement and the Sufi saints spread
message of friendship, amity, tolerance, peace and equality
among all.
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3. The method of worship and belief in God took a new turn
during the movement. Henceforth, importance was given to
devotion and love for God who is the God of all-God of both
Hindus as well as Muslims. Bhakti or devotion for the Almighty
was the central theme of this movement.
14. 4. The spirit of tolerance, harmony and mutual respect which
was inaugurated by the Bhakti saints had another everlasting
impact – the emergence of a new cult of worship by both Hindus
and Muslims. It is known as the cult of Satyapir. It started under
the initiative of King Husain Shah of Jaunpur which later paved
the way for the spirit of liberalism adopted by Akbar.
5. The Bhakti movement promoted the growth of vernacular
language and literature in different parts of the country. Kabir
Nanak and Chaitanya preached in their respective vernacular
tongues – Kabir in Hindi, Nanak in Gurmukhi and chaitanya in
Bengali. So subsequent Bhakti literatures were compiled in these
languages and many Musilm writers also translated Sanskrit
works into regional languages.
6. In Orissa, a new trend was started in Oriya literature due to
the Bhakti movement and medieval Vaishnavism of Shri
Chaitanya. Five writers of repute – Achyuta, Balaram,
Jagannath, Yasobanta and Ananta – heralded the age of
Panchasakha literature, known for its socio-religious exposition
of Bhakti.
With such long-lasting impacts, the religious depression of the
medieval society was set aside. The teachings acted as a healing
balm to the suppressed classes. A deep-rooted change came
about to lay the foundations of a liberal and composite Indian
society.
