LING 281 Template Sentences for Paper 1 Templates for the author’s main claim and reason · The author’s main claim is X. · The author reasons that X, Y, and Z. · The author provides the following reasons for his/her claim: X; Y; and Z. · Two reasons are given in support by the author. First,.…Second,.… Templates for audience discussion · The author’s audience likely consists of… · The readers of the text are probably… · The author appears to write for… · This is evident through the ways the author… · It appears as if the audience is X because Y. · I inferred who the readers of the text likely are from textual clues such as… Templates for the author’s textual organization · The author organizes his article by… · After he does X, he then goes on to do Y. · Next, in paragraphs 4-7, the author… · Finally, in his last section, the author… · Perhaps the author organized his text by in order to . · The reason for this organization is likely because…. A Quote Sandwich Model Model for a “Quote Sandwich” A paragraph that uses a quote, paraphrase, or summary, needs an introduction into the textual support and an explanation why the textual support is relevant to your argument. It can be set up as a sandwich: Example: (from Susie Park, a student of LING 281, Spring 2017) TOP ( At the end of the article, Nelson states, MIDDLE ( “You are Feidin Santana. You are CNN,” BOTTOM ( in order to make a connection to the allusion at the beginning of the article. Ways authors organize information in texts Analysis Break the subject (an object, event, or concept) down into parts and explain the various parts. “Why?” “How?” “So what?” “What if?” What it might mean is, how it relates to what is known, the implications it offers, in other words, my point is, to put it another way, Cause and Effect Explain both events and ideas. The cause is the stimulus or reason for an event or idea. The effect is the result or consequence of the even or idea. So, because, cause, comes from, due to, if, on account of, reasons, since, stems from, accordingly, according to affect, as a result, consequence, consequently, creates, effect, hence, leads to, result, then, therefore, thus Compare and contrast Compare two or more items by describing how they are similar; contrast two or more items by explaining their differences; or, provide both the similarities and the differences for a number of items. Comparison: alike, as well as, both, similarly, likewise, in the same way, analogous to, correspondingly, identical, equivalent Contrast: alternatively, although, but, contrast, conversely, despite, differs from, however, in contrast, less, more, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, unlike, -er suffix (e.g., higher, better, newer) Concession/refutation Offer the opposition’s viewpoint and then tell why it is incorrect/inadequate/unimportant Author states . . .; however, . . . . Author believes . . ., but . . . . Critique Point out both the good and .

1. LING 281
Template Sentences for Paper 1
Templates for the author’s main claim and reason
· The author’s main claim is X.
· The author reasons that X, Y, and Z.
· The author provides the following reasons for his/her claim:
X; Y; and Z.
· Two reasons are given in support by the author.
First,.…Second,.…
Templates for audience discussion
· The author’s audience likely consists of…
· The readers of the text are probably…
· The author appears to write for…
· This is evident through the ways the author…
· It appears as if the audience is X because Y.
· I inferred who the readers of the text likely are from textual
clues such as…
Templates for the author’s textual organization
· The author organizes his article by…
· After he does X, he then goes on to do Y.
· Next, in paragraphs 4-7, the author…

2. · Finally, in his last section, the author…
· Perhaps the author organized his text by
in order to
.
· The reason for this organization is likely because….
A Quote Sandwich Model
Model for a “Quote Sandwich”
A paragraph that uses a quote, paraphrase, or summary, needs
an introduction into the textual support and an explanation why
the textual support is relevant to your argument.
It can be set up as a sandwich:
Example: (from Susie Park, a student of LING 281, Spring
2017)
TOP ( At the end of the article, Nelson states,
MIDDLE ( “You are Feidin Santana. You are CNN,”
BOTTOM ( in order to make a connection to the allusion at the
beginning of the article.
Ways authors organize information in texts
Analysis
Break the subject (an object, event, or concept) down into parts
and explain the various parts.
“Why?” “How?” “So what?” “What if?”
What it might mean is, how it relates to what is known, the
implications it offers, in other words, my point is, to put it
another way,

3. Cause and Effect
Explain both events and ideas. The cause is the stimulus or
reason for an event or idea. The effect is the result or
consequence of the even or idea.
So, because, cause, comes from, due to, if, on account of,
reasons, since, stems from, accordingly, according to affect, as
a result, consequence, consequently, creates, effect, hence,
leads to, result, then, therefore, thus
Compare and contrast
Compare two or more items by describing how they are similar;
contrast two or more items by explaining their differences; or,
provide both the similarities and the differences for a number of
items.
Comparison: alike, as well as, both, similarly, likewise, in the
same way, analogous to, correspondingly, identical, equivalent
Contrast: alternatively, although, but, contrast, conversely,
despite, differs from, however, in contrast, less, more, on the
contrary, on the other hand, still, unlike, -er suffix (e.g., higher,
better, newer)
Concession/refutation
Offer the opposition’s viewpoint and then tell why it is
incorrect/inadequate/unimportant
Author states . . .; however, . . . .
Author believes . . ., but . . . .
Critique
Point out both the good and bad points of something.
Definition
Give an accurate meaning of a term with enough detail to allow
the reader to understand your intention when you use the term.
Means, is, refers to, is called, can be defined
Description
Write about the subject so the reader can easily visualize it; tell
how it looks or happened, including how, who, where, why.

4. Diagram
Make a drawing of something and label its parts.
Discussion
Give a complete and detailed answer, including important
characteristics and main points.
Division and classification
Divide a whole into parts or sort related items into categories.
Class, classified, category, divided into, group, kind, parts, type
Evaluation
Give your opinion of the value of the subject; discuss its good
and bad points, strengths and weaknesses.
Exemplification
Provide examples or cases in points: facts, statistics, cases in
point, personal experiences, interview quotations.
Such as, for example, for instance
Explanation
Give the meaning of something; give facts and details that make
the idea easy to understand.
Illustration
Make the point or idea clear by giving examples.
Interpretation
Tell about the importance of the subject. Explain the results or
the effects of something.
Justification
Give good reasons that support a decision, action, or event.
List
Make an organized listing of the important points of a subject.

5. Also, another, besides, equally important is, finally, further,
furthermore, first, second, in addition, last, moreover, several
Narration
Recount an event; tell a story.
Overview
Describe the issue, including the various viewpoints
Process order
Explain how to do something or how something happens.
After, afterward, as finally, first, second, last, next, then, when,
while
Question and Answer
Ask a question to focus the writing on a specific topic and then
answer the question.
Report
Write a detailed account of activities or events such as research
or a conversation.
Summary
Briefly cover the main points.
Article, book, concluded, found, in conclusion, in short,
investigation, then, therefore, to review, to summarize,
research, study subjects
Trace
Tell about an event or process in chronological order.
After, afterward, as finally, first, second, last, next, then, when,
while
Definitions taken from Kate Kinsella, “Instructions Used in
Academic Reading and Writing”; Laura Ellen Shulman,
“Rhetorical Strategies for Essay Writing”; Linda A. Lee,
Empowered College Reading.
Requirement

6. This paper asks you to identify an argument’s claim and reason.
You will also need to explain the general context for the
argument, the author’s purpose and audience and how you have
been able to determine the context/audience/purpose based on
clues from inside and outside of the text. It also asks you to
describe the author’s (4) supporting evidence and (5) overall
structure, and finally, evaluate the argument in terms of its
purpose and audience.
Successful essays will include:
1. An introductory section that provides all the information the
audience will need to understand your argument. This includes
the topic of the writing project and your argument claim and
reason about the author’s use of evidence and organization.
Please read the sample paper 1 first, then following the paper
format as sample paper 1 shows.
2. A statement of the claim/reason of “Why Do People Fall for
Fake News?”
3. A discussion of the general context, author’s purpose and
author’s audience, supported by evidence from inside or outside
of the text
4. A description and evaluation of supporting evidence.
A. Do you find facts and evidence in the argument? Direct
observation? Statistics? Interviews? Surveys? Primary sources
such as eyewitness accounts? Secondary sources such as
published research? Quotations from authorities? Hypothetical
situations? Analogy? Allusion? Personal Experience?
5. A description and evaluation of the organizing structure. To
evaluate the article’s structure, you may want to ask yourself
these questions:

7. A. Is the information presented in a logical order? Does the
author use chronological order, cause/effect, problem/solution,
general to specific, or other ways of organizing information? Do
those structures help make the argument more persuasive?
6. A conclusion that clarifies whether you believe the Gordon
Pennycook and David Randhas written an effective argument
based on the evidence and organization they chose to convince
the audience of their purpose.
7. A “Works Cited” or “Reference” page.
Requirement
This paper asks you to
identify
an argument’s claim and reason. You will also need to
explain
the general context for the argument, the author’s purpose and
audience and how you have been able to
determine the context/audience/purpose based on clues from
inside and outside of the text. It also asks
you to
describe
the author’s (4) supporting evide
nce and (5) overall structure, and finally,
evaluate

8. the
argument in terms of its
purpose and audience.
Successful essays will include:
1.
An introductory section that provides all the information the
audience will
need
to understand
your argument. This incl
udes the topic of the writing project and
your
argument claim and
reason about the author’s use of evidence and
organization.
Please read the sample paper 1
first, then following the paper format as sample paper 1 shows.
2.
A statement of the claim/reason of
“
Why Do People Fall for Fake News?
”
3.

9. A discussion of the general context, author’s purpose
and
author’s audience, supported by
evidence from inside
or
outside of the
text
4.
A description and evaluation of
supporting
evidence.
A.
Do you find facts and evidence in the argument? Direct
observation? Statistics?
Interviews?
Surveys?
Primary
sources
such
as
eyewitness

10. accounts?
Secondary
sources
such as published research? Quotations from authorities?
Hypothetical
situations?
Analogy? Allusion? Personal
Experience?
5.
A description and evaluation of the
organizing structure
. To evaluate the article’s structure, you
may want to ask yourself these
questions:
A.
Is
the information presented in a logical order? Does the author
use chronological order,
cause/effect, problem/solution, general to specific,
or
other ways of organizing
information?
Do
those structures

11. help
make the argument more
persuasive?
6.
A conclusion that clarifies whether you believe the
Gordon Pennycook and David Rand
has
written an effective argument based on the evidence and
organization they chose to convince
the audience of their purpose.
7.
A “Works Cited”
or
“Reference”
page.
Requirement
This paper asks you to identify an argument’s claim and reason.
You will also need to explain
the general context for the argument, the author’s purpose and
audience and how you have been able to
determine the context/audience/purpose based on clues from
inside and outside of the text. It also asks
you to describe the author’s (4) supporting evidence and (5)

12. overall structure, and finally, evaluate the
argument in terms of its purpose and audience.
Successful essays will include:
1. An introductory section that provides all the information the
audience will need to understand
your argument. This includes the topic of the writing project
and your argument claim and
reason about the author’s use of evidence and organization.
Please read the sample paper 1
first, then following the paper format as sample paper 1 shows.
2. A statement of the claim/reason of “Why Do People Fall for
Fake News?”
3. A discussion of the general context, author’s purpose and
author’s audience, supported by
evidence from inside or outside of the text
4. A description and evaluation of supporting evidence.
A. Do you find facts and evidence in the argument? Direct
observation? Statistics?
Interviews? Surveys? Primary sources such as eyewitness
accounts? Secondary sources
such as published research? Quotations from authorities?
Hypothetical situations?
Analogy? Allusion? Personal Experience?
5. A description and evaluation of the organizing structure. To
evaluate the article’s structure, you
may want to ask yourself these questions:
A. Is the information presented in a logical order? Does the
author use chronological order,

13. cause/effect, problem/solution, general to specific, or other
ways of organizing
information? Do those structures help make the argument more
persuasive?
6. A conclusion that clarifies whether you believe the Gordon
Pennycook and David Randhas
written an effective argument based on the evidence and
organization they chose to convince
the audience of their purpose.
7. A “Works Cited” or “Reference” page.
4/18/2020 Opinion | Why Do People Fall for Fake News? - The
New York Times
https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/19/opinion/sunday/fake-
news.html 1/2
GRAY MATTER
Why Do People Fall for Fake News?
Are they blinded by their political passions? Or are they just
intellectually lazy?
By Gordon Pennycook and David Rand
Dr. Pennycook and Dr. Rand are psychologists.
Jan. 19, 2019
What makes people susceptible to fake news and other forms of
strategic misinformation? And what, if anything, can

14. be done about it?
These questions have become more urgent in recent years, not
least because of revelations about the Russian
campaign to influence the 2016 United States presidential
election by disseminating propaganda through social
media platforms. In general, our political culture seems to be
increasingly populated by people who espouse
outlandish or demonstrably false claims that often align with
their political ideology.
The good news is that psychologists and other social scientists
are working hard to understand what prevents people
from seeing through propaganda. The bad news is that there is
not yet a consensus on the answer. Much of the
debate among researchers falls into two opposing camps. One
group claims that our ability to reason is hijacked by
our partisan convictions: that is, we’re prone to rationalization.
The other group — to which the two of us belong —
claims that the problem is that we often fail to exercise our
critical faculties: that is, we’re mentally lazy.
However, recent research suggests a silver lining to the dispute:
Both camps appear to be capturing an aspect of the
problem. Once we understand how much of the problem is a
result of rationalization and how much a result of
laziness, and as we learn more about which factor plays a role
in what types of situations, we’ll be better able to
design policy solutions to help combat the problem.
The rationalization camp, which has gained considerable
prominence in recent years, is built around a set of theories
contending that when it comes to politically charged issues,
people use their intellectual abilities to persuade
themselves to believe what they want to be true rather than
attempting to actually discover the truth. According to

15. this view, political passions essentially make people
unreasonable, even — indeed, especially — if they tend to be
good at reasoning in other contexts. (Roughly: The smarter you
are, the better you are at rationalizing.)
Some of the most striking evidence used to support this position
comes from an influential 2012 study in which the
law professor Dan Kahan and his colleagues found that the
degree of political polarization on the issue of climate
change was greater among people who scored higher on
measures of science literary and numerical ability than it
was among those who scored lower on these tests. Apparently,
more “analytical” Democrats were better able to
convince themselves that climate change was a problem, while
more “analytical” Republicans were better able to
convince themselves that climate change was not a problem.
Professor Kahan has found similar results in, for
example, studies about gun control in which he experimentally
manipulated the partisan slant of information that
participants were asked to assess.
The implications here are profound: Reasoning can exacerbate
the problem, not provide the solution, when it comes
to partisan disputes over facts. Further evidence cited in support
of this of argument comes from a 2010 study by the
political scientists Brendan Nyhan and Jason Reifler, who found
that appending corrections to misleading claims in
news articles can sometimes backfire: Not only did corrections
fail to reduce misperceptions, but they also
sometimes increased them. It seemed as if people who were
ideologically inclined to believe a given falsehood
worked so hard to come up with reasons that the correction was
wrong that they came to believe the falsehood even
more strongly.
https://nyti.ms/2RV2yCB

16. https://scholarship.law.gwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=129
8&context=faculty_publications
https://www.dartmouth.edu/~nyhan/nyhan-reifler.pdf
https://www.nytimes.com/
4/18/2020 Opinion | Why Do People Fall for Fake News? - The
New York Times
https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/19/opinion/sunday/fake-
news.html 2/2
But this “rationalization” account, though compelling in some
contexts, does not strike us as the most natural or most
common explanation of the human weakness for
misinformation. We believe that people often just don’t think
critically enough about the information they encounter.
A great deal of research in cognitive psychology has shown that
a little bit of reasoning goes a long way toward
forming accurate beliefs. For example, people who think more
analytically (those who are more likely to exercise
their analytic skills and not just trust their “gut” response) are
less superstitious, less likely to believe in conspiracy
theories and less receptive to seemingly profound but actually
empty assertions (like “Wholeness quiets infinite
phenomena”). This body of evidence suggests that the main
factor explaining the acceptance of fake news could be
cognitive laziness, especially in the context of social media,
where news items are often skimmed or merely glanced
at.
To test this possibility, we recently ran a set of studies in which
participants of various political persuasions indicated
whether they believed a series of news stories. We showed them

17. real headlines taken from social media, some of
which were true and some of which were false. We gauged
whether our participants would engage in reasoning or
“go with their gut” by having them complete something called
the cognitive reflection test, a test widely used in
psychology and behavioral economics. It consists of questions
with intuitively compelling but incorrect answers,
which can be easily shown to be wrong with a modicum of
reasoning. (For example: “If you’re running a race and
you pass the person in second place, what place are you in?” If
you’re not thinking you might say “first place,” when
of course the answer is second place.)
We found that people who engaged in more reflective reasoning
were better at telling true from false, regardless of
whether the headlines aligned with their political views. (We
controlled for demographic facts such as level of
education as well as political leaning.) In follow-up studies yet
to be published, we have shown that this finding was
replicated using a pool of participants that was nationally
representative with respect to age, gender, ethnicity and
region of residence, and that it applies not just to the ability to
discern true claims from false ones but also to the
ability to identify excessively partisan coverage of true events.
Our results strongly suggest that somehow cultivating or
promoting our reasoning abilities should be part of the
solution to the kinds of partisan misinformation that circulate
on social media. And other new research provides
evidence that even in highly political contexts, people are not as
irrational as the rationalization camp contends.
Recent studies have shown, for instance, that correcting partisan
misperceptions does not backfire most of the time
— contrary to the results of Professors Nyhan and Reifler
described above — but instead leads to more accurate
beliefs.

18. We are not arguing that findings such as Professor Kahan’s that
support the rationalization theory are unreliable. Our
argument is that cases in which our reasoning goes awry —
which are surprising and attention-grabbing — seem to
be exceptions rather than the rule. Reason is not always, or even
typically, held captive by our partisan biases. In
many and perhaps most cases, it seems, reason does promote the
formation of accurate beliefs.
This is not just an academic debate; it has real implications for
public policy. Our research suggests that the solution
to politically charged misinformation should involve devoting
resources to the spread of accurate information and to
training or encouraging people to think more critically. You
aren’t doomed to be unreasonable, even in highly
politicized times. Just remember that this is also true of people
you disagree with.
Gordon Pennycook is an assistant professor at the Hill &
Levene Schools of Business at the University of Regina, in
Saskatchewan. David Rand is an
associate professor at the Sloan School of Management and the
department of brain and cognitive sciences at the Massachusetts
Institute of
Technology.
Follow The New York Times Opinion section on Facebook,
Twitter (@NYTopinion) and Instagram.
A version of this article appears in print on Jan. 20, 2019,
Section SR, Page 12 of the New York edition with the headline:
Why Do People Fall for Fake News?
http://davidrand-cooperation.com/s/2018-Pennycook-Rand-
Cognition.pdf

19. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2819073
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