Effects of sodium chloride on Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis

Essay On Sodium Chloride
Our results mostly match with these studies. Interestedly, biofilm–associated cells showed to be
significantly more metabolically active than the sporangia at pH 9 (p 2 ppt has significantly reduce
the infection loads (Stockwell and Mahony 2015). There is evidence that higher concentrations of
sodium chloride, 10% (w/v), can kill Bd in 2 min (Johnson et al. 2003).But, this is a very high
concentration which can negatively affect amphibians as well. Salinity of the natural water bodies
increase gradually every year due to agricultural clearing, irrigation and the massive use of de–icing
salt on roads both in urban and suburban areas (Kaushal et al. 2005, Pitman 2002). There are lentic
water bodies which have the mean annual salinity as high ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
We provide more complete results regarding the effectiveness of the amphotericin B as an antifungal
treatment for chytridiomycosis. As an attempt of finding novel antifungal therapeutic agents for Bd,
we tested the viability of the zoospores, sporangia and biofilm–associated cells in the presence of
different concentrations of methyl chavicol, curcumin, allicin and 6–gingerol. Plant extracts have
been used to treat different microbial diseases of humans, animals and plants for decades. Methyl
chavicol is not soluble in water; instead it is highly soluble in ethanol and DMSO. Ethanol and
DMSO both kill Bd. Therefore, testing its ability to kill Bd was determined in mixed cultures by
directly adding different volumes of oil into 10 ml H–broth cultures. The minimal inhibitory
concentration of methyl chavicol was 1 µl/ml which completely killed a mixer of both zoospores
and sporangia. Our results match with the previously reported MIC of 1 µl/ml for methyl chavicol
which completely inhibited the mycelial growth of Moniliophthora perniciosa (Costa et al. 2015).
Antibacterial activities of Ocimum sp. essential oils, which consist methyl chavicol as the major
component, have been proved to be effective against different bacteria and fungi (Moghaddam et al.
2014, Pandey et al. 2014). Even though methyl chavicol seems very promising in mitigating Bd in
vitro, in vivo studies are highly recommended as there is evidence that methyl chavicol
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Streptomyces Essay
Streptomyces is a genus of Gram–positive bacteria in the actinomycetes group. Streptomyces
species are common inhabitants of soil, though they are found in a variety of habitats. They have a
mycelial and reproduce by the formation of spores at the extremities of aerial hyphae. They respire
aerobically and can use a wide range of organic compounds as carbon and energy sources.
Streptomyces often produce extracellular enzymes that allow them to utilize various materials such
as starch, cellulose and chitin. They produce over half of all known antibiotics, and certain species
are commercially important. An example of an antibiotic produced by Streptomyces griseus is
streptomycin. (Collins Dictionary of Biology, 3rd ed. 2005) Streptomyces are the most extensively
studied and well known genus of the actinomycete family. Streptomyces typically dwell the soil and
are significant decomposers. They also are medically significant due to their ability to produce ...
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Worthy of note is the process involving the production of antibiotics where there is a symbiotic
relationship between Streptomyces and plant. The antibiotic protects plants against pathogens, and
plant exudates allows the growth of Streptomyces. Researchers have suggested that some antibiotics
originated as signal molecules, with the ability to effect variations in the expression of some genes
that are unrelated to a stress response. DNA replication; RNA synthesis; cell wall synthesis and
protein synthesis have been identified as possible targets for cellular disruption which is
undoubtedly a complex process. Streptomyces is a well–known genus of the Actinomycetes family
of bacteria with a unique morphology and metabolism, which lends to its ability to produce more
than half of the antibiotics that are used in agriculture and

The Fungal Cell Wall And Its Effects On The Environment
CHAPTER1 INTRODUCTION
1.0 ______
The fungal cell wall plays an important role in the physiological adaptation of the organism in its
environment. The yeast's cell wall serves several essential functions for the such as the ability to
hold its shape, the regulation of water flow into and out of the cell, and the prevention of foreign
bodies that might be toxic from entering.1 It constantly changes during cell division, growth and
morphogenesis; this dynamic feature dictates the organism's protection or susceptibility to the
environment.2,3,4,5
A true fungal cell wall consists of three main components; lipids, proteins and carbohydrates
(glucan, mannan and chitin).3,6,7 The content of the cell wall varies depending upon the type of
fungal species. Schizosaccharomyces pombe is one fungal species which lacks chitin in its cell wall.
The pathogenic (disease causing) fungus Candida albicans and the saprophytic (feed on dead plant
and animal remains) fungus Saccharomyces cerevisiae each contain glucan, mannan and a very
small amount of chitin.8 A pictorial representation of mannoproteins (outermost layer), β–glucans,
β–glucans+chitin, and a plasma membrane that contains lipids is depicted in Figure 1.1. Figure 1.1
Typical structure of a yeast cell wall.9
The Greene research group is primarily concerned with developing effective and milder procedures
for isolating β–glucan and mannan from the cell wall of fungal species for structural and
physicochemical characterization. This

The Causative Agent : Candida
3.2 The causative agent: Candida Historically, C. albicans has been identified when the renowned
Greek physician, Hippocrates, first described oral thrush in his treatise 'Epidemics' published in 4th
century B.C. However, the organism has not been studied vigorously till late twentieth century when
it became one of the most common 4 causes of blood stream and cardiovascular infections in United
States hospitals. Since then, C. albicans has gained the importance as a potential human pathogen
and elevated to the level of model fungal pathogen . The last two decades have witnessed increased
incidence of Candida infections due to the widespread use of broad–spectrum antibiotics in addition
to the increasing numbers of HIV–infected and immune–compromised individuals . 3.2.1 Taxonomy
of Candida species Candida spp. belongs to Ascomycota (Kingdom: Mycetae, Phylum: Ascomycota,
Subphylum: Saccharomycotina, class: Saccharomycetes, order: Saccharomycetales, family:
Saccharomyceteae, genus: Candida) . However, Candida spp. was previously phylogenetic classified
as imperfect fungi, Deuteromycetes, (Kingdom: Fungi, class: Deuteromycetes, order: Moniliales,
family: Cryptococcaceae, genus: Candida) which is described as a "taxonomic pit" in which yeasts
without known sexual stage (teleomorph) is thrown. Recent DNA sequence based methods have
proven that both sexual and asexual Candida spp. are ascomycetes . 3.2.2 Candida species Over 200
Candida spp. exist in nature, however, only a few

Glucosamine
Glucosamine is one of the biological components that helps to create more support for the joints and
helps to exert a protective effect against joint destruction in conditions associated with osteoarthritis.
In healthy glucosamine is produced in the body naturally. Because one of the ingredients of
glucosamine is glucose, a naturally occurring sugar classified as an amino sugar. However,
glucosamine does not behave in the body as an energy source. Instead, it serves to blend sulphur into
the cartilage and other body tissues. It is involved to maintain and repair the bones, joints, cartilage
& in the treatment of degenerative joint diseases (Chiusaroli et al., 2011; Distler and Anguelouch,
2006; Rangle and Sawitzke, 2012). Glucosamine is also involved in constructing nails, skin, eyes,
bones, ligaments, tendons, heart valves, discharging mucous from the respiratory system, digestive
system, and urinary tract. Chemically, the glucosamine (Figure 1.1) structure is an amino–
monosaccharide and a substrate of glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans. These are substrates of
hyaluronic acid that is a major component of joint fluid. Since glucosamine is a ... Show more
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Glucosamine is also a basic monomer of Chitin that is found in exoskeletons of invertebrate marine
creatures such as oysters, crabs or shrimps (Yang & Su, 2005). When chitin is hydrolyzed in the
presence of mineral acid like sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid glucosamine is produced.
(Mojarrad et al. 2007). Glucosamine sulphate is not a not stable as it is and degrade on absorbing
moisture due to its hygroscopic nature so it is converted into a salt form. Glucosamine HCl is co–
crystallized with potassium and sodium sulphate to produce glucosamine sulphate 2 KCl or 2 NaCl.
The content of Glucosamine base (active substance) in glucosamine sulphate 2 KCl is only 59%
w/w. Most of dietary supplements contain glucosamine sulphate 2 KCl rather than glucosamine
HCl. (Eliska and Frantisek

Survivability Of Batrachochytrium Dendrobatidis : An Analysis
The ability of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis to grow in amphibian and non–amphibian hosts such
as zebrafish (Liew et al. 2017), cray fish (McMahon et al. 2013), reptiles (Kilburn et al. 2011), and
waterfowl (Garmyn et al. 2012) is well documented. There are also records of the survivability of B.
dendrobatidis in the sediments and water (Kirshtein et al. 2007). In this study, we showed that B.
dendrobatidis has the potential to form a biofilm which ensures its survival in the environment
without hosts. Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis forms a biofilm–like structure in vitro when grown
in H–broth media in dark at 23˚C. Biofilm–associated proteins were found in supernatant of Bd
zoospore suspension (Brutyn et al. 2012). Our observations and ... Show more content on
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dendrobatidis is not morphology specific. Our results strongly match the findings which describes
biofilm formation of fungi such as Candida and T. asahii (Bonaventura et al. 2006, Chandra et al.
2001, Ramage et al. 2001). SEM images of the mature biofilm showed extra cellular matrix–like
material. The composition of extra cellular matrix material was determined by extracting extra
cellular polysaccharides and identifying the glycosyl composition with gas chromatography/ mass
spectrometry analysis. Total carbohydrate pool was composed mainly of ribose, xylose, mannose,
galactose and glucose. No activity for the glucose 6–phospahe dehydrogenase confirmed that the
cells have not lysed during extracting polysaccharides from the mature biofilms. The comprehensive
studies of the composition of the matrix are very few and mostly about bacterial biofilms though
Aspergillus fumigatus, Cryptococcus neoformans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida albicans
are included (Mitchell et al. 2016, Vlamakis et al. 2013, Ma et al. 2009, Beauvais et al. 2009). The
composition of the B. dendrobatidis biofilm extra cellular matrix resembled the matrix composition
of Saccharomyces cerevisiae which consists of mannose and glucose mainly (Beauvais et al. 2009)
with galactose at some conditions (Faria–Oliveira et al 2014). Interestingly, most of the matrix
components of the matrix have been similar to cell wall constituents (Nett et al. 2009). Glucose,
galactose, xylose and

Starfish And Green Crab Lab Report
Introduction The ecosystem with which the simulation is being done is an aquatic ecosystem. This
specific ecosystem is home to producers such as: black pine, coral weed, and nori seaweed.
Stationary consumers like acorn barnacles, gooseneck barnacles, and mussels are also present.
Mobile consumers such as chitin, starfish, and whelk. The invasive mobile consumer is the green
crab. Animals such as starfish compete with others like green crabs for mussels. Starfish and whelk
prey on and also compete for the gooseneck barnacle. Whelk and green crab also compete for the
acorn barnacles. The competition between starfish and green crab over mussels is what led me to my
hypothesis as the mussel is one of the largest secondary consumers in terms

Chemical Structure Of Chitin And Cellulose
3.2 Chemistry of chitin
Similar to its polysaccharide nature, Chitin has a similar chemical structure as that of cellulose. It is
reported to be a polymer with high molecular weight of N–acetyl–D–glucosamine units which are
linked by β–D bonds, which has 1000–3000 units (Shahidi & Abuzaytoun 2005). In similarity with
cellulose, chitin has an acetamido group at its C2 postion unlike cellulose which has a hydroxyl
group (Shahidi & Abuzaytoun 2005). Figure 1 shows the structure of chitin, its derivative chitosan
and cellulose.
Figure 1: Structure of chitin, chitosan and cellulose, Source: (Shahidi & Abuzaytoun 2005)
Furthermore, discussing the structure of chitin, it is reported that chitin and chitosan are
heteropolymers as compared to cellulose which is a homopolymer (Kumar R 2000). In addition to
the structure of chitin the degree of N–acetylation is also an important part of its chemistry. It is
important to know the chemistry related to the degree of N–acetylation that is the ratio of 2–
acetamido–2–deoxy–D–glucopyranose to 2–amino–2–deoxy–D–glucopyranose (Kumar R 2000),
before considering its application for specific purposes. Furthermore, chitosan is one such
universally accepted derivative of chitin that is obtained by N–deacetylation to such a degree at
which it is soluble in aqueous solution of acetic acid and formic acid, an optimized degree to
achieve chitosan is 0.35 or less. This ratio is can be defined by several analytical methods such as
gel permeation

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Beauveria
Beauveria is well known genera of Entomopathogenic fungi. It is worldwide registered for its
mycoinsecticides properties. Beauveria bassiana (Bb) and Beauveria brongniarti are used to control
insect pests (5). Beauveria bassiana is a filamentous fungus which belongs to the class
Deuteromycete, that grow naturally in soil. It acts as pathogen to various insects and causes white
muscardine disease (6–10). Bb has a wide range of host and insect pests. It can be used against
vectors in human diseases (11). Wang et al., (12) and Liz et al., (13) reported that Bb is used to
control insects in forests such as pine caterpillar and silkworm. The penetration of EPF such as
B.bassiana is through insect cuticle which mainly consists of polysaccharide ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Beauvericin is a cyclooligomer depsipeptide ionophore that helps in the transportation of
monovalent cations across membranes as a free carrier uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation (20).
Beauvericin shows an important biological activities as antifungal and antibiotic properties in vitro
(21), and antifungal agents in combinatorial therapies (22). Along with above functions, In 2004
Jow et al., (23) reported beauvericin as a broad–spectrum antiproliferative agent which fight against
different human cancer cell lines by activating calcium sensitive cellular apoptotic pathways. It also
inhibits the directional cell motility or haptotaxis which is essential for the formation of new blood
vessels in case of on tumor or cancer tissues at subcytotoxic concentrations (22), invasion of other
tissues by cancer cells, and metastasis (24). Wang and Xu, (25) reported that beauvericin has
antitumour activity against cancer cell lines. During the molecular docking studies of about 36
protein structures of cancer molecules retrieved from PDB are docked with the anticancer drug
beauvericin and negative binding energy of the docked complex was calculated. Binding free energy
reveals the drug resistance of anticancer and finds the interaction between the active site and
substrate of oncogene. These findings provide useful information for understanding the

Advantages And Effect Of Organophosphate
Organophosphate is a term applied to describe any organic phosphorus (V) –bearing compound, it
too refers to insecticides that acting on the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. Organophosphate pesticides
degrade at high speed by hydrolysis on exposure to soil, air and sunlight; these characteristics made
them a desirable alternative to the persistent organochloride pesticides. Many of organophosphate
operative by inhibiting the action of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in nerve cells, which is vital to
nerve function in most of insects, animals, as well as humans. This leads to a pathologic extra of
acetylcholine in the body and causes the organophosphate poisoning indication such as dizziness,
weakness and nausea.
Many of the organophosphate are ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
JH acts as hormones that manipulate the type of molt that a juvenile insect will go through. With the
presence of JH, Ecdysone triggers larva–to–larva molts. On the contrary, the ecdysone will supports
the larva–pupa or pupa–to–adult molt if absence of JH. The juvenile hormone analogs (JHAs)
insecticides such as methroprene and pyriproxyfen are insecticides that disturb the standard amount
of juvenile hormone by mimic the chemical structure or biological action of juvenile hormone
(Wilson 2004, Henrick 2007). JHAs are more effective at the beginning stage of metamorphosis and
embryogenesis in insects, so it is broadly apply as larvicide. JHAs selectively target and disrupt the
endocrine system of insects. The JHAs interferes with molting process which causes premature
molting, this may leads to deformations of wings and reproductive parts.
2.7.1.1 Methoprene
Methoprene is one of the insecticides under juvenile hormone analogs. It can be divided into two
different forms namely s–methoprene and r–methoprene. Methoprene was first registered in the
United States for use as insecticides in year 1975.
The physical properties of Methoprene: (Kidd and James 1991, Kamrin 1997).
ISO common name Methoprene
IUPAC name : isopropyl

Fatty Acid Is Good For Human Health
fatty acid, which has excellent nutritive value. There are other substances in insects that are good for
human health; for example, antibacterial protein and peptide, enzymes and hormones. Certain
insects constitute superior health food. As a nutritional resource, edible insects and their
industrialization should be focused on in future studies.
4.1.1 Protein and amino acids
Protein is the basis of all organism activity and constitutes numerous essential materials such as
enzymes, hormones and hemoglobin. It is a principal constituent of antibodies as it bolsters the
immunity role of the body. It is the only material that produces nitrogen for maintaining acid and
alkali balance, transforming genetic information and transporting essential materials in the human
body. It can also supply energy due to its ability to produce heat. Insect bodies are rich in protein
and the proportion are higher than that of most plants; the protein content of several insects is higher
than that of commercial meat, poultry fowls and eggs. It is composed of more than 20 types of
amino acids that benefit the human body; among which eight are necessary for human nutrition as
they cannot be synthesized in the body (Jin 1987).
4.1.2 Fat
Fat is an important element that stores and supplies energy to the human body, as well as supporting
and protecting various organs in the body. Fat can also aid in the absorption of vitamins.
Phosphate, carbohydrate and cholesterol are components of many tissues and

Why Are Carbohydrates Important In Living Organisms
Patrick Audish
16 October 2017
Moris
Biology P: 5
Extra Credit The nucleic acid is needed in the body to keep our dna. Nucleic acid is a
macromolecule that stores and communicate genetic energy. There are six major nucleotides and it
is made of carbon nitrate, oxygen, phosphorus, and hydrogen. In living organisms there are two
types of nucleic acids called deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid. DNA and RNA in the
nucleic acids bonds into the phosphate of another nucleotide. ATP stores energy in a storehouse and
it could only be used by cells in a variety of reactions. ATP releases energy when the second and the
third phosphate group is broken. Triphosphate is a nucleotide with three phosphate group.
Nucleotides are smaller repeating subunits made of nucleic acids. ... Show more content on
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Carbohydrates are composed of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen. A formula often used is (CH2O)π.
Carbohydrates is important because it has a big role of providing energy for organisms.
Disaccharide is when two monosaccharides are joined together and monosaccharides can also be
linked to form a larger one. Disaccharide is the same as glucose as they are both sugar. Longer
carbohydrates are called polysaccharide. When your body needs energy during physical activities or
between meals glycogen is broken down into glucose. Carbohydrates is used for both living
organisms and plants. For living organisms it provides energy but for plants it is called cellulose and
that provides structural support in the cell walls. The cellulose is made up of glucose chained and
linked together. Chitin is the hard outer shell of a shrimp and of lobster. Chitin is a fibrous substance
of

Medicinal Effects Of Mushrooms And Their Metabolites
2.1 Mushrooms were known and consumed as food in ceremonies as far back as prehistoric times.
Throughout the history, mushrooms were used in different cultures for their medicinal and tonic
properties (Gunde–Cimerman, 1999). Mushrooms represent a major and as yet largely untapped
source of great new pharmaceutical products. The most noteworthy medicinal effect of mushrooms
and their metabolites that they fascinated the attention of the public in the modern years is their
antitumour property. Many pharmaceutical ingredients with potent and unique properties were
isolated from mushrooms and spread worldwide. Many of them are not strictly pharmaceutical
products but represent the novel class of dietary supplements of approx. 10,000 known species of
mushrooms, 2000 are safe and 300 have significant pharmacological properties (Hobbs, 1995, Miles
and Chang, 1997). Mushrooms are nutritional functional food and as a source of physiologically
valuable and nontoxic medicines. They have been informed to have major pharmacological effects
or physiological properties such as bio regulation, maintenance of homeostasis, regulation of
biorhythm, cure of various diseases, and avoidance and improvement of life threatening diseases
such as cancer, cerebral stroke and heart disease. They have been also demonstrated to have
effective ingredients for decreasing blood cholesterol, hypolipidemic, antithrombotic, hypotensive
and other applications. 2.2 OYSTER MUSHROOMS Mushrooms belonging to the

Importance Of Synthetic Biology : High-Technology...
High–tech Perishable Designs – Synthetic Biology
Our journey of moving from homogenous to heterogeneous, from bio–mimicry to synthetic biology,
of rationally engineer microorganisms dates back to 1990s. Synthetic biology–unlike chemistry–is
involved in the technical alteration of animate nature. Building on recent advances in genetic
science and technology, synthetic biology aims to understand the molecular fundamentals of the
metabolic and reproductive functions of simple single–cell organisms precisely. It thereby seeks to
enable us thoroughly to manipulate and rearrange existing organisms in a standardised manner, and
to equip them with characteristics that do not occur in nature.
This arranged marriage of organisms has however, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
With the growth of technology designers and bio–engineers have already started thinking about life–
sustaining wearable for interplanetary voyages. Students of MIT Media Lab have developed new
life forms for the new voyages. These life forms are Combination of two microfluids, cyanobacteria
that converts light into sugar and E. Coli which consumes that sugar and produces biofuels useful
for the built environment. For the first time, they are having relationship inside a photosynthetic
wearable, liquid channels glowing with life inside a wearable, breathing product – 'Mushtari –
Jupitor's Wonderer' along with . Followed by, Zuhal–Saturn's Wonderer, Otaared – Mercury's
Wonderer and Qamar – Luna's Wonderer. (figure )'Living matter within these structures will
ultimately transform oxygen for breathing, photons for seeing, biomass for eating, biofuels for
moving and calcium for building.' (MIT Media Lab, 2014) And this we can call mothering the
nature.
Let's now imagine if we can create personal microbiomes that would scan and repair damaged
tissue, consume nutrients and evacuate waste to sustain our bodies! Think of this as a form of edited
biology. Speculate about the future of our race in a new age of symbiosis between our bodies,
microbes, our products and even our living space. This is called material ecology that can be found
in nature and applied on by bioprinting.
However, blurring of the

Test For Sugars, Starches, Proteins, And Lipids
Purpose: The purpose of this lab was to test for sugars, starches, proteins, and lipids.
Background information:
Biological macromolecules are the large molecules necessary for life. There are four different types
of macromolecules which include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Each
macromolecule has a specific function like providing energy or simply insulation. Macromolecules
are made from monomers which come together through dehydration synthesis or hydrolysis to
create the polymer or macromolecule.
Carbohydrates are made from monosaccharides which are shaped like hexagons and come together
to make polysaccharides which provide quick energy, structural support for plants (cellulose in cell
walls) and are also found as chitin in the exoskeletons of arthropods. Lipids are made from glycerol
and three fatty acids and are found in two different forms–unsaturated and saturated. Lipids provide
long term energy storage, insulate and cushion, and prevent water loss. Proteins are made from
amino acids which come together forming a protein with peptide bonds. Proteins serve as hormones,
muscle, parts of the immune system, and enzymes but if they are the wrong shape, they can 't do
their job. Nucleic acids are made from nucleotides and serve as DNA and RNA which store genetic
info and transfer info to make new cells.
When conducting this experiment, certain safety precautions must be taken. Proper protective gear
must be worn including goggles and closed–toed

Extremophiles Research Paper
Extremophiles – R. pachyptila By Richard Wilmer
Extremophiles are organisms that are adapted to not only withstand but thrive in extreme conditions.
R. pachyptila or "giant tube worm" is a barophile found on the Pacific Ocean floor able to withstand
extremely high pressures. It can grow up to 2.4 metres and inhabits environments with a temperature
range of 2 to 30 degrees Celsius. It is one of many organisms that reside near hydrothermal vents,
specifically black smokers that produce high levels of hydrogen sulphide.
R. pachyptila inhabits the aphotic zone up to several miles below the surface where sunlight is non–
existent, so photosynthesis is not an option and most organisms are predators or feed on falling
organic matter. The pressure ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When combined with calcium carbonate chitin forms a strong composite, which contributes to the
ablility of R. pachyptila to withstand such high pressures. Chitin is found across crustaceans and
insects and is tough and pliable, providing protection while maintaining some flexibility. The
characteristic red plume of R. pachyptila can be just as much of a hinderance as it is an asset, being
an attractive target for predators. To remedy this, the plume can be retracted into the chitin tube
when predators draw near. Additionally, the lack of many predators due to the extreme conditions
often allows R. pachyptila to flourish in its ecological

A Family Of Transcription Factors
Introduction
1. The Grainyhead (Grh) gene family
Grainyhead (Grh) genes are conserved in metazoans. They encode a family of transcription factors
with a unique, unusually large, DNA–binding and dimerization domain, and an isoleucine–rich
activation domain(Attardi and Tjian, 1993; Gustavsson et al., 2008; Moussian and Uv, 2005; Ting et
al., 2003b; Uv et al., 1994; Venkatesan et al., 2003; Wilanowski et al., 2002). Grh factors were first
identified in Drosophila (Bray et al., 1989; Bray and Kafatos, 1991; Dynlacht et al., 1989; Johnson
et al., 1989) and since then, they were also found in animals as diverse as nematodes and humans.
Grh proteins have not yet been detected in unicellular organisms. Phylogenetic analysis subdivides
this gene family into two main classes, the Grh–like sub–family and the CP2 sub–family, depending
whether the family members are more related to the Drosophila grh, or to another Drosophila gene,
CP2 (Ting et al., 2003b; Venkatesan et al., 2003; Wilanowski et al., 2002). The fly and worm
genomes each contain a single grh gene. Mammals, both mice and humans, have evolved three Grh
homologues: Grh–like–1 (Grhl–1, or Mammalian Grainyhead (MGR)/TFCP2L2), Grhl–2 (Brother–
of–MGR (BOM)/TFCP2L3) and Grhl–3 (Sister–of–MGR (SOM)/ TFCP2L4). This group of genes
encodes proteins with highly homologous DNA–binding and dimerization domains. They all show
restricted expression pattern during embryogenesis and play important roles in organogenesis and
epidermal

Tardigrade Research Paper
What is a tardigrade, and how did it get the title of The World's Most Resistant Creature? It all
started in the year of 1773, scientist Johann August Ephraim Goeze discovered this micro–organism.
Johann Ephraim was a German zoologist; he did his work with aquatic invertebrates, particularly
insects, and worms, but in 1773 he described the tardigrade. He was the first person to describe the
tardigrade and named it Kleiner Wasserbär meaning "little water bear". The reason he named the
tardigrade this is because it has the same gait as a bear. In 1776, three years after the discovery of
the tardigrade, the phylum Tardigrada, or slow stepper, was named by Lazzaro Spallanzani. (Refer
to image one at the end) A tardigrade is a microorganism that has a barrel–shaped body with ...
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The tardigrade can survive a wide range of temperature: a few minutes at 151C, thirty years at –
20C, a few days at –200C, and a few minutes at –272C. They can survive the extremely low
pressure and very high pressures. Tardigrades can survive 1,200 atmospheric pressure, and some
species can survive a pressure of 6,000 atmospheres. They can also survive the vacuum of space.
The longest that tardigrades have survived in a dry state is nearly ten years, but there is a report of
leg movement in a 120–year–old tardigrade that was in dry moss. To prevent it from exploding from
its water content freezing it will drop its water content from 85% to only 3%. The tardigrade will
also drop its water content to provide fewer reactants for the radiation. The tardigrade can survive
1,000 times more radiation than any other animal. They can survive 5,000 Gy of gamma rays and
6,200 Gy of heavy ions. The eggs in a late stage of development can survive 4,000 Gy. To put in
perspective, five to ten Gy of gamma rays would be fatal to a fully grown human. This micro–
organism is one of the few species to have survived the five mass extinctions that Earth has

Examining The Super Molecular Assembly Of A Fumigatus Cell...
1) Examining the super–molecular assembly of A. fumigatus cell walls.
In anticipating for this proposed study, we have
produced 13C, 15N–uniformly labeled A. fumigatus (Af293 strain) and the isotope–enrichment
provides good sensitivity for structural characterization using multidimensional solid–state NMR
(Fig. 2A, B). We will measure a series of 2D and 3D correlation spectra, both through–bond and
through–space, on the fungus to assign NMR resonances and analyze cell wall composition. The
13C chemical shifts of protein and chitins are easily resolved from glucans due to differences in
their chemical structures. The glucan linkage, however, is highly diverse and difficult to distinguish
among different forms. We will thus systematically ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
2) Investigating the mobility and hydration of A. fumigatus cell molecules.
The delivery pathway and depth of insertion of inhibitors will be affected by the mechanistic
property and porosity of fungal cell walls, which can be examined by measuring the mobility and
hydration of biomolecules. Our preliminary 1D data have revealed a very distinct dynamical profile
for cell wall molecules for A. fumigatus (Fig. 3). The 1H–13C INEPT spectrum (Fig.3, top) showed
quite a few sharp resonances belonging to very mobile molecules, while the 1H–13C cross
polarization spectrum (Fig 3, bottom) contained only broad peaks from the rigid molecules,
including chitins. These results led us to hypothesize that chitin forms the rigid scaffold whereas
glucans form a relatively mobile matrix. We will also measure transverse and longitudinal relaxation
times, chemical shift anisotropy, and dipolar couplings with site–specific resolutions. The combined
measurements cover a wide range of motions happening from nanoseconds to milliseconds,
including both local reorientation and collective motion of multiple sugar rings. It is particularly
interesting to know whether dynamical heterogeneity is present for the same molecule. For example,
for β–1,3–glucan, some disordered chains could fill the interstitial space between chitin microfibrils
while other partially oriented chains can hydrogen bond to the chitin surface becoming partially
rigidified. If this scenario occurs, we will observe

Chi-Chon: Hybrid Breed Dog Varieties
Chi–Chi The Chi–Chi is a hybrid combination of two pure breed dog varieties. This hybrid is
derived from the Chinese Crested and the Chihuahua. This type of dog is generally small in build.
Its average height is typically about 11 or 12 inches tall, and its average weight is usually about
seven pounds. The Chi–Chi may be a combination of several hues, including cream, brown, or
black. The coat is generally smooth, and the dog's grooming needs will usually be minimal to
moderate. This dog is apt to be friendly and playful, and it can be an optimal choice for households
with children. However, it may not be an appropriate option for a person who requires a watchdog.
Chi–Chon The Chi–Chon is a hybrid variety of canine. It is a mix of two pure breeds: the Bison
Frise and the Chihuahua. This dog is derived from two small breeds, so it will almost certainly be a
small dog itself. Its average height should be about 10 or 11 inches tall, and its average weight is
typically between 10 and 11 pounds. This dog may have a coat in a color combination of various
hues, including black, brown, golden, and white. Its coat could be short or long, and it should not
require a great deal of grooming. The Chi–Chon is not apt to be a good watchdog, but it should be
an appropriate choice for people with children. Chigi ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is mix of two kinds of pure–breed dogs: the Pembroke Welsh Corgi and the Chihuahua. This dog
is apt to be small in build; its average height should be about 10 or 11 inches tall, and its average
weight will generally be between 10 and 15 pounds. Its coat may be one color or a combination of
colors. The coat could be medium, long, or short in length, and it may require moderate grooming.
The Chigi is playful and easy to train, and it is often a suitable choice for those who have children. It
may not be an optimal candidate for household watchdog since it does not generally bark when
strangers

Mantis Shrimp Research Paper
"They see something, walk up to it, pick it up, and maybe beat the crap out of it," says Justin
Marshall, referring to a commonly unknown creature called the Mantis Shrimp. This species often
goes overlooked and unnoticed by most of the world and not just because it only grows 2–7 inches
("Peacock Mantis Shrimp" 1). Since it is such an unknown animal, many people do not know what
it is or what makes it remarkable. How can the small mantis shrimp, a crustacean whose appearance
is more like that of a clown than a ferocious beast, be worth noting in the different fields of science?
They are more interesting than they seem. Mantis shrimp possess a vast array of fascinating physical
features that set them apart from other sea–dwelling animals: their clubs ... Show more content on
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This happens 50 times faster than the blink of an eye..." ("Peacock Mantis Shrimp's" 1). The specific
bow–like muscle system is what allows it to accelerate so fast. As a result of the extraordinary speed
the shrimp's appendages can reach, the energy released into the water causes it to cavitate or
vaporize the water when it hits the prey. Cavitation is a very destructive phenomenon; when the
bubbles from cavitation burst, they cause a small implosion like reaction that produces heat, light,
and sound. The cavitation bubbles act like a second impact to whatever animal the mantis shrimp is
targeting. If the first punches fail to immediately kill the prey, the cavitation bubbles would create
the implosion that would finish the job. The same type of cavitation bubbles that the shrimp can
create have been known to badly damage rotating boat propellers (Caldwell "Mechanics of
Movement" 1).With its speed, force, and effect on the water around it, mantis shrimp have very little
predators and can quickly annihilate whatever prey it sets its eyes

Pros And Cons Of Human Animal Chimera
A chimera is made of cells that are derived from two or more organisms. They can occur in nature.
For example, when two separate sperm fertilize two separate eggs and the embryos somehow fuse
together creating a single fetus with genetically distinguishable cells, tetragametic chimerism
occurs. Although, chimeras are more commonly man–made. One way to make a chimera is to
introduce the organs of one organism to another. In organ or tissue transplants, the host receives two
genetically distinct cells or tissues, creating a tissue chimera. The other method is introducing one
organism's cells to the embryo of another and letting them grow together into a hybrid. Scientists
have found a way to use this unique method to create a human–chimera. ... Show more content on
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A human–pig hybrid was successfully made with this method. Human–animal chimeras are useful
as they can help scientists understand human biology and the mechanisms of human diseases. In one
research, human embryonic stem cells, pluripotent cells, were introduced to the brains of embryonic
mice. The experiment showed that the human cells formed many different and functional neural cell
types and continued to develop into mature and active human neurons within the mouse's brain.
These type of chimeras allow the ideal live environment in which to study human neural
development. Furthermore, these types of chimeras could aid in developing new models of
neurodegenerative and psychiatric diseases possibly speed up drug screenings. In another
experiment, human hematopoietic stem cells, blood–forming stem cells, were transplanted in sheep
fetuses. These stem cells then formed the components of blood and the immune system and formed
cells such as bone and muscle. The researchers also found that the hematopoietic stem cells were
capable of forming functional human liver cells. Models such as these have the possibility of
making many human liver cells to treat genetic diseases in fetuses or newborns where the liver cells
are

The Four Types Of Organic Molecules
An organic molecule is a molecule that must have Carbon and Hydrogen. They are important
because they act as a backbone for all living matter. Without Carbon and Hydrogen, life would not
exist. A monomer is one subunit or building block of a larger molecule. The four types of organic
molecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Carbohydrates have two functions which is, provides short term energy and structure in some
organisms. They have an atomic makeup of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen, with a 2:1 ratio of
Hydrogen to Oxygen. The monomer is a monosaccharide which contains a single sugar. A couple
examples of this would be glucose, fructose, and deoxyribose which is found in DNA. Yet, foods
with this monomer in it would be mostly fruits, candy, and soda. Carbohydrates also have a
polysaccharide which is a polymer made of many monosaccharides strung together. Some examples
of these are starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin. A starch is storage from glucose in
plants(potatoes, pasta, waffles, and toast). Glycogen is storage from glucose in animals. Cellous is
structure in plants (cell wall). Chitin is structure in animals (exoskeleton). Proteins have two main
functions as well, but which is, build a cell or body structure and control all cell and body functions.
Examples of cell or body structure is hair, muscle, bone, tendons, and skin. Examples of proteins
controlling cell and body functions are motion, support, metabolism, transport, defence, and

Permo-Triassic Mass Extinction Essay
The Permo–Triassic mass extinction: what died out
LIFE IN THE SEA
Fusulinid foraminifera disappeared completely, although other foram groups suffered much lower
levels of extinction. Palaeozoic corals (Rugosa and Tabulata) also vanished. Stenolaemate bryozoans
and articulate brachiopods suffered near–complete extinction. The extant echinoderm groups all
experienced severe bottlenecks at this time: only two lineages of crinoids and echinoids made it into
the Mesozoic. Several echinoderm groups (e.g. Blastoidea) suffered complete extinction.
Fusilinid foraminifera (right) were unicellular animals, ranging in size from 0.1–8mm. Benthonic or
planktonic forms with a considerable disparity in morphology. Peaked in the Early Carboniferous,
already in prolonged decline throughout Permian, and the final 10% died out during the PTME.
The non–fusilinid foraminifera (far right) included five suborders. The different suborders were
affected differently by the extinction: the Allogromiina are poorly known, the Textulariina lost a
third of genera; Miololina lost half of the genera; Lagenina and Involutina showed dramatic increase
in post extinction radiation. Sponges (Porifera), the basal animal group (left), composed of an
internal skeleton of spicules of calcite or silica, and forming reefs. There were ... Show more content
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They were filled with gas or light fluid and could adjust their buoyancy. They include three orders:
theGoniatitida were the bulk of Permian ammonoids, but were in decline through the Permian, and
all but one died out at the PTME; the Prolecanitida were a small order which was declining
throughout Permian, and only just survived across the P–T boundary, before dying out completely in
the early Triassic; and the Ceratitida diversified in the Permian, before being decimated by the
extinction event, and then reappearing in the Early Triassic, and radiating to become the dominant
Triassic

Rheumatoid Arthritis Research
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease (McInnes & Schett, 2011; Smolen & Steiner,
2003; O'Dell, 2004) wherein the immune response of the body is aberrant, tagging the healthy cells
of the body as non–self or foreign which therefore leads the body to attack and eliminate its own
tissues. RA affects the synovial joints and is characterized by joint inflammation and the tissues
surrounding it (Curtis, Gaffo, & Saag, 2006). Moreover, around millions of the Earth's population
are diagnosed with rheumatoid arthritis (Bingham & Ruffing, 2016). Patients detected to have this
disease experience pain, stiffness or swelling in their joints (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, nd; Drane, Berry, Bieri, McFarlane, & Brooks, 1997; Bellamy, ... Show more content on
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In this study, crab shell wastes will be used as source of the treatment since they are readily
available and abundant (Kim & Park, 2015; Das & Ganesh, 2009). Furthermore, crab shells also
contain useful chemicals that may be used for pharmaceuticals (Chen & Yan, 2015). In addition,
they contain high contents of chitin which is ideal as a source (Kim & Park, 2015; Das & Ganesh,
2009). Chitin is a nitrogen–containing structural polysaccharide present in the cell wall of fungi and
exoskeleton of crustaceans, insects and other arthropods. The exoskeleton serves are protection and
structural support for the arthropods (Pechenik, 2009). Furthermore, in crustaceans, the chitinous
substances is added with calcium carbonate for added protection (Berg, Martin, & Solomon, 2006).
Chitin has several derivatives and one of them is chitosan. Chitosan is obtained through
deacetylation of chitin under alkaline conditions the acetyl group present in chitin is removed and
thus the substance is converted into chitosan (Rinaudo & Younes, 2015). Chitosan is a copolymer
composed of N– acetyl glucosamine and glucosamine and possesses various properties such as
antimicrobial activity, biocompatibility and biodegradability (Teli

Whiteleg Shrimp: A Case Study
This chapter discusses the methodology that will be used to identify the hypoglycemic effect of
chitosan from the whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) on Fructose–fed Streptozotocin Induced
Sprague–Dawley Rats. Research Methodology The experimental method of research will be used in
this study. The chitosan will be obtained from the chitin that will be extracted from the waste (head
and shell) of the whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei). Tests will be performed to identify and
confirm the presence of chitosan and will be subjected to physical tests, chemical tests and
instrumental method through the use of FTIR, and Scanning Electron Micrograph for further
identification. Biological testing will be conducted to identify its potential hypoglycemic ... Show
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Sample Preparation: Shrimp wastes (head and shell) of Litopenaeus vannamei or Whiteleg Shrimp
will be obtained from Farmer's PublicMarket Cubao. The shrimp wastes will be washed, air dried
and refrigerated overnight. This will be oven dried for four consecutive days at 65ºC. 1.3. Extraction
of Chitosan: 1.3.1. Deproteinization: Shrimp shell waste will be treated with 4% NaOH at room
temperature for 24 hours. The alkali will be drained from the shells and washed with distilled water
repeatedly till pH dropped to neutral. 1.3.2. Demineralization: The deproteinized shells will be
treated with 4% HCl at room temperature for 12 hours for demineralization to yield chitin. The acid
will be drained off from chitin, washed with distilled water and finally dried at room temperature.
The process will be repeated with 2% NaOH and 1%HCl. The chitin that will be obtained will still
have a slight pink hue. Further decolorization will be achieved by soaking chitin in 1% potassium
permanganate for 30 mins followed by 1% oxalic acid for 30 mins to 2 hours. 1.3.4. Deacetylation:
The decolorized chitin will be deacetylated to form chitosan by treating with 65% NaOH for 3 days
at room temperature. Alkali will be drained off and washed repeatedly with distilled water until pH
is lowered. Chitosan will further be dried at room temperature

Examples Of Homecoming Of Humans : Bio-Mimicry
Homecoming of Humans: Bio–mimicry Nature is man's teacher. She unfolds her treasure to his
search, unseals his eye, illumes his mind, and purifies his heart; an influence breathes from all the
sights and sounds of her existence. (Alfred Billings Street) One of the latest apprentice for creativity
and innovation is Bio–mimicry (1982) It comes from the Greek bios – life, and mimesis – imitation.
Inspired by flora and fauna bio–mimetic designers and engineers have created astonishing products.
Few of the examples are, Cephalopod Camouflage, Kingfisher inspired Bullet Train, Sunflower
inspired Heliotrope, Humpback Whales inspired wind Turbines. (figure1&2) Automobile
manufacturers have inspected analogues algorithms in their quest for securer vehicles. After the
years of long research, in 2009 Nissan unveiled its Eporo robot car concept, based on the schooling
behaviour of fish. (Nissan Motor Corporation, 2009) Bio–mimicry stretches its horizon to
architecture as well. Erin Rovalo from Biomimicry 3.8 says, "The natural world and ecological
system are maybe the best picture for what a sustainable world looks and performs like, and if our
built environment can function like these ecosystems, maybe that's the pinnacle of what sustainable
design can be." (Poon, 2016) Guided by the same fundamentals and inspired by the structure of
termite mounds, 'The East Gate Building', an office complex in Zimbabwe has an internal climate
control system. In the

Summary Of Death Of A Moth By Dillard
Dillard uses a fragment to show her reluctance as she accepts that they will not understand what
really is given up. This fragment makes a striking contrast with the previous sentences in the
classroom scene which consists of continuous questions and run–on questions. Without stating it,
Dillard shows that she has given up and will continue to feel as if she is still alone in her situation.
With the constant grammatically incorrect sentences Dillard writes in, she ultimately creates a
unique voice that results in a more personal essay for the reader to connect to. Dillard makes striking
choices of diction to craft a stronger argument in "Death of a Moth." One of her significant choices
is her use of anatomical vocabulary that the reader would

Tracheaes Research Paper
Insects transport gases throughout their bodies through a system of branching tubes called tracheae
which then branch off into tiny fluid lined tubes called tracheoles. Gases, oxygen and carbon
dioxide, enter and exit the tracheae through paired openings called spiracles. These spiracles have
filtering devices such as fine hairs, which prevent tiny particles from clogging the gas exchange
system. Spiracles also consist of valves that control the degree to which the spiracles are open.
The gases pass through the tracheae and the tracheoles, which are permeable to both fluid and
respiratory gases. These respiratory gases dissolve into this fluid and then diffuse inwards and
outwards of the respiring tissues down their concentration gradient. ... Show more content on
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Generally, fish are ectothermic and have a streamlined body to swim rapidly. Fish usually consist of
scales that surround their body, one or two dorsal fins, a tail fin and an anal fin, two sets of paired
fins and jaws. Many different kinds of fish live in a freshwater, aquatic habitat such as lakes, rivers
and the ocean. The water that fish live in has a low concentration of oxygen and is more viscous
than air. The amount of dissolved oxygen in a volume of water is much less than in the same volume
of air. Air is 21% oxygen but in water, dissolved oxygen is about 1% by volume. Considering this,
fish must have an efficient gas exchange membrane to live. (discuss this

Vibrio Ficheri Symbiont Relationship
The bacteria Vibrio fischeri are found in most marine environments but only in levels almost non–
detectable. However the interest with these marine bacteria did not come from the free–living low
abundant ocean population, but from the unique relationship it has with the Hawaiian bobtail squid
(Eurrymna scolopes). Bioluminescent strains of the V. Fischeri form symbiotic relationships with
these marine squids. The association between these two species has interested scientists for over 25
years related to the understanding of host–symbiont relationships, bioluminescence and quorum
sensing (Ruby 2008). V. Fischeri is also used as a model species, which is the extensive study of a
species that provides insight into the mechanisms of other species ... Show more content on
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fischeri is extremely important within the specialized niche of the occupants of the E. scolopes squid
light organs, not only so they allow for the anti–predation mechanisms to be utilized by the squid
but also the well studied relationship that plays an important role in the health of their hosts. This
can lead to a greater understanding not only to marine based bacteria in marine organism but also in
a more general sense of host health and disease. By studying different model species (such as this
one) it is not only possible to learn the processes that govern these relationships but also allows
comparative studies between systems (Dunn 2012). Leading to a greater overall understanding of
microbes and host organism in all areas of

Disadvantages Of Chitone
Abstract
Biomaterials have been successfully developed and applied in biomedical devices. Natural polymers
are readily accepted by the body and possess high bioactivity and biocompatibility. Chitosan, a
copolymer of glucosamine and N–acetyl glucosamine, and is among the most abundant biopolymers
on earth and has been used in a wide range of biomedical applications. Chitosan a polycationic
polymer comprise of different functional groups that can be modified with a wide range of ligands.
The unique physicochemical properties offer chitosan great potential in a range of biomedical
applications such as tissue engineering, drug delivery vehicles, and enzyme immobilization for
biosensing. This chapter focuses on the fundamental uses of chitosan in ... Show more content on
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Unlike plant fibres, chitosan possesses positive ionic charges which give it the ability to chemically
bind with negative charge fats, lipids, proteins, cholesterol, macromolecules and metal ions 26. In
view of this, chitosan have increasing commercial interest as suitable resource materials due to their
excellent properties including biocompatibility, biodegradability, adsorption, and ability to form
films and to chelate metal ions 27. Chitosan and simple aldehydes produce N–alkyl chitosan upon
hydrogenation. The presence of the more or less bulky substituents weakens the hydrogen bonds of
the chitosan. Therefore, N–alkyl chitosan swell in water inspite of the hydrophobicity of alkyl
chains. The N–alkyl chitosan retain the film forming property of chitosan 27. The presence of the
amino groups at the C–2 positions in chitosan makes it more versatile in comparison to chitin.
Below are some chemical and biological properties28 of chitosan. The presence of certain
functionalities like –OH and –NH2 groups in the chitosan molecules provides a basis for interaction
with other polymers and biological

Genetic Makeup In Carnivorous Plants
Rae'shawn Bart
November,06 2017
What about the Genetic makeup and DNA of a carnivorous plants different from other plants.
What makes a carnivorous plant different for starters, for those who don't know what a carnivorous
plant is, it's a plant that instead of getting nutrients from the soil and absorbing nutrients from water
it gets its nutrients from eating things. An example of this would be the Venus fly trap, instead of
getting nutrients from the ground it eats fly's and other insects to get the nutrients it need, but the
real question is what about their genetic makeup makes them different from regular plants. Here is
one of the ways it's different from regular plants.
Firstly, what makes them different is their genes and example of this would be the pitcher plant.
Unlike the Venus fly trap, the pitcher plant has insects go inside it and they get stuck in the liquid it
produces. This plant has two different kind of leaves the first one being the normal leaves which
regular plants use, but the leave that is different is what forms the pitcher like shape of the pitcher
plant which performs the catching reactions. Researcher's sequenced the plants DNA and looked at
the gene reaction between both leaf's (Boyce Greenfield)" What they found is that certain genes are
only on the pitcher leaf, or preferentially in the pitcher leaf, and that some of these very likely have
to do with the trap development,". So, over the course of time these carnivorous plants seemed

Cunninghamella Elegans
C. Resistance of Cunnighamella elegans to different concentrations of studied metals:–
In the present work, low concentrations of manganese could stimulate the Cunninghamella elegans
growth. Interestingly, increase the manganese concentration to 30 ppm was optimum for the fungus
to give the highest growth rate and the best sporulation comparing with control and other manganese
concentrations (Fig. 35). Increasing the manganese concentration to 50 ppm recorded the same
growth as control and then this rate suddenly decreased with 100 ppm manganese. The fungus
completely killed with 300 ppm manganese and above (Table 33, Fig. 34). There is no appreciable
difference in growth of Cunninghamella elegans with increasing concentration (1 ppm–100 ppm) of
copper and markedly decreased with increasing metal concentration (300 ppm–1000 ppm). Souza et
al., (2005), revealed the physiological aspects of the growth of C. elegans in the presence of copper,
whereas C. elegans is able to grow in copper containing medium and that the metal has a stimulatory
effect on biomass production. Therefore, the fungal growth in control media was slower than in the
presence of copper. In the present study, we confirmed the previous results but with a limited
amount of copper in the culture media (1 ppm– 50 ppm) while the growth inhibited with high
concentrations (100 ppm to 1000 ppm) and going slower than control. Luciana et al., (2004) stated
that chitosan was the polysaccharides with the best capacity for copper biosorption (75 %). ... Show
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39). This fungus adapted well with all zinc concentrations, despite that the growth less than control
but this rate was almost stable in different zinc concentrations (Table 35, Fig. 39). The fungus
sporulation increased gradually with increasing zinc concentrations in the culture media and higher
than that of control culture (Figs. 40,

Special Studies On Food Science And Technology
FOOD 7024
Special Studies in Food Science and Technology
Assignment 2
Chitin – occurrence, chemistry, extractions, properties and uses
Name: Vihang Rangrej
Student number: 43620348
Due date: 4th October 2016
Word count: 1. Introduction
In the race to develop alternatives in the recent era, chitin and derivatives has showed an immense
potential of being used as an alternate polysaccharide source and as a biopolymer in various sectors
spanned from medical and food processing to waste management. Chitin gets its name from the
Greek word, 'Chiton', the meaning of which is a coat of mail. It first surfaced in 1811, used by
Bradconnot (Shahidi et al. 1999). It is reported to be a biopolymer that is 2nd widely available on
the face of earth after cellulose (Shahidi et al. 1999; Fernando et al. 2016), chemically, chits is a
poly ( β– (14)–N–acetyl–D–glucosamine), that first came into existence in 1884 (Rinaudo 2006).
In nature, chitin occurs in an ordered crystalline microfibrils which is a form of structural
component found within the exoskeleton of arthropods or within the cell walls of microbes such as
fungi and yeast (Rinaudo 2006). Although these are the main sources of chitin, there are several
other plants and animal within the lower kingdoms which consists chitin that requires it for strength
and reinforcement (Rinaudo 2006). However, the main sources of chitin and its derivatives such a
chitosan, until now have been crabs and shrimp shells available as a

Medicinal Effects Of Mushrooms And Their Metabolites Essay
Mushrooms were known and consumed as food in ceremonies as far back as prehistoric times.
Throughout the history, mushrooms were used in different cultures for their medicinal and tonic
properties (Gunde–Cimerman, 1999). The longest tradition of using edible mushrooms for
medicinal purposes is in China. Mushrooms represent a major and as yet largely untapped source of
powerful new pharmaceutical products. The most significant medicinal effect of mushrooms and
their metabolites that attracted the attention of the public in the recent years is their antitumour
property. Many pharmaceutical substances with potent and unique properties were isolated from
mushrooms and distributed worldwide. Many of them are not strictly pharmaceutical products but
represent the novel class of dietary supplements of approximately 10,000 known species of
mushrooms, 2000 are safe and 300 have significant pharmacological properties (Hobbs, 1995, Miles
and Chang, 1997). Mushrooms are nutritional functional food and as a source of physiologically
beneficial and nontoxic medicines. They have been reported to have significant pharmacological
effects or physiological properties such as bio regulation, maintenance of homeostasis, regulation of
biorhythm, cure of various diseases, and prevention and improvement of life threatening diseases
such as cancer, cerebral stroke and heart disease. They have been also demonstrated to have
effective substances for decreasing blood cholesterol, hypolipidemic,

Black Soldier Fly Research Paper
The black solider fly is indigenous to the southern United States and is now distributed to warm
temperate regions (Diener et al., 2009). Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) have been used in backyard
and farm composting systems for decades, mainly to treat animal manures (Tomberlin, 2001; Oliver,
2008). However, due to several unique characteristics, BSFL have been investigated in a variety of
beneficial applications. The life cycle of the BSFL is divided into four phases with an average
lifespan of 36 days depending on the environmental conditions (i.e. temperature, moisture, and air
supply) (Fig.1). (Tomberlin et al., 2002). Mature flies have no functioning mouth–parts and are not
associated with transmission of diseases or considered pests ... Show more content on
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Like energy crops, BSFL have not been previously digested and thus may offer higher bio–methane
potential than manures or biowastes. However, unlike energy crops, BSFL would not compete with
food crops in agricultural land usage, and pose the associated environmental issues such as soil
erosion and pesticide leakage to surface and ground water (EEA, 2006). Furthermore, BSFL have a
high per–acre productivity, fast growth rate, and can be grown on non–arable land areas similar to
algae. However, harvesting and valorization of algae biomass require significant water use and high
capital and operation costs, which make it economically challenging (Mussgnug et al., 2010).
Therefore, the objective of the current research is to investigate the potential of BSFL as a feedstock
for anaerobic digestion, including integration of anaerobic digestion into different BSFL biorefinery
options. Specifically, we investigated the following pathways: (1) Anaerobic digestion of food waste
(2) Anaerobic digestion of BSFL fed on food waste along with residual food waste; (3) BSFL fed on
food waste used to produce biodiesel and digestion of the residual lipid extracted BSFL combined
with residual food waste. Data are also reported on the bio–methane of BSF cuticle and adult black
soldier flies, and characterization data is provided on all

Cholera Is An Infectious Bacterial Disease Of The Small...
Cholera is an infectious bacterial disease of the small intestine. This bacterium has spread through
the world covering about 50 countries that came about through 7 pandemics. This disease is a
worldwide public health concern affecting 3–5 million people each year, killing 120,000. Before, it
was thought that cholera spread through a sort of fog known as a miasma however now we know the
whole mechanism for the cholera toxin. It was discovered that cholera is transmitted through fecal–
oral transmission and is thus a waterborne bacterium. Although a very deadly and disturbing disease,
even without medical education, this disease can be managed and usually even treated.
Before science was as far advanced as it is today, people were unsure how cholera was spread or
transmitted from person to person. The Europeans and Americans believed it was spread through a
miasma (like dirty fog) and got breathed in. Many people also believed it was brought from various
immigrant populations or was a disease of the poor. John Snow at the time was one of the few
people skeptic of the popular belief that cholera was spread through Miasma. He was a believer
instead in a theory put forth by Girolamo Fracastoro known as the germ theory. The germ theory of
disease states that some diseases are caused by microorganisms and that reproduction within their
hosts can cause a disease. It wasn't until the work performed by Louis Pasteur came about to
validate the germ theory of disease and disprove

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Deacetylases
Apart from the advantages of Chemical Deacetylation it also have disadvantages such as Energy
Consumption, Waste of concentrated alkaline solution which results in increase of environmental
pollution, broad and heterogeneous range of soluble and insoluble products.
An alternative enzymatic method has been discovered to overcome the limitation of preparation of
chitosan by discovering chitin deacetylases . For production of novel, well–defined chitosan we
have found the use of chitin deacetylases for the conversion of chitin to chitosan, which is in
contrast to the currently used chemical procedure, offers the possibility of a controlled, non–
degradable process . This method is specially used to prepare chitosan oligomers For production of
chitosan we use ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, chitosan solution must be free of aggregates, and hence the solvent for chitosan must be
chosen carefully. The viscometric average molecular weight is usually been calculated from intrinsic
viscosity because of the lower impact of small fractions of aggregates, using the Mark–Houwink
relationship. In order to determine K and a parameters, an absolute MW has to be calculated using
light scattering technique and due to high sensitivity to aggregate formation the obtained value is
usually overestimated. These artifacts may be carried out for instance by the use of 0.3M acetic
acid/0.2M sodium acetate (pH = 4.5) solvent which does not form aggregates in this mixture. Under
these conditions, the absolute M values were obtained from steric exclusion chromatography (SEC)
equipped with viscometer and light scattering detector on line allowing to determine the Mark–
Houwink parameters without fractionation and also to obtain the relation between the radius of
gyration (G) and the molecular weight(MW). The K (mL/g) and a parameters at 25 °C are 7.9 ×
10−2 and 0.796

Three Taxonomic GroupsGas Exchange, Insects, Fish, And...
gas exchange is the movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases across the membrane by
diffusion. These can be found within the three taxonomic groups – insects, fish and mammals. Each
of these taxonomic groups all have different gas exchanges and adaptations to enable them to
continue their way of life. In this report, I will discuss the three taxonomic groups' gas exchanges,
and adaptations to carry this out.
insects
The first taxonomic group is an insect. internal gas exchange systems connect individual cells, and
tissues with the air outside, due to a system of branching tubes named trachea. insects contain air
tubes, named trachea and tracheoles throughout their body. These tubes are held in shape by rings of
chitin. Insects don't have a circulatory system as such, so the tracheoles are to reach each individual
cell in the body, as they're relying on diffusion to take place to take in oxygen. At each end of the
tracheole, a small amount of liquid is placed, allowing gasses to dissolve, and then diffuse into each
of the cells. The tracheal system is efficient in maintaining a high metabolic rate. The places in
which the tubes leave the body, are called spiracles. Spiracles have the ability to open and close, to
control the water loss. When in need of lots of oxygen, or if the environment is moist, the spiracles
begin to open. When they close or are slightly open, they're not in need of oxygen, or the
environment is dry. Insects also 'ventilate' their gas exchange

Effects of sodium chloride on Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis

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