Introduction It is the purpose of this manual to teach instructional designers how to properly utilize the selected learning strategies when creating learning materials. The strategies discussed in this manual are: positive reinforcement, chunking, mnemonics, signaling, and scaffolding. Techniques were selected to range the most common theories of how students learn. Also these strategies are among the most recognizable of learning techniques. After reading this manual, designers will be well informed on the basics of strategies of learning and how to implement them in instruction. Each section is structured in the following manner: · A short example of the strategy · Vocabulary and definitions for the section · A discussion of the how the strategy is fits into learning theory · What types of instruction or learning fits best with the strategy · A short review of the literature on the subject · Tips for implementing the strategy · Further reading on topics discussed in the chapter Objectives For each of the strategies the instructional designer will: 1. know how the strategy is based in specific learning theory 2. be able to think critically on when to select and use the strategy 3. familiarize themselves with research on the topic 4. be able to utilize the discussed aspects of the strategy to create instruction Table of Contents Introduction 1 Objectives 1 Table of Contents 2 Positive Reinforcement 3 What it is 3 When to select and use it 3 Why it should be selected 4 How it is best utilized 4 Related research 5 Chunking 6 What it is 6 When to select and use it 6 Why it should be selected 6 How it is best utilized 7 Related research 7 Mnemonics 8 What it is 8 When to select and use it 8 Why it should be selected 8 How it is best utilized 9 Related research 9 Signaling 10 What it is 10 When to select and use it 10 Why it should be selected 10 How it is best utilized 11 Related research 11 Scaffolding 12 What it is 12 When to select and use it 12 Why it should be selected 12 How it is best utilized 12 Related research 12 References 13Positive Reinforcement Example A student, seen sharing his toys with another student, is told “That was very nice of you, Sam.”What it is Behaviorism forms the background of positivereinforcement. Popularized by B.F. Skinner, behaviorism is the theory that learning occurs because the student is conditioned to react in a certain way to stimuli. Learning strategies for this theory seek to change the probability that an event will happen by presenting the learner with consequences for performing an action. This consequence, whether good or bad, reinforces a desired outcome. Skinner believes that it is only the consequence that affects the probability of an action reoccurring, the thought process of the subject is not important (Driscoll 2005, p. 32-36). Positive reinforcement is possibly the most well-known of behaviorist strategies. Driscoll defines positive reinforcement as “presentation of a reinfor.

1. Introduction
It is the purpose of this manual to teach instructional
designers how to properly utilize the selected learning strategies
when creating learning materials. The strategies discussed in
this manual are: positive reinforcement, chunking, mnemonics,
signaling, and scaffolding. Techniques were selected to range
the most common theories of how students learn. Also these
strategies are among the most recognizable of learning
techniques. After reading this manual, designers will be well
informed on the basics of strategies of learning and how to
implement them in instruction. Each section is structured in the
following manner:
· A short example of the strategy
· Vocabulary and definitions for the section
· A discussion of the how the strategy is fits into learning
theory
· What types of instruction or learning fits best with the
strategy
· A short review of the literature on the subject
· Tips for implementing the strategy
· Further reading on topics discussed in the chapter
Objectives
For each of the strategies the instructional designer will:
1. know how the strategy is based in specific learning theory
2. be able to think critically on when to select and use the
strategy
3. familiarize themselves with research on the topic
4. be able to utilize the discussed aspects of the strategy to
create instruction
Table of Contents
Introduction 1
Objectives 1
Table of Contents 2
Positive Reinforcement 3

2. What it is 3
When to select and use it 3
Why it should be selected4
How it is best utilized 4
Related research 5
Chunking 6
What it is 6
When to select and use it 6
Why it should be selected6
How it is best utilized 7
Related research 7
Mnemonics 8
What it is 8
When to select and use it 8
Why it should be selected8
How it is best utilized 9
Related research 9
Signaling 10
What it is 10
When to select and use it 10
Why it should be selected10
How it is best utilized 11
Related research 11
Scaffolding 12
What it is 12
When to select and use it 12
Why it should be selected12
How it is best utilized 12
Related research 12
References 13Positive Reinforcement
Example
A student, seen sharing his toys with another student, is told
“That was very nice of you, Sam.”What it is
Behaviorism forms the background of positivereinforcement.
Popularized by B.F. Skinner, behaviorism is the theory that

3. learning occurs because the student is conditioned to react in a
certain way to stimuli. Learning strategies for this theory seek
to change the probability that an event will happen by
presenting the learner with consequences for performing an
action. This consequence, whether good or bad, reinforces a
desired outcome. Skinner believes that it is only the
consequence that affects the probability of an action
reoccurring, the thought process of the subject is not important
(Driscoll 2005, p. 32-36).
Positive reinforcement is possibly the most well-known of
behaviorist strategies. Driscoll defines positive reinforcement as
“presentation of a reinforcer (satisfying stimulus) contingent up
a response that results in the strengthening of that response”
(Driscoll 2005, p. 37). To put it another way, positive
reinforcement increase the probability of an action by
associating the action with satisfying events. This stimulus can
take the form of any type of pleasurable item. When to select
and use it
Positive reinforcement is best used to encourage desired
behaviors. It’s is found to work well with students who are
novice learners, have behavioral issues, or who are disabled
(Moffat, 2011; Park, Singer, Gibson, & Koegel, 2005). This
technique is not preferred to teach higher order logical
skills.Why it should be selected
A search for research into positive reinforcement yields a
plethora of results. In school-wide effort to create a more
positive school climate, the use of praise was a factor in
improving the environment (Caldarella, Shatzer, Gray, Young,
& Young, 2011). It should be noted that praise should be
consistent for the best results. Zentall and Morris (2010), in an
experiment using two different praise types, found that a
consistent use of one type was more effective than mixing the
two. The effects of positive reinforcement from peers have also
been studied. In one study of music students improved their
performances (Silverman, 2009). How it is best utilized
When choosing to use positive reinforcement in instructional

4. design there are a few factors to keep in mind. The first is that
the reinforcer must be something that the student finds
satisfying (Driscoll 2005, p.39). There are three types of
reinforcers: primary, where the reward is something that is of
biological importance (e.g. food), conditioned, where the
reward has been assigned importance (e.g. stickers), or social,
where the reward is a positive social action (e.g. praise). A
common instance of conditioned reinforcers is the
implementation of a token economy where when students
display a desired action they are rewarded with a token that can
be used to redeem prizes or privileges. Part of the token
economy is also the outcome that a token can be taken away; so
obviously, this means the strategy is not strictly positive
reinforcement.
It should also be noted that the desired behavior may need to be
cued for the strategy to be effective. One cannot reward a
student for a behavior if it is never displayed. So give learner’s
opportunities to perform the behavior and follow through as
necessary.
Lastly, the frequency of the reward should be of concern. A
variableratiostrategy produces the highest rate of desired
response (Driscoll 2005, p. 51). In this strategy students are
rewarded at randomized intervals. For example, one can decide
to reward randomly during 10 iterations of a positive response.
During the first round of 10 iterations, the student could be
rewarded the second time. Then during the second round of 10
the reward could be the tenth time.Related research
Morrison, J. Q., & Jones, K. M. (2007). The Effects of Positive
Peer Reporting as a Class-Wide Positive Behavior Support.
Journal of Behavioral Education, 16(2), 111-124.
Boerke, K. W., & Reitman, D. (2011). Token economies, In W.
W. Fisher, C. C. Piazza, H. S. Roane (Eds.), Handbook of
applied behavior analysis (pp. 370-382). New York, NY US:
Guilford Press.
Vocab

5. Primary Reinforcer -
Conditioned reinforce -
Social reinforce -
Positive reinforcement -
Reinforce -
Behaviorism -
Variable Ratio Strategy -
Chunking
Example
ABCD EFG HIJK LMNOP QRS TUV WX
YZWhat it is
Cognitive theory, particularly learning strategies based in how
the brain processes information, forms the basis of chunking.
Human short-term memory is finite, and chunking seeks to
break up long strings of information into manageable pieces so
that it can be processed and stored in the long-termmemory.
Having smaller bits to remember reduces cognitive load, making
learning easier. Chunking is done organically as learners work
with material. Pieces of information are grouped into chunks,
then those chunks are grouped into larger ones, and so on
(Jones, 2012). It is this recoding that transforms chunks, and
allows the learner to process more information (Miller, 1956).
Chunking can also be imparted onto information. The grouping
of phone numbers is an example of this.When to select and use
it
Chunking is most effective when there is more information to be
processed than can be held in the short term memory. For
example, lists of states can be chunked by geographical region.
Also when memorizing chunking can help build up to the full
content of the data to be memorized.Why it should be selected
Research into chunking has shown its value. Jones (2012) used
computer simulations to show that as the amount and size of
chunked information grows, development of linguistic
knowledge grew and short term memory capacity increased. In a
2001 study of high school Latin students, students who received
a list of 21 vocab words chunked into groups of 7, preformed

6. significantly better on a vocab test than their control group
peers (Carter, Hardy, & Hardy, 2001). Lastly, it was found that
chunks based around a perception theme (color) were more
easily remember than other non-themed groups (Glicksohn &
Cohen, 2011).How it is best utilized
Using chunking in instruction is straightforward. Break
complex information down into smaller, logical sets, then after
those sets have been learned combining the small sets into
bigger sets. An example of this is memorizing a monologue.
Students can start by memorizing the first paragraph, then move
on to the second. Then combine those two and add the third; and
so on until the whole piece is memorized.Related research
Bor, D., & Seth, A. K. (2012). Consciousness and the prefrontal
parietal network: Insights from attention, working memory and
chunking. [Review]. Frontiers in Psychology, 3. doi:
10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00063
Vocab
Chunking
Cognitive load
Short Term memory
Long-Term Memory
Recoding
Mnemonics Comment by Andrea Boehme:
Example
Figure 1 Knuckle MnemonicWhat it is
Mnemonics are also rooted in the cognitive domain of learning
strategies. Mnemonics encode information in the memory by
adding meaningful context to the content. This can be done in
three ways: dual coding, organization, or association (Mayer
2008, p. 393).
In dualcoding the information is encoded in the mind in two
ways giving multiple access points for information.
Organization arranges information so that it is not a collection
of separate pieces. Lastly, association creates links between
information.When to select and use it

7. The use of mnemonics is best suited when learners are studying
material that may not form direct connections in their minds.
For instances, lists, procedures, foreign language vocabulary,
and facts can all be encoded by using mnemonics. Mnemonics
should have the student actively make cognitive links between
information. Why it should be selected
Compared to rote memorization mnemonic strategy have proven
to be more effective for remembering information (Brahler &
Walker, 2008). Additionally, in an experiment with college
accounting students mnemonics were found to improve the rate
in which information was learned (Laing, 2010). Recall and
application of concepts was also seen to improve in Saber and
Johnson’s study of mnemonics in teaching marketing framework
(2008). However, mnemonics should not be the catch all for
instruction. Wang and Thomas (1996) found that mnemonics can
help provide immediate recall of information, but may not be
useful in long term retention (Wang & Thomas, 1996).
Additionally, the use of mnemonics to represent symbols in
mathematics (such as letter in algebraic equations) may hinder
student’s comprehension (McNeil et al., 2010).How it is best
utilized
When using mnemonics in in instruction, Driscoll (2005, p. 86)
mentions that students should be encouraged to create their own
mnemonics so that the connection are more meaningful.
However, teach supplied mnemonics can be useful if students
are trained in their use (Mayer 2008, p. 398). Given the results
found in McNeil et al., (2010) and Wang and Thomas (1996),
mnemonics should be used with care and should be
supplemented with other types of instruction so that information
is retained.Related research
Wolgmuth, J. R., Cobb, R., & Alwell, M. (2008). The effects of
mnemonic intervention on academic outcomes for youth with
disabilities: a systematic review. Learning Disabilities
Research & Practice 23(1), 1-10.
Vocab

8. Mnemonic
Cognitive Theory
Encoding
Signaling Comment by Andrea Boehme:
Example
The first step in making a cake is to gather all of the
ingredients.What it is
Another technique within the cognitive realm of learning theory
is signaling. Signaling uses non-content words or standardized
cues so that students can organize the information in their mind.
There are many types of signals, so many that not all can be
named here. When to select and use it
In its myriad of forms, signaling is used to ease the
transmission of large amounts of verbal or textual information.
Using signaling can help draw attention to important material.
It also helps students who do not have the best reading skills
hone their attention on relevant material which helps with
comprehension (Mayer 2008, p. 368).Why it should be selected
Signaling research shows that the practice is a useful one.
Lorch, et al (2001) experiment with college students and sixth-
eighth graders showed that when given headings, students were
more likely to in their summaries of a text. Lorch, et al goes on
to say that readers are more likely to rely on signals when given
a task to complete. Research also shows that students who are
trained to recognize signals remember more information and are
better able to recall important information than those who have
the same signals but no training (Meyer & Poon, 2001).
Student’s ability to take notes is also improved when signaling
was used in vocal passages (Rickards, Fajen, Sullivan, &
Gillespie, 1997). In a meta-analysis of writing instruction,
Graham, et al (2012) found that teaching student’s text structure
improved their writing.How it is best utilized
Before using this technique, one must be sure that students are
aware of how to use it. Uses such as numbered lists may be
more easily understood, but standardize headings (such as

9. literature review) may not be obvious to students who have
never worked with the material before.
For text documents, formatting can play an important role in
creating understanding. Techniques such as bolding vocab
words and italicizing definitions can be useful. To help create
outlines, formatting can be used by bolding main headings,
italicizing supporting headings, and underlining main points
within the sections. Obviously, this is not the only method, just
an example. In verbal applications, the use of cues (The first
topic of discussion…) can help students create connections
between material and organize the information in their mind. It
is important to keep your formatting, or any other types of
signals consistent to avoid confusion.
Signaling can also be used to improve confusing text (Mayer
2008, p.372). You could have students underline the main topic
of paragraphs, or create their own outlines of a speech. This
serves the purpose of teaching signaling, creating meaning, and
building note taking skills all at the same time.Related research
Cook, L.K., & Mayer, R.E. (1988). Teaching readers about the
structure of scientific text. Journal of Educational Psychology,
80(4), 448-456. Doi:10.1037/0022-0663.80.4.448
Vocab
Signaling
Cues
Abstracted statements
Summary statements
Pointer words
Scaffolding Comment by Andrea Boehme:
Example
What it is
Scaffolding works within the concept of the Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD) as developed by Vygotsky. In the ZPD,
students are developing their understanding of a topic.
Scaffolding works within the zone through more knowledgeable
peers, or instructors guiding students through their developing
knowledge. This instructor works with the student to co-

10. construct knowledge. Vygotsky’s ideas fit within the learning
theory of Constructivism where students seek out understanding
of their experiences, and actively assess their assumptions until
they find one that fits. New experiences that disrupt their
assumptions start the process anew. (Driscoll 2005, p.
387).When to select and use it
Scaffolding is best used to enhance critical thinking skills.
Driscoll discusses the use of scaffolding in creating new
perspectives (2005, p. 258). As students are learning with and
in cooperation with others who have differing viewpoints, they
must assess their own views. Additionally, Bockarie (2002)
notes in his discussion on scaffolding supporting social
cognition in vocational education, that scaffolding allows
students to stretch their knowledge by giving precision guidance
so that students are neither bored nor seen as incompetent. Both
of these require students to expand on what they already know
and create their own understanding in a collaborative
environment. Comment by Carey: Why it should be selected
Words words words words
How it is best utilized
· Co-construction of concepts
· Group work Create groups of students with mixed skills and
viewpoints
Related research
Van de Pol, J., Volman, M., & Beishuizen, J. (2010).
Scaffolding in teacher-student interaction: a decade of research.
Educational Psychology Review, 22(3), 271-296.
doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9127-6
Vocab
Scaffolding
ZPD
Constructivism
References

11. Brahler, C. J., & Walker, D. (2008). Learning Scientific and
Medical Terminology with a Mnemonic Strategy Using an
Illogical Association Technique. Advances in Physiology
Education, 32(3), 219-224.
Caldarella, P., Shatzer, R. H., Gray, K. M., Young, K. R., &
Young, E. L. (2011). The Effects of School-wide Positive
Behavior Support on Middle School Climate and Student
Outcomes. [Article]. Research in Middle Level Education
Online, 35(4), 1-14.
Carter, T., Hardy, C. A., & Hardy, J. C. (2001). Latin
Vocabulary Acquisition: An Experiment using Information-
Processing Techniques of Chunking and Imagery. [Article].
Journal of Instructional Psychology, 28(4), 225.
Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction
(3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson Allyn and Bacon.
Glicksohn, A., & Cohen, A. (2011). The role of Gestalt
grouping principles in visual statistical learning. Attention,
Perception and Psychophysics, 73(3), 708-713. doi:
10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00702.x
Graham, S., McKeown, D., Kiuhara, S., & Harris, K. R. (2012).
A meta-analysis of writing instruction for students in the
elementary grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(4),
879-896. doi: 10.1037/a0029185
Jones, G. (2012). Why chunking should be considered as an
explanation for developmental change before short-term
memory capacity and processing speed. [Original Research].
Frontiers in Psychology, 3. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00167
Laing, G. K. (2010). An Empirical Test of Mnemonic Devices to
Improve Learning in Elementary Accounting. [Article]. Journal
of Education for Business, 85(6), 349-358. doi:
10.1080/08832321003604946
Lorch Jr, R. F., Lorch, E. P., Ritchey, K., McGovern, L., &
Coleman, D. (2001). Effects of Headings on Text
Summarization. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26(2),
171-191. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1037
Mayer, R. E. (2008). Learning and instruction: Pearson Merrill

12. Prentice Hall.
McNeil, N. M., Weinberg, A., Hattikudur, S., Stephens, A. C.,
Asquith, P., Knuth, E. J., & Alibali, M. W. (2010). A is for
apple: Mnemonic symbols hinder the interpretation of algebraic
expressions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(3), 625-
634. doi: 10.1037/a0019105
Meyer, B. J. F., & Poon, L. W. (2001). Effects of structure
strategy training and signaling on recall of text. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 93(1), 141-159. doi: 10.1037/0022-
0663.93.1.141
Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus
two: some limits on our capacity for processing information.
Psychological Review, 63(2), 81-97. doi: 10.1037/h0043158
Moffat, T. K. (2011). Increasing the Teacher Rate of Behaviour
Specific Praise and its Effect on a Child with Aggressive
Behaviour Problems. Kairaranga, 12(1), 51-58.
Park, S., Singer, G. H. S., Gibson, M., & Koegel, R. L. (2005).
The Functional Effect of Teacher Positive and Neutral Affect on
Task Performance of Students With Significant Disabilities.
[Article]. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 7(4), 237-
246.
Rickards, J. P., Fajen, B. R., Sullivan, J. F., & Gillespie, G.
(1997). Signaling, notetaking, and field independence–
dependence in text comprehension and recall. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 89(3), 508-517. doi: 10.1037/0022-
0663.89.3.508
Saber, J. L., & Johnson, R. D. (2008). Don't Throw out the Baby
with the Bathwater: Verbal Repetition, Mnemonics, and Active
Learning. Journal of Marketing Education, 30(3), 207-216.
Silverman, M. J. (2009). The Effect of Positive Peer
Reinforcement on Psychological Measures and Guitar
Songleading Performance in University Students. Update:
Applications of Research in Music Education, 28(1), 3-8.
Wang, A. Y., & Thomas, M. H. (1996). Mnemonic instruction
and the gifted child. [Article]. Roeper Review, 19(2), 104.
Zentall, S. R., & Morris, B. J. (2010). "Good Job, You're So

13. Smart": The Effects of Inconsistency of Praise Type on Young
Children's Motivation. Journal of Experimental Child
Psychology, 107(2), 155-163.
Running Head: INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES IN
TEACHING KINDERGARTEN 1
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES IN TEACHING
KINDERGARTEN 12
Here are my comments on your paper. I think you will need to
Do more work before submitting it. I have also attached
YOUR FRIEND draft for that class so you can see how SHE
handled all the sections. The draft doesn't have assessments nor
has it been formatted.
I think you can keep what you have with a little rearranging.
And then add more.
Instructional Strategies in Teaching Kindergarten
7/25/2013
YOUR NAME
THE CLASS
INSTRUCTOR
Table of Contents
4Purpose of the training manual
Team work instructional strategies
5
5Advantages of team work in teaching kindergarten children
5Disadvantages of team work in teaching kindergarten children
5Use of visual and audio aids in teaching
6Advantages of using audio and visual aids in teaching
kindergarten children
Disadvantages of using audio and visual aids in teaching

14. kindergarten children
6
7Learner instructor participation strategy
8Advantages of applying participation in teaching kindergarten
learners
Disadvantages of applying participation in teaching
kindergarten learners
8
Assignment strategy
8
10Advantages of using assignments in teaching kindergarten
learners
10Disadvantages of using assignments in teaching kindergarten
learners
10Cooperative Learning Strategy
12Advantages of using cooperative learning strategy in teaching
kindergarten pupils
12Disadvantages of using cooperative learning strategy in
teaching kindergarten pupils
Use of Carousal Questions
12
Advantages of Carousal Questions
13
Disadvantages of Carousal Questions
14
Use of Assignments that Require the Choice of the Child
14
Advantages of Use of Assignments that Require the Choice of
the Child15
Disadvantages of Use of Assignments that Require the Choice
of the Child15
16Conclusion
17References
Introduction
Learning is a continuous process in the human development.
Learning involves both the practical and cognitive aspect. In

15. order for effective learning to be accomplished, these two
aspects should be well coordinated. Instructional strategies are a
very essential application in the learning process. This method
is highly recommendable for small children especially children
in kindergarten. The creatively use instructional techniques to
ensure all the students get the concept being taught. In order to
achieve this, instructors should be enlighten on how to
effectively apply instructional learning techniques in their
classrooms (Driscoll, 2004). This training manual will vividly
describe how instructors should use different forms of teaching
in order to achieve the set goal. Every instructor’s goal or
dream is the success of his or her students. On that note, using
instructional method is one of the significant ant ways of
achieving this.
According to Siemens and Driscoll, cognitivism, constructivism
and behaviourism are the three main traditional learning
theories. Siemens and Driscoll theories basically support the
theoretical aspect of learning. Contrary to this, Mayer advocates
for practical learning as the recommended method for instilling
knowledge in students. Motivational and case based theories are
more of practical than practical. Even though different
instructors have their own preferences, instructional strategies
deal with both Mayer’s and Driscoll learning theories (Mayer,
2002). This paper is deals with educating instructors on the
importance of using instructional teaching methods. Apart from
that, the paper also highlights various advantages and
disadvantages of this method.Purpose of the training manual
The main objective of this training manual is to educate
instructors on how to make the learning process more
interesting and lively by applying instructional learning
strategies. Secondly, this manual also aims at enhancing the
level of understanding of kindergarten students by application
of instructional techniques (Mayer, 1996
). The target audience are kindergarten instructors
who can also be referred to as teachers. Various instructional

16. methods and strategies which are essential in teaching
kindergarten students shall be discussed in this paper.Objectives
Chapter 1 Team work instructional Strategies
Team work instructional strategies
Learners have different levels of understanding. Some learners
are quick learners while others are slow learners. Instructors
should therefore apply team work
especially in teaching kindergarten students. This is because
most of these students are illiterate and have a very short
concentration span. Using team work will ensure that the
students maintain their focus for the concept being taught.
Instructors can apply different techniques in using this method.
One important aspect is the use of reasonable groups.
Instructors should divide the students into reasonable groups
(Driscoll, 2004). The groups should consist of a minimum of
three students and a maximum of five students. This number
will ensure that the student understand more
. According to the cognitive theory by Driscoll
, children have a shorter concentration span than adults. This
means that the instructor should give the students work which
requires a short period. Instructor should also make the team
work session to be interesting and living
. Kindergarten children should be allowed
to mess around as they indulge in the learning process. In order
to ensure the efficiency of the groups, the instructor should
keep an eye on all the students. Educational psychologists
prefer placing the students in a round table for easy monitoring
. This arrangement also makes it easy for the instructor to
observe the behaviour of his or her students in class.
Advantages of team work in teaching kindergarten children
-Helps the instructor to effectively observe a child’s cognitive
and behavioural development.
-Assists in the physical development of the child especially the
fine motor skills.

17. -Makes the learning lesson lively and interesting.
-Avoids boredom in class (Driscoll, 2004).
-Ensures that all students participate in the learning
process.Disadvantages of team work in teaching kindergarten
children
-It is tiresome and involving as kindergarten children are very
difficult to handle and control.
-The children might loss interest and concentration if the lesson
is prolonged.
-It is not that effective as kindergarten children are mostly
illiterate.
-This method is suitable for specific lessons like physical
education lessons.
Description of Strategy
This you already have, although I would try to bring in more
Driscoll and relate a strategy to a theory.When to select and use
it
You could use what you already have for advantages and
disadvantages, but make it a narrativeWhy it is effective?
You need to do outside research to show that this strategy is
valuable. You need evidence of why this is a good strategy for
instructors to useHow it is best utilized
Here you would talk about Related research
You should find other articles for people to read on the
subjectAssessment
You should build in some way for the person reading this
manual to assess their knowledge of the strategy.
Use of visual and audio aids in teaching

18. In order to enhance the understanding of kindergarten children,
instructor should use visual and audio aids. This is advisable as
children tend to grasp and remember what is taught visibly than
theoretical. Instructors should use drawing of various things
like animals and shapes in teaching. This will assist the learners
to remember the name and the identity of that object. In
addition, instructors can also use songs in teaching (Mayer,
1996). Songs are a source of entertainment by using this; the
instructor will have made the process of learning very
interesting. Songs are also significant as the children can sing
while at home or even in their play time. Children will also be
able to relate the knowledge that they have achieved in class to
the existing reality of the world. This is strongly supported by
the constructivist
theory of Driscoll.
In the course of the training period
, instructors will be taught how to compose song in relation to
the subject to be taught. The instructors will also be advised on
the most preferred song length and the appropriate wording to
be used. Kindergarten songs
should be in simple English and of a good rhythm. The song
should also have some aspects of repetition for easier
memorisation of the song by the children (Driscoll, 2004).
Instructors can also incorporate digital devices in the teaching
process. These devices will make the learners to concentrate
more than using the theoretical aspect only. Apart from this,
audio aids are also important in teaching kindergarten children.
Kindergarten children can be directed by their instructor to
listen to an audio conversation and then repeat what is being
said. This method can be effectively applied by instructors
while teaching alphabets and simple numbers. The instructors
will be taught during this manual how to handle students and to
ensure than their level of concentration is not disrupted while
using audio aids. In addition, instructors will also be instilled
with the knowledge of how to prepare kindergarten students for
a visual and an audio class session.

19. Advantages of using audio and visual aids in teaching
kindergarten children
-The learners tend to understand more.
-Learners are able to relate what is being taught in class with
the real world.
-The concentration level of learners is maintained (Mayer,
1996).
-Audio aids and visual aids make the lesson to be interesting.
-Learner’s memory ability is enhanced.Disadvantages of using
audio and visual aids in teaching kindergarten children
-Some learners might concentrate more on the entertainment
part and forget the learning process.
-Audio visual aid can lead to laziness of some learners.
-Audio visual aids are limiting to some learners who are either
hearing or visually impaired.
Learner instructor participation strategy
This strategy is highly recommended for learners at all level
especially in kindergarten. Participation involves the sharing of
ideas by both the students and learners. Application of
motivational theory by Mayer can be essential in this strategy
(Mayer, 2002). The instructor can apply the reward technique
in ensuring the effectiveness of this technique. The most active
student can be rewarded or appreciated by the instructor. In
order to ensure the effectiveness of this strategy, the instructor
should reward the students publicly. This will motivate other
learners to participate more in class with the soul purpose of
being appreciated or rewarded like their fellow students.
Participation method is also good as it helps in improving the
learners’ performance. Learners who previously had a hard time
in understanding the concepts being taught in class by the
instructor can improve due to this strategy. The learners will be
encouraged to participate in class like his or her fellow learners.
This step will help the instructor to identify the strengths and

20. weaknesses of that particular child and the most appropriate
way of handling them. The learners will also enjoy the aspect of
being appreciated by the instructor as majority of learners look
up to their teachers as their role models (Driscoll, 2004). Being
rewarded by the instructor is on that note a great achievement to
kindergarten students. Instructors are trained not to be biased in
their reward and appreciation strategy. The deserving learner
should be appreciated appropriately. In addition to this, the
teacher should also encourage the participation of all learners.
This can be done through rotational; participation in class. The
instructor can choose the children according to the rows or
columns.Advantages of applying participation in teaching
kindergarten learners
-The instructor is able to identify a learner’s areas of strengths
and weaknesses.
-It is appropriate in building the self esteem of the learners.
-Through the reward system, learners feel appreciated for their
efforts.
-Students will participate due to the rewards being given.
-Makes the process of learning more lively and entertaining as
it involves the whole class.
-It is important for maintaining the learners’ concentration in
class. This is because the learners are fully involved in the
learning process.
Disadvantages of applying participation in teaching
kindergarten learners
-Some kindergarten learners can be bright but very shy in
participating in class activities.
-Learners can be participating with the intention of being
rewarded and not understanding the concept being taught.
-This kind of strategy is time consuming and tiresome to the
instructor (Mayer, 1996). This is because the instructor has to
ensure that all the learners have participated or grasped the

21. concept being taught.
Assignment strategy
This is also another effective instructional learning technique to
be applied by instructors. This method is important as it assists
the instructor to gauge a learner’s cognitive ability. However,
while using this strategy instructors should be very keen and
considerate. Firstly, the kind of assignment given to the learner
should be of his or her educational level. Secondly, instructors
should give learners the adequate amount of assignment. This
means that the instructor should not overload or under load a
learner with assignments. The assignments given should be
proportion to the Childs
ability and understanding. Thirdly, instructor should give
assignments from topics that have been covered in class.
Instructors should avoid giving kindergarten learners
assignments from topics which have not been covered in class
. This training manual provides effective methods of how
instructors should issue assignments to kindergarten learners
(Driscoll, 2004). These assignments do not necessarily have to
be theoretical. Instructors can diversify the type of assignments
that they give their learners in order to gauge all their
developmental aspects.
Relying on theoretical assignments only assist the instructor in
gauging the cognitive development of the child. On the other
hand, giving kindergarten learners assignments in all the areas
greatly assists the instructor to gauge the improvement of the
learner in all sectors. In addition, it also assists the learner to
improve in both the cognitive, behavioural and physical aspects.
During the process of this training manual, instructors will be
advised on how to diversify the type of assignment they give to
their kindergarten learners (Mayer, 2002). Instead of an
instructor giving the students assignments which require him or
her to use majorly use the cognitive aspect, the instructor can
apply different techniques. The instructor can instruct other
students to do some painting, draw or even to construct an

22. object. By so doing, the instructor will also have achieved the
goal of nurturing the learner’s talent.
By giving assignment, the instructor can also apply the concept
of problem based learning. The teaching can give learners
problems which are almost similar from the ones taught in class.
The teacher can then be able to establish the competence and
how motivated the child is. Alternatively, instructors are
advised to give learners a question and an example which show
how to approach the given problem. This also assists learners in
doing their assignments (Mayer, 1996).
Advantages of using assignments in teaching kindergarten
learners
-The learners are able to understand the concept while on his or
her own.
-The teacher is able to gauge the learner’s level of
understanding.
- The instructor can easily know a learner’s area of weakness
and strengths.
-Practical assignments like painting enable the instructor to
identify a child’s talent (Mayer, 2002).
-Assignments to be done at home are important as they involve
the parents in the learning process.
Disadvantages of using assignments in teaching kindergarten
learners
-Some parents instead of assisting their kids in dong the
assignments do the assignment themselves.
-Some parents are not concerned about their child’s
performance.
-Instructors can over rely on assignments and therefore
neglecting other teaching techniques.
-This strategy is time consuming as instructors have to be
patient and give the learners a humble time to complete the
given assignment.
Cooperative Learning Strategy

23. This learning strategy is similar to the team work strategy. The
only difference between these two learning strategies is that
cooperative learning strategy focuses mainly on the social
aspect of the learners. In this strategy, instructors should focus
more on the social interaction of the learners. Instructors can be
able to clearly and easily note learners’ social interaction
through involving activities. These activities include sports and
other related activities. The theory of behaviourism can be
suitably applied to this strategy (Jonassen, 2013). Through the
application of this strategy, the instructor can be able to observe
learners behaviour. Social interaction between learners
identifies the true characteristics and identity of a learner.
Sporting activities also helps in the development of the learners
psychomotor skills. Some sporting activities are essential for
aiding in the development of fine motors skills. Such activities
include throwing a ball and grasping an object.
On the contrary, some activities like kicking a ball and climbing
the staircases are essential for the development of gross motor
skills. In all of the instructional learning strategies applied,
cooperative learning strategy is the most efficient and flexible.
This is because all the other learning strategies can be
complemented by these strategies (Mayer, 2002). Instructors
can use academic songs during sports activities and hence
reminding the students of what they learnt in class. A child’s
behavior can also be observed by use of this strategy.
In addition, the aspect of motivation can also be applied in this
strategy. Learners can be told to compete in a given sporting
activity and the winner can be rewarded. Through this process,
the instructor can be able to identify a child’s improvement
from the previous performance. Apart from noting
improvement, the instructor can also identify his or her
learners’ talents. A learner’s good sporting performance can be
used by the instructor as a motivational factor for him to
perform well (Driscoll, 2004). The instructor can use examples
relating to the learner’s favourite sport in order to make

24. understand a certain concept. This training manual emphasises
on the need of instructors to use cooperative learning strategies.
Instructors should however be careful not to use it
inappropriately. This learning strategy has the purpose of
incorporating all the other strategies. To add on this,
cooperative learning strategy makes the learning process
enjoyable and involving. Instructors are advised on that note, to
embrace this learning strategy in teaching kindergarten pupils.
Advantages of using cooperative learning strategy in teaching
kindergarten pupils
-Cooperative learning strategy makes the learning process
enjoyable.
-It can be used as a way of motivating kids to perform better.
-Instructor can be able to identify his or her learners’ talent.
-Knowledge gained in class can also be applied in the field
events. A good example is the use of songs by kids while
playing.
-Instructors are able to identify both the cognitive and physical
development of the child.Disadvantages of using cooperative
learning strategy in teaching kindergarten pupils
-Cooperative learning strategy requires a lot of concentration
from the instructor (Mayer, 1996).
-This learning technique is time consuming and demanding on
the part of the instructor.
-Some children are not good in practical activities and therefore
they cannot be motivated through this instructional learning
technique.Use of Carousal Questions
Carousal questions refer to the strategy which engages the
interest of the learners by utilizing cooperative skills, as well
as, allowing movement. In addition, it encourages the learners
to practice HOTS which is the acronym for “higher order
thinking skills”. This strategy is actually classified as part of
the cooperative learning strategies (Mayer, 1996). The
utilization of the carousal questions within the classroom

25. setting leads to carousal brainstorming. Carousal brainstorming
is also termed as the rotating review. Carousal brainstorming
offers scaffolding
for novel information which is to be learned or even existing
information that is waiting to be reviewed by making use of
movement, conversation in addition to reflection. Basically,
Carousal brainstorming is actually the cooperative learning
activity which can be utilized to not only discover but also
discuss background information before studying new topics.
Nevertheless, it can also be utilized in the reviewing of the
content which has already being learned within the previous
lessons (Mayer, 2002). While applying the carousal questions
technique, the learners first indulge in small group discussions
which are later followed by a reflection which is made by the
whole class.
While in the process of carrying out the carousal brainstorming,
the learners rotate within the classroom while they are
subdivide into small groups, stopping within certain “stations”
for a set time period (which is mostly one to two minutes). At
every station, learners improve their initial knowledge
concerning a certain concept or topic. Moreover, they also share
their ideas while attempting to come up with the best answers to
the given carousal questions while conducting discussions
within the small groups. Every group posts its ideas within
every station so that the other groups can be able to read.
Prior to the commencement of the strategy, it is of great essence
to give clear instructions to the learners on how to complete the
questions presented to them. Generally the carousal strategy
offers knowledge, attitude, as well as, interest assessments. It
also allows the exploration of a certain topic in diverse
perspectives, encouraging not only conversation but also the
exchange of ideas (Mayer, 1996). This strategy can be applied
within various topic areas, for instance reading and

26. mathematics. The brainstorming encourages the learners to
express their opinions freely, as well as, work with others.
Advantages of Carousal Questions
There are several advantages which are associated with the
utilization of the carousal questions as a learning strategy. The
advantages are such as:
-Carousal sharing is considered to promote conversation
.
-The utilization of the carousal questions encourages idea
generation.
-It allows the students to express their individual thoughts
within the structured learning situation.
-Within the classroom setting, it fosters decision making along
with creativity.
-It offers learners the opportunity to make reflections on a
certain topic (Driscoll, 2004).
Disadvantages of Carousal Questions
-It usually leads to the consumption of many learning hours.
-Some learners simply camouflage within the groups and thus
do not make any contributions.
-The instructor cannot evaluate each learner’s understanding of
a certain topic as everything is done in group work. Use of
Assignments that Require the Choice of the Child
There are certain reasons which make giving young learners the
opportunity to make choices quite beneficial. Allowing the
children to undertake assignments of their choice is crucial to
their development. Offering choices to the young learners is a
high-quality fundamental aspect of early childhood curriculum
(Driscoll, 2004). So as to offer the learners a wide range of

27. choices; the instructor should comprehend the essence of
choices. In addition, the instructor should be willing and in the
position of allowing an array of activities, as well as,
behaviours within the classroom. Basically, this learning
approach is not teacher centred but child centred.
This strategy is considered to play a significant role in the
cognitive development of the children. Making choices is
actually one of the components of problem solving. Once given
choices, young learners stretch their minds thereby creating
novel, as well as, unique ideas along with materials
combinations. Nevertheless, prior to being able to make choices
which are wise, the young learners should learn the convergent
thinking skills, which involves identifying the correct answer
along with divergent thinking that involves seeing numerous
possible answers. In the event that they are presented with the
opportunity to make choices, the young learners get the
necessary skills which will assist them in making meaningful
choices within their later life (Driscoll, 2004).
Moreover, allowing the young learners to make choices makes a
significant contribution to their moral development. Within the
classroom setting whose basis is on the renowned Piaget’s
constructivist principles, each one has a share within the
decision making responsibility. By presenting the young
learners with the opportunity to make choices, the instructors
promote their self-regulation. Once the children are accorded
the opportunity to make their individual choices, they feel
powerful daily and shy away from breaking the rules once their
teachers are absent. When the young learners’ desires are
respected, they in turn respect the wishes of other persons. This
strategy enables the learners to comprehend how to make
decisions. It also assists them on comprehending the importance
of considering other parties’ needs while making choices
(Mayer, 1996).

28. Advantages of Use of Assignments that Require the Choice of
the Child
This strategy is associated with several advantages such as:
-Facilitating the development of confidence amongst the young
learners.
- It also makes the children have a feeling of independency as
they control themselves.
-Young learners are more committed in the activities which they
have individually chosen.
-Making choices assists the young learners in learning
persistence, as well as, task completion. Disadvantages of Use
of Assignments that Require the Choice of the Child
-Insome cases the learners can make the wrong choices.
-It can make the learners rely on misleading information
especially after making the wrong choices (Mayer, 2002).
-Some of the learners may never comprehend the essence of
choosing a certain choice at the expense of the others.
-Making of choices is sometimes a complex task foe the young
learners.Conclusion
Instructional learning is an effective method of ensuring the
proper understanding of concepts by the student. This system is
very advantageous as it involves the participation of the
learners and the students. By using this method, instructors are
able to attain more positive results as compared to using only
one teaching technique. Instructional learning strategies are also
effective as they comprise both the learning theories of Driscoll
and Mayer. The above training manual has illustrated how
various instructional learning strategies can yield positive
results while teaching kindergarten pupils. Positive results can

29. however be achieved if the strategies are used appropriately and
effectively (Driscoll, 2004). This approach has various
advantages which can apply in the learning process by
instructors. On the other hand, these strategies can also be
disadvantageous due to some factors. The above training manual
outlines all the advantages and disadvantages of using various
learning techniques by instructors. Effective ways of using
these strategies by the instructors are also provided (Jonassen,
2013).References
Driscoll, P. (2004). Psychology of Learning for instruction.
USA: Publisher Ally and Bacon:3rd ed
Jonassen, D. & Driscoll, M. (Eds.). (2013). Handbook of
research for educational communications and technology (Vol.
2). Routledge.
Mayer, R. E. (1998). Cognitive, metacognitive, and
motivational aspects of problem solving. Instructional science,
26(1-2), 49-63.
Mayer, R. E. (2002). Multimedia learning. Psychology of
Learning and Motivation, 41, 85-139.
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30. �You need to list the objectives for this manual. After reading
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31. �This needs to be added to every chapter
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