Chapter 9Raising Children in a Diverse Society© 2018 C.docx

Chapter 9
Raising Children in a Diverse Society
© 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated, or posted to a publicly
accessible website, in whole or in part.
*
Chapter OutlineParenting in Twenty-First Century
AmericaGender and ParentingWhat Do Children Need?Experts
Advise Authoritative ParentingSocial Class and Parenting
Chapter OutlineParenting and Diversity: Sexual Identity,
Racial/Ethnicity, and ReligionGrandparents as ParentsParenting
Young Adult ChildrenToward Better Parenting

Family Groups with Children under 18, 2014
Parents in the Twenty-First Century America
Multipartnered fertility: a person’s having children with more
than one partner.
Regardless of living arrangements, today’s parents face
questions not considered by parents several decades ago.
Parenting Challenges and ResiliencePositive factors influencing
parenting:Parents have higher level of education today than in
the past, including formal knowledge about child development

and child-raising techniques.Fathers are more emotionally
involved than several decades ago.
Parenting Challenges and ResiliencePositive factors influencing
parenting:Fewer children exposed to violent crime than in the
past.The Internet provides information for parents regarding
just about any situation.Communication technologies allow for
more contact and engagement.
Parenting Challenges and ResilienceParents face challenges and
difficulties, and can make mistakes.Children, however, are
resilient—that is, they can demonstrate the capacity to recover
from or rise above adverse situations and events.

Ways that the Social Environment Makes Parenting
DifficultParenting role conflicts with the working role, with
work taking precedence.A pluralistic society characterized by
diverse and conflicting values.Anxiety about the influence of
parenting via increased parenting advice.Sandwich generation:
Caring for young children and for older family membersSupport
for parents has diminished a parenting has become just one
lifestyle choice among many.Parental authority is often
questioned.
A Stress Model of Parental EffectivenessStress that parents
experience—from sources such as job demands, financial
worries, concerns about neighborhood safety, feeling
stigmatized due to stereotypes—causes: parental frustration
anger and depressionincreasing likelihood of household conflict
A Stress Model of Parental EffectivenessThis leads to poorer
parenting practices:inconsistent disciplinelimited parental

warmth or involvementlower levels of trust and
communicationPoorer child outcomes result.Having social
support diminishes this adverse relationship.
Stress Model of Effective Parenting
The Transition to ParenthoodIn a classic analysis, social
scientist Alice Rossi wrote that the transition to parenthood is
very difficult for several reasons:Abrupt change to 24-hour
dutyInterruptions in sleep, work, leisure timeLess time together
as a coupleMay not have adequate supportsDeclines in
emotional/sexual relationship

The Transition to ParenthoodEmployed mothers with
established egalitarian relationships with husbands may find
their role becoming more traditional.If relationship was high
quality prior to parenthood, however, the transition was easier.
The Transition to ParenthoodTransition to parenthood can be
difficult for a number of reasons, including upset schedules and
lack of sleep. New parents feel overwhelmed while inspiration
to overcome their stress is provided by the stressor itself—the
child as a source of profound delight.
Selecting a Childcare FacilityChildren in nonrelative quality
day care may actually benefit in terms of cognitive and
linguistic skills when compared with low-income children cared
for by their parents.State laws establish minimal standards, and
professional organizations have guidelines for quality child
care.

Gender and ParentingAccording to cultural tradition, mothers
assume primary responsibility for child rearing.Psychological
Parent: Holds major emotional responsibility for safety and
upbringingHistorically, fathers have been breadwinners, not
expected to be engaged in daily activities/responsibilities.
Gender and ParentingToday, fathers are expected to also
actively participate in the child’s care.Family members adapt
culturally understood roles to their own situations.Individuals
“do” family.
Doing MotherhoodMothers engage in more hands-on parenting
than do fathers.Take primary responsibility for children’s

upbringing.Mothers define quality time as having heart-to-heart
talks or engaging in child-centered activities.Fathers define
quality time as being at home, and being available if needed.
Single MothersAbout 44% of births occur to unmarried
women.Single mothers are aware that to be married is the
cultural ideal.A private safety net is associated with children’s
better adjustment.Many single mothers choose further
education. However, the stresses of single parenthood often
result in less effective parenting behaviors.
Time with ChildrenFinding time for themselves can be difficult
for all mothers.One way that mothers cope with time pressures
is by taking their babies to exercise classes.

Doing FatherhoodFathers’ involvement leads to positive
cognitive, emotional, and behavioral outcomesFathers’ absence
leads to adverse effects on children’s cognitive, moral, and
social developmentSocial Fathers: Nonbiological fathers in the
role of fathers, such as stepfathersDoes not improve the
adolescents’ outcomes when compared with living in a single-
mother household
Doing FatherhoodFathers more typically play with and
participate in more leisure activities with children.Better
educated fathers with more satisfying jobs showed a higher
level of parenting engagement.Experiencing workplace stressors
adds to fathers’ stress, resulting in less effective parenting.
Doing FatherhoodMarried-Couple Families with Stay-at-Home
FatherIn 2010, about 154,000 married-couple families had a
stay-at-home fatherThis situation is largely seen as a norm

violation, despite gender role changesExperiences speak to joys
and challenges of parenting
Doing FatherhoodSingle FathersAmong families with children
under age 18, about 4.7 percent are single-father
familiesTypically assumed role because they “stepped up”Often
do not rely on extended family support, preferring to “make it”
on their ownResist and challenge stereotypes of masculinity and
parenting
Doing FatherhoodNonresident FathersBiological or adoptive
fathers who do not live with one or more of their
childrenMajority maintain some presence in their children’s
lives, though it declines over children’s lifetimes, especially for
daughtersInvolvement largely depends on relationship with the
mother

What Do Children Need?EncouragementAdequate nutrition and
shelterParental interest in their schoolingConsistency in rules
and expectationsGuidance congruent with the child’s age or
development level
The children in this family have different needs that correspond
with their varied ages. Meanwhile all children need
encouragement along with consistent parental expectations and
rules. Authoritative parents are emotionally involved with their
children, setting limits while encouraging them to develop and
practice their talents.
Experts Advise Authoritative ParentingParenting Style: A
general manner of relating to and disciplining children,
generally combining parental warmth and parental

expectationsAuthoritarianPermissiveAuthoritative
Authoritarian Parenting StyleLow on emotional warmth and
nurturingHigh on parental direction and controlMore likely to
spank children or use otherwise harsh punishment
Permissive Parenting StyleLow on parental direction or
controlHigh on emotional nurturingCharacterized as indulgent
and leading to a “spoiled” childEmotional neglect—low on both
parental direction and emotional support
Authoritative Parenting StylePositive ParentingWarm, firm, and

fairCombines emotional nurturing and support with
conscientious parental directionChildren do better in school and
are socially competent.
Parenting Styles
accessible website, in whole or in part.Low parental warmth and
High parental monitoring characterizes authoritarian
parenting.Low parental warmth and Low parental monitoring
characterizes permissive-emotional neglect parenting parenting.
Parenting Styles
accessible website, in whole or in part.High parental warmth
and High parental monitoring characterizes
authoritative/positive parenting.High parental warmth and Low
parental monitoring characterizes permissive-indulgent
parenting.

A Closer Look at Diversity: Straight Parents and LGBT
ChildrenHow might the stress model of effective parenting be
applied to this situation of a LGBT child’s coming out to her or
his parents?How might an authoritarian parent’s reaction to
their child’s coming out differ from the response of an
authoritative parent?
SpankingSpanking refers to hitting a child with an open hand
without causing physical injury.Analysis of data from the
13,000 respondents in the National Survey of Families and
Households show that about one-third of fathers and 44% of
mothers had spanked their children during the week prior to
being interviewed. Recent research shows that corporeal
punishment has generally negative effects.
SpankingMothers spank more often than fathers.Younger, less-
educated parents in households with more children and less

social support, parents who argue a lot with their children,
sociopolitical conservatives, and parents who live in violent
neighborhoods are more likely to spank.Some experts advise
against EVER spanking; others believe these experts overstate
the case.The American Academy of Pediatrics advises that
children less than 2 years old and adolescents never be spanked.
Social Class and ParentingSocioeconomic Status (SES): One’s
position in society, measured by educational achievement,
occupation, and/or incomeAll decisions are influenced by social
conditions that expand or limit one’s options.Family education
and income have more influence on parenting behaviors and
children’s outcomes than do race/ethnicity or family structure.
Social Class and ParentingMiddle- and Upper-Middle-Class
ParentsCan better afford to provide for their children’s needs
and wantsHave fewer childrenEmphasize concerted cultivation
of their child’s talents and development

ParentsConcerted CultivationOften praise their children, play
with them, read to them, create and enforce rules about
watching TV, engage their children in extracurricular activities,
take them on outings, enroll them in private or charter schools,
and say there are people in their neighborhood they can count
on.
ParentsVolunteer at the children’s school, thus securing
educational advantages for their child.Likely to get parenting
information from professional sources.Negotiate with their
children in ways meant to foster language and critical thinking
skills–self-direction, initiative, and self-advocacy.

Social Class and ParentingHyperparenting: Intensive Parenting
the “Hurried Child” and “Helicopter Parents”Hyperparenting or
intensive parenting: Hovering above and meddling excessively
in their children’s lives.The over-scheduled or “hurried child” is
forced to assume too many challenges and responsibilities too
soon.
Social Class and ParentingHyperparenting: Intensive Parenting
the “Hurried Child” and “Helicopter Parents”Hurried children
may achieve in adult ways at a young age, but they also suffer
the stress induced by the pressure to achieve.Or they may “drop
out” and abandon goal-directed academic and/or extracurricular
activity.
Social Class and ParentingWorking-Class ParentsView
concerted development parenting model as negative, creating
demanding children.Tend to follow the accomplishment of
natural growth parenting model, according to which children’s

abilities are allowed to develop naturally.
Social Class and ParentingWorking-Class ParentsTend to be
authoritarian, emphasizing obedience and conformityMore
likely to tell children what to do rather than persuade them with
reasonEncourage children to keep their thoughts and questions
to themselvesNevertheless, many are involved in their
children’s schools and promote academics
Social Class and ParentingWorking-Class ParentsWorking-class
children likely to grow up with feelings of discomfort,
constraint, and distrust regarding school and work
experiences.This sense of not fitting in can persist into
professional careers.

Social Class and ParentingLow-Income and Poverty-Level
ParentsDifficult to establish support systemsHinders children’s
chances for educational successStruggle to give children a few
“extras”Less likely to live in neighborhoods that value
education or high achievementParental control more
difficultDecreased mental and physical health
Social Class and ParentingHomeless FamiliesFamilies with
children are among the fastest-growing segments of the
homeless population.Families benefit from shelters, but these
too can be stressful.Regulations regarding bedtimes, mealtimes,
keeping children quiet; requirement that children be kept with
parent at all times
Parenting and Diversity: Sexual Identity, Race/Ethnicity, and
ReligionThere is considerable overlap among class and

racial/ethnic categories.There is considerable ethnic diversity
within racial/ethnic categories.
Same-Sex ParentsEmphasize their similarity to heterosexual
parents.Their children are as well-adjusted as children with
heterosexual parents.However, their children sometimes
experience prejudice from friends, classmates, or teachers. Such
stigmatization is associated with certain psychological
problems, though close friendships can lessen this association.
African American ParentsAs with other race/ethnic minorities,
African-Americans’ parental attitudes and behaviors are similar
to other parents in their socioeconomic status. The intersection
of gender and race with SES means this father, expected to be
an effective breadwinner, also risks race discrimination as he
navigates a job search in a minimum-wage economy.

Native American ParentsExercise a permissive parenting
styleDemonstrate resilienceExtended family serves as an
instrument of group solidarity by reinforcing cultural standards
and lending practical assistance
Hispanic ParentsHierarchical Parenting combines warm
emotional support for children with a demand for significant
respect for parents, older extended-family members, and other
authority figures, may more aptly apply to Hispanic
parents.Intergenerational conflicts may arise as the younger
generation becomes more assimilated into U.S. culture.
Asian American ParentsCharacterized as authoritarianConfucian
training doctrine: Blends parental love, concern, involvement,
and physical closeness with strict and firm controlConflict can

arise with children when they assimilate into American culture
and no longer adhere to “traditional” behavioral guidelines.
Parents of Multiracial ChildrenNearly 9 million Americans are
of mixed race.Tension over cultural values and attitudesMulti-
racial/ethnic families that foster an explicit identity as
multicultural, multiracial, or multiethnic have happier, better-
adjusted children.
Parents in Transnational FamiliesDue to emigration of one or
more individuals, family members in different countries
maintain relationships across national borders.In the first half
of 2011, according to the Department of Homeland Security, the
United States deported approximately 46,500 parents with at
least one child who is an American citizen. This has been
termed multigenerational punishment.

Religious Minority ParentsRecent studies suggest that
regardless of the particular religion, children in families who
adhere to a religious belief system tend to be better
adjusted.Families with faith traditions outside the dominant
Judeo-Christian culture can experience problems.
Raising Children of Minority Race/Ethnic Identity in a Racist
and Discriminatory SocietyFear or discrimination due to racism
exacerbates already difficult parenting process for many.Race
socialization: Developing children’s pride in their cultural
heritage while warning and preparing them about the possibility
of encountering discrimination.

Grandparents As ParentsGrandfamilies: Grandparent families
More than 3.6 million children under 18 are living in a
grandparent’s household.About 11% of U.S. grandparents are
raising grandchildren.Formal kinship care systems can help
grandfamilies.
Facts about Families: Foster ParentingAbout 402,500 children
are in foster care in the United States.A significant portion of
foster care takes place in a trained and licensed foster parent’s
home.Some specialized foster family homes are available for
children with specific and complex emotional or medical
needs.Children stay in foster care for an average of two years;
the mean age of children in foster care is about eight years.

Facts about Families: Foster ParentingFrom the structure-
functional perspective, discussed in Chapter 2, foster parents
are functional alternatives to biological or adoptive
parents.What are some ways that the foster parent system is
functional?What are some instances in which it could be
dysfunctional?
Parenting Young Adult ChildrenParent-child relationships often
grow closer and less conflicted as adolescents make the
transition to adult roles.More young adult children either do not
leave the home, or return as “boomerangers” after college,
divorce, or upon finding first jobs unsatisfactory.Residence-
sharing agreements are suggested.
Toward Better ParentingOptimal parenting involves:Supportive
family communicationInvolvement in a child’s life and
schoolPrivate safety netsAdequate economic

resourcesWorkplace policies that facilitate a healthy work-
family balanceSafe and healthy neighborhoodsSociety-wide
policies that bolster all parents
Chapter 8
Deciding About Parenthood
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Chapter OutlineFertility Trends in the United StatesThings to
Consider When Deciding about ParenthoodHaving Children:
Options and CircumstancesPreventing Pregnancy

Chapter OutlineAbortionInvoluntary Infertility and
Reproductive TechnologyAdoption
Fertility Trends in the United StatesThe total fertility rate
(TFR) is the number of births a typical woman will have over
her lifetime.The TFR dropped sharply from a high of more than
3.5 at the peak of the baby boom to the lowest level ever
recorded: 1.7 in 1976. In recent years, the total fertility rate has
fluctuated around 2.0; on average, American women are having
around two children each.
Total Fertility Rates,
United States, 1911–2013

Family SizeThe ideal family size in the United States is now
two children.Large families are stigmatized, though some
people continue to choose large families for religious reasons.
Fertility Trends in the United StatesThe decline in fertility is
actually a continuation of a long-term pattern dating to about
1800.Changes in the economy and subsequently in gender
roles—as women’s employment increased, fertility
declined.Declining infant mortality rates—it became
unnecessary to bear so many children to ensure the survival of a
few.

Fertility Trends in the United StatesTwo children currently
constitute American’s ideal family. Most couples want one girl
and one boy.Large families are looked down on. Many large
families are religious (e.g., Quiverfull movement).We continue
to see childbearing increasingly shifted to later ages.The
birthrate for those ages 15-19 has declined to the lowest record
in 70 years of record keeping.
Differential Fertility Rates by Education, Income, and
Race/EthnicityFamilies with higher education and income tend
to have fewer childrenAccounting for slightly less than 50
percent, nonHispanic white births are no longer a majority in
the United States.All women in the U.S. have lowered their
fertility since 1990.
Differential Fertility RatesFertility rates vary among segments
of the population.Women who are not in the labor force have
higher birthrates and a larger completed family size on average
than employed women.Beliefs and values about having children
vary among cultures.

United States total fertility rates (TFR) by
race/ethnicity, 1990, 2000, 2013
Native American Fertility RatesNative Americans/Alaska
Natives currently have the lowest fertility rates in the U.S.,
proving the exception to the rule that lower education and
income are associated with higher fertility rates.
Things to Consider When Deciding About ParenthoodVariations
in birthrates reflect decisions shaped by values and attitudes

about children.In a 2008 survey, women over half of all
pregnancies to American women were unintended20%
unwanted31% mistimed
Social Pressures to Have ChildrenSocial pressure to have
children—so-called pronatalist bias—might influence fertility
decisions.Some of the strongest pressures may come from a
couple’s parents.
Is American Society Antinatalist?Some argue that U.S. society
is characterized by structural antinatalism—not doing all it can
to support parents and their children. Compared to other nations
at our economic level, nutrition, social service, financial aid,
and education programs directly affecting the welfare of
children are not adequate.

Value of ChildrenChildren can bring vitality and a sense of
purpose into a household. Having a child broadens a parent’s
role in the world.Mothers and fathers become nurturers,
advocates, authority figures, counselors, caregivers, and
playmates.
Rewards and Costs of ParenthoodValue of children perspective
– The idea that children bring unique benefits to parentsDespite
the rewards, though, raising children is costly.One study
concludes that parents exaggerate the “joy of parenthood” to
emotionally counter the costs.
Costs of Having ChildrenIn 2013, the cost for a middle-income
family to raise a child to the age of 18 was $245,000 (not
including college).Opportunity Costs Parents forgo income and
investment when they raise their children.Parents work

additional hours and have less leisure time.
How Children Affect Couple HappinessEvidence shows that
children, especially young ones, stabilize marriage.But a stable
marriage is not necessarily a happy one.Research finds that not
only do parents report lower marital satisfaction than
nonparents, but the more children there are, the lower marital
satisfaction is. Parents are also more likely to experience
depression than are nonparents.
Choosing to be ChildfreeVoluntary childlessness (or being
voluntarily childfree) is the choice of approximately 15% of
American women aged 44 to 49.The United States appears to
have strong, although weakening, fertility norms that continue
to encourage two children and discourage childlessness and
only-child families.

The Lives of the ChildfreeThe voluntarily childless have more
education and are more likely to have managerial or
professional employment and higher incomes.They are more
urban, less traditional in gender roles, less likely to have a
religious affiliation, and less conventional than their
counterparts.They value relative freedom to change jobs or
careers, move around the country, and pursue endeavors.They
are more satisfied with their relationships than parenting
couples.
Having Children: Options and CircumstancesDecisions about
becoming parents are being made in a much wider variety of
circumstances.Timing Parenthood: Earlier versus LaterThe age
of first birth has increased.Birthrates have declined for women
in their teens and in their thirties.Birthrates for women in their
forties continue to increase dramatically.

Postponing ParenthoodMany couples today are postponing
parenthood into their thirties, sometimes later.
Postponing Parenthood
Factors:Later age at marriageDesire of women to complete their
education and become established in their careersBoth women
and men remain longer in the “emerging adulthood”
stageAvailability of reliable contraceptionAssisted reproduction
technology
Early and Late Parenthood
Consequences:Early parents means greater freedom after the
children are raised. They also can get child-rearing help from
their own parents.However, young parents must often forgo
education and may get a slow start to their careers.Young
couples sometimes lack the maturity to cope with family
responsibilities.

Consequences:Some women who postponed parenthood found
that combining established careers with parenting created
unforeseen problems.Late mothers had more confidence about
their ability to manage, more money to arrange services, and
more confidence about parenting.Late fathers expressed a great
deal of joy in parenthood.
Consequences:Children born to older parents benefit from the
financial and emotional stability that older parents can
provide.But they also often experience anxiety about their
parents’ health and mortality.

Child SpacingExperts report that for the physical and
intellectual health of both mother and child, the optimal spacing
children of children is a minimum of three years.For
prospective parents interested in the timing of their parenthood,
it’s important to have an awareness of the trade-offs.
Having Only One ChildThe number of one-child families
continues a steady increase, making up about 20 percent of
American families.The proportion of one-child families in
America appears to be growing due to four factors: Women’s
increasing career opportunities Individuals’ desire to parent in a
context of inadequate workplace support for parentsThe high
cost of raising a child through collegeGreater peer support
The One-Child Family
AdvantagesParents report they can enjoy parenthood without
feeling overwhelmed and tied down.They have more free time
and are better off financially.Family members share decisions

more equally and can afford to do more things together.Higher
educational expectations for the childMore likely to know
child’s friendsHad more money saved for college education
The One-Child Family
DisadvantagesLack of opportunity to experience sibling
relationshipsOnly children may face extra pressure from parents
to succeed.As adults, they have no help in caring for aging
parents.For parents, there is the fear that the only child will be
injured or die and that they only have one chance to prove
themselves good parents.
SiblingsSiblings who get along well can provide companionship
and support for each other as they go through life, especially
when it comes to becoming a parent.

Nonmarital BirthsApproximately 44% of births are to unmarried
women. The growing proportion of nonmarital births
accompanies changing societal attitudes.Unmarried parents,
including those not living together, may have a more regular
relationship than was previously thought.
Births to Unmarried Women As a Percentage of All Births, 2014
Nonmarital BirthsCohabitants: 58% of nonmarital births are to
cohabiting women.Unmarried parents may have a more regular
relationship than previously thought.The notion that unwed
fathers are not present at their child’s birth appears to be a
myth. Yet their involvement is likely to decline over
time.Women cannot count on lifetime male support even if they
marry, which provides less motivation for women to avoid
childbirth outside of marriage.

Nonmarital BirthsSingle Mothers by Choice:The image is that
of an older woman with an education, an established job, and
economic resources who has made a choice to become a single
mother.They often see themselves not as alternative lifestyle
pioneers but as conforming to normal family goals.
Nonmarital BirthsBirths to Adolescents:Prospects for the
children of teen parents include lower academic achievement
and, because of the lack of resources related to poverty, a trend
toward a cycle of early unmarried pregnancy
themselves.Economic and/or racial/ethnic disadvantage may
play a larger role than age in shaping a teen mother’s limited
future.

Multipartnered FertilityMultipartnered fertility is a new interest
and area of research for family social scientists.Study of urban
parents at the time of their first birth realized in follow-up that
some of those parents, particularly those unmarried at the birth,
went on to have children with new partners.Multipartnered
fertility is most common in nonmarital families as these have a
high rate of breakup.
Preventing PregnancyAbout 4.5 million women who do not want
to become pregnant engage in sexual intercourse without using
birth control.The pill is the most common method of birth
control, followed by surgical sterilization, primarily for women
in their thirties and older.Less-educated women tend to use less
effective methods, if they use them at all.About 50 million men
have had a vasectomy, a form of birth control that involves
surgical sterilization and should be considered permanent.

AbortionThe term abortion is used for the expulsion of the
embryo or fetus from the uterus, either surgically or
pharmaceutically. About 30% of American women will have an
induced abortion at some point in their lives.Abortion decisions
are primarily made in the context of unmarried, accidental
pregnancy.Abortion decisions vary greatly by age,
race/ethnicity, and income
Reasons for AbortionHaving a child would interfere with the
woman’s education, work, or ability to care for dependents –
74% Not being able to afford a baby at this time – 73%Not
wishing to be a single mother or having relationship problems –
48%The woman or couple had completed childbearing – 38%
The Politics of Family Planning, Contraception, and
Abortion1973 U.S. Supreme Court decision Roe vs. Wade,
legalized abortion throughout the U.S.Abortion continues to be
legally available, as pro-choice advocates wish, while the goals
of pro-life advocates have been partially reached through legal
and practical restrictions on abortion availability.This

corresponds with the centrist position of the American public,
which favors abortion under certain circumstances.Many states
have placed serious restrictions on access to abortion, which
have been upheld by the Supreme Court.
The Politics of Family Planning, Contraception, and Abortion
accessible website, in whole or in part.In 2015, 29% of U.S.
adults said abortion should be legal under any circumstances;
51% said it should be legal only under certain circumstances;
19% said it should be illegal in all circumstances; and 1% had
no opinion.
Deciding about an Abortion
accessible website, in whole or in part.For most women and
many of their male partners, abortion is an emotionally charged
and often upsetting experience.Some women feel guilty and
frightened; others report feeling personally empowered.The
question of abortion sometimes arises for couples who learn
their fetus has a serious defect.

Involuntary Infertility and Reproductive TechnologyInvoluntary
infertility is wanting to conceive and bear a child but being
physically unable to do so. About 6.7 million, or 11 percent of
women—and 6 percent of married women—between ages 15 and
44 are infertile. Male infertility accounts for fertility
difficulties in approximately one-third of couples seeking
infertility treatment.
Infertility Services and Reproductive TechnologyAssisted
reproductive technology (ART) has become an accepted
reproductive option.ART methods are incredibly costly.About
1/3 of ART procedures result in a live birth.
Reproductive Technology: Social and Ethical IssuesART and

AbortionSeveral eggs are fertilized but only one is allowed to
develop.Inequality IssuesART is usually not affordable for
those with low incomes.Who Is a Parent?Potential for three
mothers and/or two fathers.
Reproductive Technology: Social and Ethical IssuesWhat Kind
of Child?As technology advances, the potential to create a child
with certain traits expands.Commercialization of
ReproductionA general concern is that the new techniques,
when performed for profit, commercialize reproduction.
Reproductive Technology: Making Personal ChoicesChoosing to
use reproductive technology depends on one’s values and
circumstances.Religious beliefs and cultural values influence
decisions.Treatment can be financially, physically, and
emotionally draining.

AdoptionThere are about 1.5 million children with at least one
adoptive parent in U.S. households—about 7 percent of all
children.In terms of numbers, most adopted children are in
nonHispanic white families.Asian/Pacific Islander families have
the highest rate of adoption relative to their population.
The Adoption ProcessPublic adoptions take place through
licensed agencies; private adoptions are arranged between the
adoptive parent(s) and the birth mother, usually through an
attorney.More and more adoptions are open—the birth and
adoptive parents meet or have knowledge of each other.
The Adoption ProcessAdoptive parents are sometimes
concerned that birth parents might try to claim rights to their
biological child.Prospective adoptive parents also have concerns

about the adjustment of adopted children.
Adoption of Racial/Ethnic Minority Children34% of adopted
children are of a different race, culture, or ethnicity than their
adoptive parents.The Multiethnic Placement Act (1994) and the
Adoption and Safe Families Act (1997) prohibit delay or denial
of adoption based on race, color, or national origin of the
prospective adoptive parents.Long-term studies suggest that
transracial adoption has proven successful for most.
Adoption of Older Children and Children with
DisabilitiesTogether with certain racial/ethnic minorities,
children who are no longer infants and children with disabilities
make up the large majority of youngsters now handled by
adoption agencies.The majority of these adoptions work out
well.Only about 2% end up being disrupted or dissolved
adoptions (the child is returned before or after the adoption is
final).Some adoptees develop attachment disorder, defensively
unwilling or unable to make future attachments.

International AdoptionsAbout 18,000 adoptions in 2004 were of
children from outside the country. In 2010, 17% of adopted
children were foreign-born.About half of all children adopted
from overseas by American parents were from Asia.Affirming
the biological mother’s consent is crucial in international
adoptions.International adoption can be a frustrating process for
prospective adoptive parents.
International AdoptionsInternational adoptions can pose many
of the same problems as the adoption of older children. But the
vast majority are successful.Those who adopt internationally are
more apt to adopt a healthy infant, have a shorter wait, and
encounter fewer limits in terms of age or marital status.

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