Cause And Effect Of Plant Disease

Cause And Effect Of Plant Disease
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
________________________________________
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Every gardener and farmer plants with hopes for wonderful flowers, fruits or vegetables, but due to
disease causing organism plants get sick and dies hence their hopes also dies. The study of plant
disease is very important as they cause loss to the crops, which affects the cultivation and produce.
The disease causing factors are biotic (living), abiotic (non–living) or the combination of two. But
this survey paper focuses on living agents i.e., biotic factors.
There are many living creatures which damages the vegetation and they are fungi, bacteria, viruses,
nematodes and parasitic flowers. Some of the plant disease brought about very serious influences of
the society. A fungal sickness phytopthora overdue blight that purpose the iris potato famine, which
made 2 million people both starved or left their land. The devastation of French wine enterprise by
way of the fungal disorder powdery mold and downy mold till the prevention Bordeaux mixture
found to govern the disorder the fungal disorder chestnut blight could be very dangerous and
remains as a hassle in the United States. It infects and kills the elm trees.
In the United States, fungal disease was accidentally introduced into New York City in the late
1800s on imported Chinese chestnut. Chinese trees were resistant to fire blight, but American
chestnut trees were not. In less than 40 years, 30
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The Effect Of Electronic Cigarettes
Electronic cigarettes, commonly known as e–cigarettes, deliver nicotine without the tar and smoke
of traditional tobacco cigarettes. About one in six current cigarette smokers (15.9%) and nearly one
in four recent former cigarette smokers (22.0%) currently used e–cigarettes (2014, Charlotte). E–
cigarettes have been on the market for less than 10 years, at this time; products' ingredients and
effects are limited. We will be using C. elegans, which are microscopic nematodes; their genome is
100 million base pairs in length and contains a similar number of genes as humans about 20,500
genes (2016, Murray & Coulson). In this experiment we will attempt to observe the effect of e–
cigarette liquid on C. elegans' metabolism and lifespan. To test

C. Elegans Essay
The first introduction of Caenorhabditis elegans (C.elegans) was in the early 1960s, by Sydney
Brenner who used it as a model system to explore the genetics dissections of development,
neurobiology and behaviour; he won the Nobel Prize in 2002 for his work on C.elegans. The
C.elegans model specialises in having a short life span, retaining a low maintenance cost and its
ability to grow the organism in a large population, and a small concern for animal rights issues. Each
of these features is a key part to the power of C.elegans being used as a tool for understanding the
functional genomics of diseases.
C.elegans is clearly a very adaptable organism that has clear efficacy for investigations of the
neurobiology of disease. C.elegans is a small (1mm), free–living, non–parasitic soil nematode,
which can be safely used in the laboratory and is common around the world. The ease of
manipulation and observation of the small, transparent nematode allows it to be cheaply cultivated
in large numbers in the laboratory. C.elegans feeds on bacteria such ... Show more content on
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Studies of neurodegenerative disease in understanding the biology of neurons in vivo by studying
C.elegans have the greatest strength. Phenotypic abnormalities in nematodes are shown when a
mutation, that causes the disease, takes place. This helps assist studies of human diseases in this
organism. (Wolozin et al., 2011) The physiology and pathophysiology of dopaminergic neurons can
be monitored in vivo; by selective expression of green fluorescent protein driven by the dopamine
transporter promoter. C.elegans genomes have about 42% of the human disease genes, including
Parkinson's disease. Studies on the nematode models helped highlight discoveries that may be useful
on the molecular mechanisms underlying disease pathogenesis. (Markaki and Tavernarakis,

C. Elegan Research Paper
Introduction
C.Elegans are roundworms or threadworms that are 1mm in length and found living within soil
around many parts of the world, these C. Elegans thrive on rotting vegetation where it can survive,
feeding on microbes such as bacteria, these C. Elegans are non–infectious, non–pathogenic and
non–hazardous. They are of a long cylindrical shape that looks rather tapered at each end. These
worms are found in both aquatic and terrestrial free living environment's.
C.Elegans also known as Caenorhabditis Elegans are a nematode which is a member of a phylum
nematode family. Majority of these nematodes are males the rest are known as hermaphrodites,
which are a species of having both sexes to be able to keep up the reproduction at a good balance. ...
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Elegans mutations are found to be well maintained within the ISS Insulin/IGF–1 pathway that can
have a lead on a longer lifespan extension and this can help with age related diseases along with the
improvement of health in later life, This is very important in the understanding of these age related
neurodegenerative diseases because it will help with understanding of how people/patients could
then go on to being helped with these diseases as well as along with tumour formations patients,
These functions are looked at closely by the FoxO transcription factor known as DAF–16 using
microarrays, bioinformatics predictions as well as SAGE ( serial analysis of gene expression) and
DAF–16 is located downstream from the ISS Kinase cascade. Looking at how the DAF–16 target
gene along with testing its functions has been a long process of over 10 years in the ageing

Essay On Nematicidal Effects Of Plant Extracts
The nematicidal effect of aqueous extracts of plant viz., P. hysterophorus, C. citrates, E. crassipes,
M. deliciosa and T. cardifolia showed in Table (3) against the juvenile penetration in the roots of
brinjal seedlings. The minimum penetration of second stage juvenile of M. incognita observed by P.
hysterophorus 38, 33, 29 followed by C. citrates 43, 40, 36, E. crassipes 46, 43, 38 and M. deliciosa
49, 47, 42 after 3 days at the doses of 5g, 10g and 15g. While maximum penetration of second stage
juvenile showed by T. cardifolia 53, 49, 44 at the same dose. Higher doses of all five plants viz., P.
hysterophorus, C. citratus, E. crassipes, M. deliciosa and T. cardifolia were preventing the
penetration of second stage juvenile in the roots ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Growing social awareness of the health and ecological concerns of some chemical pesticides has
stimulated a search for alternative methods of pest control [27]. [21]who found that leaf extracts of
Crotalaria virgulata subsp. grantina had a nemostatic effect on the J2 of M. incognita.
Several examples of naturally occurring compounds which suppressive Meloidogyne spp. have been
identified. These include a glycoside (asparagusic acid) isolated from Asparagus officinalis [12] and
two novel nematicidal compounds namely, nonacosane–10–ol and 23a–homostigmast–5–en–3b–ol
recently isolated from the roots of Fumaria parviflora Lam.[30]. The potential use of organic
amendments, plants extract and bio fertilizers is gaining considerable attention because of being
safe, cheap and ecofriendly[6,7,18,35]. The bioactivity of A. Mexicana and A. aspera against
nematodes may be attributed to the presence of the alkaloids in its leaves [26]. During the last
decade, research on nematode control was focused on proposing strategies for inhibition of egg
hatch [36], enhanced juvenile mortality [13]. The bioactivity of Peganum harmala against
nematodes may be attributed to the presence of the alkaloids in its leaves including β–carboline,
harmine, harmaline, harmalol, harman and quinazolines as vascine and vasicinone [26]. Some pairs
of terpenes have synergistic impact on M. incognita which cause paralysis and those pairs are trans–
anethole/geraniol,

Using Resistant Soybean Cultivar And Crop Rotation
Soybean cyst management tactics include different method from place to place, but all have the
common method of using resistant soybean cultivar and crop rotation and these are found to be more
effective than others.(Niblack et al., 2003, Schmitt et al., 2004). Lotus japonicus is one of the
important model leguminous plant to study the interaction and compatibility of plant parasitic
nematode to cause infection (Lohar & Bird, 2003). There are large number of resistant soybean
cultivar to SCN and most of the resistance is derived from the PI88788 and other PI548402 and
PI437654 and grower are also encouraged to do crop rotation along with the use of these cultivar
because of continues planting of the same variety supports the pathogen to changing the race for
overcoming the resistance (Niblack, 2005, Tylka & Mullaney, 2002). Only occasional planting of
SCN resistant without any rotation allow to reproduce aggressively in resistant line because of
selection pressure allowing changing the race to overcome resistance (Young, 1998, Young &
Hartwig, 1988, Young, 1984) Annual ryegrass, Lolium multiflorum residue is found to be effective
to reduce the H. glycines population by increasing the hatching of eggs of nematode in the absence
of host and depletion of lipid reserved in juvenile and decreases the parasitism of the pathogen.
(Riga et al., 2001, Mock et al., 2009) Rotation between resistant soybean and corn annually caused
the lower in SCN population along with higher

Prevalence, Pathology And Associated Risk Factors For...
Prevalence, pathology and associated risk factors for Dictyocaulus filaria infection among
slaughtered sheep.
Introduction
Sheep are an important part of the global agricultural economy. Domestic sheep provide a wide
array of raw materials. Wool is one of the first textiles although in the late 20th century wool prices
began to fall as the result of the popularity and cheap prices for synthetic fabrics . Sheep meat and
milk are the earliest staple proteins consumed by human civilization after the transition from hunting
and gathering to agriculture. Byproducts from the slaughter of sheep are also of value; sheep tallow
can be used in candle and soap making while, sheep bone and cartilage has been used to furnish
carved items such as dice and buttons .
Parasitic nematodes cause diseases of major economic importance in sheep .The lungworm ,
Dictyocaulus filaria , represents one of these nematodes inhabits bronchi and bronchioles and cause
parasitic bronchitis (commonly known as 'husk) particularly in young sheep ( Holzhauer et al.,
2011). Dictyocaulus filaria has direct life cycle, embryonated eggs are coughed up or swallowed and
hatch in the small intestine then first–stage larvae are passed in faeces. Under favorable
environmental conditions, first–stage larvae moult to second–stage larvae and then infective en–
sheathed third–stage larvae that actively move from faeces to herbage and are ingested by the
grazing sheep. Following ingestion, third–stage larvae ex–sheath in

Yeast Strain
Methods
Strains and media.
C. elegans was maintained on Escherichia coli OP50 as described.25 C.elegans strains used in this
study were wild–type N2, mir–252(n4570), and lys–8 mutant (n?). C. albicans strains used in this
study was SC5314 (clinical isolate), a strain that is virulent toward C. elegans, 26. All the used
mutants were backcrossed to N2 for at least five times. Double mutant strains without additional
marker mutations were constructed using standard genetic methods and verified by
complementation testing. At least five independent lines were examined for each rescue experiment.
Unless otherwise specified, C. albicans SC5314 was used as the wild–type strain. Yeast strains were
grown in liquid yeast extract–peptone–dextrose (YPD) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
albicans SC5314 were picked from a single colony and used to inoculate 1 mL of YPD broth, which
was allowed to grow overnight with agitation at 30°C, 10 ul of which was then put on BHI agar
plates with kanamycin (45 mg/mL) and incubated overnight at 30°C. Gravid nematodes maintained
on nematode growth medium (NGM) plates seeded with Escherichia coli OP50 at 20 °C were
collected by washing and lysed with a bleaching mixture (0.45 mol L−1 NaOH, 2% HOCl). Age
synchronous populations of L1–larvae were obtained as described previously.23 Arrested L1s were
plated on 10 cm nematode growth medium (NGM) plates seeded with E. coli OP50 and grown at
20°C until they were young adults. Nematodes were added to 10 cm plates containing 20 mL of BHI
agar with 45 mg of kanamycin/mL and live C. albicans or heat–killed C. albicans. Candida cells (50
μL) were added to the plates together with 200 μL of PBS to facilitate even dispersion of the
microbes. Three separate replicates of nematodes were exposed to these conditions for 4 h at 25°C.
After being washed with sterile M9 buffer, nematodes were lysed to extract small RNA for
RNAomics assay. Small RNAs were extracted according to the manufacturer's instructions from the
mirVanaTM miRNA isolation kit (Ambion) and converted into a double–stranded cDNA library
followed by the adaptor ligation. Quality of double–stranded cDNA library compatible with the
Applied Biosystems SOLiDTM system for the next–generation high–throughput

Management Of Soybean Cyst System
Management of Soybean Cyst Nematode
Soybean cyst management tactics include different methods from place to place, but all have the
common method of using resistant soybean cultivar and crop rotation and these are found to be more
effective than others tactics.(Niblack et al., 2003, Schmitt et al., 2004a, Oyekanmi & Fawole, 2010).
Host Resistance
Different resistance genes have been exploited from different soybean germplasm for developing
resistant soybean cultivar against Heterodera glycines (Concibido et al., 2004b). The resistance
genes to Heterodera glycinces were explored first time in soybean germplasm Peking, which
conferred three recessive genes rhg1, rhg2, and rhg3 in 1960(Caldwell et al., 1960) later the fourth
new dominant gene Rhg4 resistant to Heterodera glycinces was also identified in Peking, which was
closely linked to i locus and responsible for distribution of pigmentation of seed coat(Matson &
Williams, 1965). Likewise the another dominant resistant gene was discovered in germplasm
PI88788 and later named as Rhg5(Rao–Arelli et al., 1992, Rao–Arelli, 1994). For developing
resistant cultivar against Heterodera glycines seven differential line PI 548402(Peking), PI 88788, PI
90763, PI 437654, PI 209332, PI 89772, PI 548316 (Cloud) are mostly used out of those seven lines
PI 548402(Peking) and PI 88788 constitute more than 90% of the resistant cultivar in the United
states (Concibido et al., 2004a, Shannon et al., 2004, Schmitt et al., 2004b). A novel QTL

Synthesis Of Grubs
Frankly, one trend in the data that was noticed was that, the more common the pesticide is, the
cheaper it is. However, the more chemical related it is, the more expensive, and harmful it is. For
instance, Merit 75 WSP was the most expensive, and affected the environment by killing pollinators
and causing plants to wilt faster. Another trend that was noticed was that grubs are most common
around Summer, and Early Fall along with the fact that people have to apply the pesticides in early
spring before the grubs start to feast upon the lawns. In fact, the pesticides have to be applied in
early spring because that is when the grubs awaken, and start to feed again. This, then, prevents the
beetles from laying more eggs, and kills off the remaining grubs. ... Show more content on
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This compares to the hypothesis due to the fact that both the conclusion and the hypothesis are the
same. For example, in the beginning of the research the only effective pesticide that was commonly
known was nematodes, plus it was made to specifically attack grubs. Though, in the beginning, the
research was based off the hypothesis and some tidbits of information that was obtained from an
article known as, How and When to Get Rid of Grubs. Naturally Nematodes! This article was what
started the whole research project as it was a major issue for multiple different people. Additionally,
the conclusion was based off of reviews, store websites, articles, and actual research unlike the
hypothesis. In the end, the research supported both the conclusion and

Causes of Plants Diseases
(Jones, 1914) "It required the plague of the potato disease and the example of the Irish famine
finally to focus attention upon the fundamental problem ‑ the relation of the mildew to the sick
potato plant, of the smut and rust fungi to the infected grain ‑ the problem of parasitism." From
1846– 1850 Ireland population was dropped by 25% because of blighting potato had spread. That
coasted Ireland in 1846, £3,500,000 because potatoes was one of the essential harvest's income for
the country, Truman, (2013). Thus, plants science has gotten more attention from scientists to
struggle any sudden disasters on plants. However, organisms are divided to many kingdoms. All
those affected each other's either negatively or positively. When they affect negatively that cause
many diseases. At this situation we called the causes of diseases pathogens. Plants get diseased if
three components are existing, that are the host plants, pathogens, and the favorable environment. As
a result, to keep the plants healthy we should control those components, (Engelbrecht, 2005).
Pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and nematodes cause plants diseases.
Bacteria causes many serious damages in plants, but less than viruses. It is single–celled
microorganisms. It lives with plants by to ways residents or transient. We cannot see it by naked
ayes. We have to use microscopes to see bacteria, and we need population of bacteria to examine.
Scientists have made many studies to reduce bacteria effects on

Climate Change Of The New Nematode Diseases And Changing...
There has been considerable concern over the role of climate change in promoting the emergence of
new nematode diseases and in changing the distribution of existing ones. As the global warming
increases, pests and diseases from low latitude regions, where they are much more prevalent may be
introduced at higher latitudes. Recent developments in experimental and modeling techniques
facilitate climate change impact assessment on nematode diseases. Pine wood nematode,
bBursaphelenchus xylophilus, severity increases due to increase in the rate of disease development
and potential duration of epidemic due to climate change. (Boland et al., 2004)
Studies predicting impact of climate change on nematode pests of crops are meager in India.
Nevertheless, observations on changing infestation patterns of some important nematode pests over
the years show that climate change is influencing nematode pest scenario in the country. Root–knot
nematode, mMeloidogyne graminicola ( m. graminicola) once considered to be a serious pest only
in upland rice, has made its importance felt in almost alll most the rice growing areas and in all
types of rice culture, including hill ecosystems in recent years (Prasad and Somasekhar, 2009).
Climate change resulting in reduced water availability, higher temperatures, frequency of droughts
together with introduction of new water saving methods of rice cultivation, such as Alternate
Wetting and Drying (AWD) ,System of Rice Intensification (SRI) and aerobic

The, The Marvel Of Evolution
Nematodes, the marvel of evolution possess incredible ability to survive extreme weather events and
hostile environments with a simple body organization. Genome sequences of model nematodes have
revealed that many genes and physiological processes in these worms are common to humans,
higher animals and plants. Understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying their survival under
adverse environments may provide new opportunities in developing novel strategies to
minimize/mitigate the impact of global warming. Nematode communities in soil are composed of a
variety of trophic and ecological groups which can be directly linked to key ecosystem functions
like primary production, primary consumption, secondary consumption, decomposition, etc.
Because of these attributes, soil nematode communities serve as an excellent model system for
studying impacts of climate change on the belowground productivity. Nematodes are currently being
extensively investigated in most studies analyzing response of terrestrial ecosystems to climate
change. They are ubiquitous, diverse and the most abundant group of multicellular organisms on the
earth. They are represented at more than one trophic level in soil food–webs as they act as primary
consumers (herbivores), secondary consumers (bacterivores and fungivores) and tertiary consumers
(omnivores, carnivores and predaceous nematodes). They play multiple and contrasting roles in
regulating productivity of plant and animal based production systems.

Irish Famine Essay
Irish Famine (1845–1849), and still remains the most destructive pathogen of solanaceous crops,
including tomato and potato. The soya bean root and stem rot agent, Phytophthora sojae (Anon.,
2016e).
e) Macrophomina: It has a very wide host distribution covering most of the tropics and subtropics,
extending well into temperate zones (Songa 1995).
f) Fusarium: The fungal pathogen Fusarium oxysporum cause disease to a wide variety of hosts of
any age. Tomato, tobacco, legumes, cucurbits, sweet potatoes and banana are a few of the most
susceptible plants to this pathogen.
g) Verticillium: Many economically important plants are susceptible including cotton, tomato,
potato, brinjal, pepper and ornamentals.
4.2. Bacteria :
Pseudomonas: ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Colonization of a root occurs at fine scales with growth and movement of fungal mycelia through
soil. However, epidemics are observed at coarser scales and depend on a cascading spread through
populations of roots.
5.1. Factors influencing the soil borne plant pathogens :
a) Moisture: Moisture is of utmost importance for pathogenic fungi and bacteria. Rain splash plays
an important role in the dispersal of some fungi and nearly all bacteria, and a period of leaf wetness
is necessary for the germination of spores. Propagules germinate in the presence of water and are
dispersed. Because the process of germination and infection takes time, the duration of leaf wetness
also affects the occurrence of the infection. The duration necessary for infection varies with
temperature. Usually, a longer period of leaf wetness is needed to establish an infection in cooler
temperatures, as germination and infection are generally accelerated in warmer conditions.
b) Temperature: Temperature affects the incubation or latent period (the time between infection and
the appearance of disease symptoms), the generation time (the time between infection and
sporulation), and the infectious period (the time during which the pathogen keeps producing
propagules). The period of leaf wetness and temperature information is being used to predict
outbreaks of diseases (infection periods) and can be helpful in prophylactic

Biological Control In Golf Course Essay
Biological Control in Golf Course Maintenance Golf courses are a beautiful example of agricultural
art that many people take for granted. Millions of dollars a year are spent on chemicals which are
used to improve the appearance of grasses and trees, and to control diseases. But what if there was
an effective way to do this without the use of chemicals that can harm the environment? Biological
control is the act of using biological components, such as entomopathogenic fungi and nematodes,
hyperparasites and antibiosis protection. Most golf course superintendents have come accustomed to
using chemicals, but have not looked towards the future and refuse to acknowledge the effect they
may have on the environment in the long run. Entomopathogenic nematodes are ... Show more
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Each species of entomopathogenic fungi has the ability to effect different organisms, which is
shown in Table 1. (ENTOMOPATHOGENIC FUNGI AS BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENTS) It
is known that insects make excellent vectors for plant pathogens, and using entomopathogenic fungi
kills those vectors, thus slowing the spread of the disease in certain areas. On golf courses, the most
common vectors include chinch bugs, bill bugs and aphids which are usually very small and occur
in large numbers. The fungi in this case is only harmful towards a specific host – which means it is
safe for humans and other organisms in the environment. (ENTOMOPATHOGENIC FUNGI AS
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENTS) The fungus is first introduced to the turf, which can then be
fed upon (or just touched) by a susceptible vector organism, causing inoculation by the fungus. The
fungus can enter the body by contact, ingestion or through other orifices in the body. Once inside,
the fungus can grow and reproduce, eventually becoming severely toxic and killing the

Caenorhabditis Elegan Case Study
Any change in the environment from routine is perceived by animals as a threat or stress factor.
They are capable of responding to such changes in a variety of ways. Analyses of such responses
can be correlated with the amount of damage the animal experiences. Caenorhabditis elegans is an
established organismal biosensor. It is free living, transparent, small and easy to maintain making it
a practical model. Also, the disease and stress response pathways are conserved in this organism.
The most important feature, however, is that C. elegans responds to a diverse set of challenges.
Using C. elegans as a model attenuates the need to use vertebrate animals in preliminary toxicology
testing. Hence, C. elegans serves as a complete eukaryotic model ... Show more content on
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Lengths of animals may be determined using the length measurement image tool within iVision–
Mac software. Average body length values of strain populations will be converted to percent wild–
type average body lengths using staged wild–type control populations that will be imaged the same
day as the exposed animals. 95% confidence intervals will be calculated using Prism. P–values
(using the unpaired t–test) can be determined using Excel
Puncta Intensity for dbl–1 worms: Measurement of fluorescence intensity will be performed using
Nikon NIS elements software and data will be analyzed by analysis of variance (ANOVA) and
appropriate post–hoc test using Statistical Analysis System software (SAS).
Worm–star assay: Staged adult animals will be washed in M9 buffer three times to remove residual
bacteria. Approximately 10,000 animals will then be incubated for three hours at room temperature
in 5 ml M9 buffer (without OP50 bacteria) in 100 mm petri dishes tilted at a slight angle to
concentrate animals in a single area of the plate. The number of animals in worm–star aggregations,
clusters of two or more animals entangled at their tails, will be quantified by visual inspection using
a dissecting microscope. (Schultz 2014)
Expected

The Spread And Continued Reproduction Of The Northern...
The Problem Domain
The spread and continued reproduction of the Northern Snakehead in the Potomac river has been
and will continue to be a threat to the integrity of the local ecosystem. The Northern Snakehead is
causing a disturbance in the local ecosystem. These fish need to either be removed from the
ecosystem or their spread halted. Since their discovery in Crofton, Maryland, drastic measures have
been taken in the past to rapidly eradicate this species regardless of lasting effects. Most of the
previous solutions include dumping large quantities of poison, draining bodies of water, and
encouraging fishing. In many cases this has caused bodies of water to be unuseable for extended
periods of time. It is for these reasons we would like ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Because of this, Rayner & Creese suggest removing native fish, draining when possible, and
clearing vegetation, to ensure maximum effectiveness. They also suggest ensuring that there is
sufficient poison such that the final amount in the water is enough to kill the fish [1].
The diminishing amounts of poison in the local waterway, by the river flowing, is something that
must be carefully considered. The article is promising in that it suggests that the poison flowing
down river will be in a low enough concentration so as to not cause much harm. This also suggests
that a controlled, continuous release will need to occur to maintain a lethal amount of poison on the
targeted portion of the river.
Potency of Rotenone on Other Species
The Public Library of Science, PLOS, published a research article in 2015 in PLOS|One, which
covers experiments done with rotenone and its effect at different concentrations over a period of 18
hours. This article, titled "An Assessment of the Effect of Rotenone on Non–Target Aquatic Fauna,"
was authored by Dalu, Wasserman, Jordaan, Froneman, and Weyl. These people are members of the
Department of Zoology and Entomology of Rhodes University, South African Institute for Aquatic
Biodiversity, Centre for Invasion Biology, and Scientific Services Department in South Africa. Dalu
et al. performed a experiments in water systems that were isolated from other waterways. They
compared a control group with no poison in the

Roundworm Research Paper
Nematodes, also known as roundworms due to their round cross–section, are parasites that can
affect both domesticated and wild animals (Bassert and Thomas 451). The roundworms that are
common in dogs are Ancylostoma caninum, Toxocara canis, and Trichuris vulpis (Bassert and
Thomas 451). The roundworms that are common in cats are Ancylostoma tubaeforme, Dirofilaria
immitis, and Toxocara cati (Bassert and Thomas 451). Dirofilaria immitis and Toxascaris leonina
can affect both dogs and cats (Bassert and Thomas 451). Baylisascaris procyonis can affect both
raccoons and dogs (Bassert and Thomas 454). Roundworms can live in many of the organs and
systems of the body, such as the eye, gastrointestinal tract, urogenital system, circulatory system, ...
Puppies and kittens should be dewormed in 2–week intervals from 2 weeks of age to eliminate the
shedding of eggs (Bassert and Thomas 453). Dams can be dewormed or given monthly anthelmintic
or heartworm preventatives before breeding (Bassert and Thomas 453). Prevention & Control Feces
removal and cleaning the kennels should be done daily to prevent infection (Bassert and Thomas
454). Sandboxes should be covered when they are not being used (Bassert and Thomas 454).
Stopping pica in children, removing feces, enforcing leash laws, and using proper hygiene and
handwashing can help prevent infection in owners (Bassert and Thomas 454). Prognosis & Public
Health Significance Prognosis is good with treatment in animals that are not extremely debilitated.
Young children living with puppies or kittens may be susceptible to visceral larva migrans (VLM)
and ocular larva migrans (OLM) (Bassert and Thomas 452–453). The child ingests the second stage
larvae (infective) which migrates through the lung or liver (VLM) or the eye (OLM) (Bassert and
Thomas 453). Parents need to be cautious of places where children can ingest the infective eggs,
such as playgrounds with dog or cat feces and uncovered sandboxes (Bassert and Thomas

Behavioral Differences Of Heterodera Glycines And...
Authorship: Behavioral differences of Heterodera glycines and Meloidogyne incognita infective
juveniles exposed to root extracts in vitro, Masler et.al, Submitted.
Efficiently conducted biochemical and biological assays, scheduled assigned experiments, and
collected and prepared samples for analysis. In select research projects was involved in literature
searches, experiment design and performance, and data analysis. Regularly sought and developed
improvements to protocols; discussed possible implementation with the supervisor.
To insure timely and precise completion of assays and experiments voluntarily worked outside
normal duty hours. Maintained a sizable output of high–quality plant–parasitic nematodes and
nematode samples for biochemical assays; efficiently prepared nematode liquid cultures of
necessary purity. Instructed a UMD Student on biochemical assays and in unison conducted protein
estimation assays to ensure reliability.
Viewed voluntary webinar: How to combine protein purification techniques to optimize your results
(GE Healthcare Labroots, 9/21/16).
ELEMENT–II. NEMATODE CULTURES AND PHYSIOLOGICAL ASSAYS
Maintained plant and nematode cultures; requiring constant insect and pathogen monitoring;
employed mechanical and biological measures minimizing pest infestation and pesticide use;
recommended least toxic fungicides and insecticides to NL personnel; maintained nematode culture
host plants for various projects when responsible NL personnel were

Caenorhabditis Elegans Lab Report
Introduction: Caenorhabditis elegans, a type of free–living nematode that is found in soil, is the
subject matter for this experiment (Marsh). C. elegans allow for an exceptional model organism
because it is easily raised in the laboratory setting, it reproduces rapidly, has a short life cycle of 3
days where it develops from egg to adult worm, only 1.3mm in length, and although only having
959 somatic cells, it shares many characteristics with other multicellular organisms like having
organs and a nervous system (Kaletta). These nematodes can either be a self–fertilizing
hermaphrodite where each animal produces both sperm and egg, or they can be males that will mate
with the hermaphrodites (Brenner). When a hermaphrodite self–fertilizes, the chance of having a
male being produced is extremely low at just 0.1%, however, when a hermaphrodite is fertilized by
a male, the ratio of males to hermaphrodites is generally equal making it 1:1 (Altun). This
experiment was devised to help ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One containing wild type (WT) and the other having long (lon) C. elegans in order to identify males
on each plate. Next, two new agar plates with E. coli as a food source for the nematodes were
obtained and labeled with the phenotypes to be used for each cross. For plate 1, a single long
hermaphrodite was found and with a heat sterilized worm pick, transferred to the new plate. From
the WT parent plate, nine males were moved into plate 1 within close proximity of the
hermaphrodite to help ensure fertilization. This cross was made because would show which is the
dominant trait based. On plate 2, five long males were taken from the lon parent plate and placed
along with a single wild type hermaphrodite from the WT parent plate. This cross was made to see if
the trait was sex linked or not. This was followed by each plate being resealed with parafilm and
given to the instructor to be put in storage until the following

Alzheimer 's Disease And Its Effects On The Lives Of...
Introduction
Neurodegenerative diseases continue to affect the lives of millions Americans each year, with
incidence and prevalence rates ever increasing. These diseases cause degeneration or death of nerve
cells in the brain. These diseases can cause a financial and emotional burden on not only patients
themselves, but also family members and care givers as well. Molecular mechanisms that underlie
these diseases have remained relatively unclear, despite much research. Understanding the
mechanisms of these diseases are facilitated by utilizing model organisms to study pathways
involved in neurodegenerative diseases. One such model organism is the Caenorhabditis elegans
nematode. The C. elegans roundworm has displayed usefulness as a template to study
neurodegenerative diseases in humans, including Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease.
C. elegans has shown to be a useful model for the study of Alzheimer's disease. Sydney Brenner first
introduced the nematode as a model organism in 1963 (Brenner, 1974). The small, transparent
roundworm is easy for manipulation, with a life cycle of 3 days from egg to adult at 25 degrees
Celsius (Brenner, 1974). It is hermaphroditic and self–fertilizing allowing for rapid production of
offspring. Its lifespan is between 2 to 3 weeks, which is another beneficial feature for scientific
research due to its relatively short timeframe. The C. elegans genome was completed in 1998 and
showed that about 38% of worm genes have human

Chemotaxis Lab Report
Introduction C.elegans are part of the nematoda family. The nematoda family are a group of worms
that have unsegmented bodies and are usually round worms that can be free living or parasitic.
C.elegans are a version of the worm that is non–parasitic, non–hazardous, and non–infectious.
C.elegans have had their entire genome sequenced, this makes it easy for scientists to see what
genes they are changing and how that will affect the organism. (Edgley and riddle lab, 2015). For
this experiment chemotaxis was tested in the organism. Chemotaxis is defined by the following: The
movement of organisms in response to chemicals, whether they be attracted or repelled by the
chemical that is chosen. (Farley, 2012).
Experimental Design: To start out this experiment is going to have 3 replicates for an experimental
plate which ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The control plates will act as the positive controls, the diacetyl since studies have shown that it is a
positive chemoattractant. Because of this information, the independent variable is the coffee that is
going to replace the diacetyl, and the dependent variable is going to be the chemotaxis index of the
coffee. The equipment that was used for this experiment included, C.elegans, p–20 micropipette, 6
agar plates, sodium azide, coffee, and water. Once these materials are gathered begin the
experiment. The first step is to take the agar plates and split them into two sides with a circle in the
middle with the label A on one side and B on the other. (Fig A.) Continuation of the prep of the
plates includes placing 2µl of sodium azide right above the A and B, this is to sedate the worm so
that they don't accidentally wriggle off the plates. Once this step is done the next step will be to
place 2µl of water on the B side of all the plates including the control plates. Now it is time to add
the hypothesized chemoattractant to the A size of the plates, for the control plates

C. Elegans Essay
Caenorhabditis elegans, abbreviated C. elegans, is a roundworm that inhabits the soil. It has played a
fundamental role in Biological Laboratories since the early 1900's as it serves as a model organism.
C. elegans has the ability to distinguish between harmful pathogenic bacteria and those bacteria that
prove to be nutritious through its ability to differentiate chemicals in its environment. Most of the
current research on C. elegans has been conducted within laboratory constraints. We are seeking to
gain a deeper understanding of the c. elegans worms within their environment. We choose to study
the interactions of the C. elegans worms with bacilius subtilis, abbreviated B. subtilis, and bactillus
cereus, abbreviated b. cereus for the remainder of this ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
elegans live within the soil and thus are not exposed to light on a regular basis. Photoreceptors offer
a unique way of "seeing" and interacting with the environment. Photoreceptors contain chemicals
from which light elicits a change and thus help guide the movement and behavior of worms and
other animals. Phototaxis is a type of locomotive movement that allows organisms to respond to
changing light around them. Phototaxis can be both negative and positive in that a positive
phototaxis is movement toward the light and that negative phototaxis is movement that is away from
a light source (Department of Plant Biology). C. elegans live in the soil, thus in darkness, and do not
have eyes and are therefore believed to not have photoreceptors(Wang, 2010). However, it was
found that "light stimuli elicited negative phototaxis in C. elegans and that this behavior is important
for survival." (Ward, 2008). Photoreceptors are present within the c. elegans organism. As, such, "
Negative phototaxis behavior in C. elegans could function to retain worms in soil, or protect them
from harmful effects of UV light" (Wang, 2010). Photoreceptors are critical to the c. elegans and
their interactions within their

What A Model Organism?
Abstract In order to understand what a model organism is, we have to take a look into one of the
most widely used organisms in genetics; Caenorhabditis elegans a nematode known for its male and
hermaphrodite parts. Also known to be the most useful model organism because it is transparent,
small in size and easy to cultivate. For this experiment we will be analyzing genes that regulate
biological processes. The main focus will be what geneticists' call the forward genetic screen, this
technique is used to screen mutant animals for a certain phenotype. It was started by a man named
Sydney Brenner who began with a certain phenotype and discovered mutants of that phenotype,
essentially conducting a forward genetic screen. This technique is used to study genetic pathways
that regulate biological functions, allowing scientists to focus on the pathway of the function of
neurons, these neurons are what makes signals of muscle movement. This research can lead to better
understanding of human genes and how to analyze pathways that are responsible for tissue and
organ function. Sydney Brenner was able to identify over 600 mutants, for this lab we have focused
on ~9 phenotypes, our given phenotype will be the Protruding vulva (PvL). Figure 1 is the C.elegans
life cycle, the understanding of the nematodes lifecycle will allow for better results, knowing the
time it takes for these worms to reproduce can provide us with the mutants we are looking for.
Contents Genetic Mutation in

C. Elegans Analysis
Dr. Bruce Wightman reeled in an overwhelming number of students, professors, and biology
enthusiasts with his talk about his charming nematodes, Caenorhabditis elegans. Dr. Wightman's
experiment involved genetically analyzing a new sleep circuit in C. elegans. He initiated a
discussion about a topic all college students can relate to: sleep. Animals (including humans) love to
sleep, but why? Because it allows time for the brain to clear of any toxins, to produce new cells, and
to consolidate new memories. Introducing his work, Dr. Wightman familiarized his audience about
the glamorous and underappreciated C. elegans. The nematode, C. elegans, is the first multicellular
organism to have its genome sequenced. This phenomenal organism has simply

Pine Wilt Essay
Pine wilt is a disease of pine trees caused by Pinewood nematodes, a microscopic roundworm.
Though all species of pines found east of the Rocky Mountains in the United States are hosts,
Pinewood nematode is most commonly found on Scotch pine. Native pine tree species are resistant,
with the nematodes being more of a problem on introduced species of pines. Most often the first
sign of pine wilt is the sudden decline and death of an entire pine tree, usually from the warmest part
of the summer through the fall. The dead tree could retain its needles for as long as one year.
Because the dead wood is dry it becomes very brittle. Pinewood nematode is transmitted from tree
to tree by pine sawyer beetles which overwinter as larvae in dead pines or pine logs which still have
the bark attached. After pupating, the adult pine sawyer beetles, carrying nematodes in their
tracheae, fly to healthy host pine trees where the nematodes enter through feeding wounds.
Pinewood nematodes migrate to resin canals where they feed and rapidly reproduce. The resin canal
system is damaged and water movement in the tree is disrupted. Once the pine tree dies the
nematodes continue to feed and reproduce on blue stain fungus which infects the tree. In summer,
female pine sawyer beetles carry nematodes as they fly back to dead pine wood where they lay their
eggs. Eggs ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If there is a group of pine trees on the site insecticide treatments can be done in an effort to save the
remaining trees. Dead branches should be pruned from live trees to reduce the attraction of pine
sawyer beetles. Any dead pine trees or firewood should be removed or destroyed. Do not use the
mulch from an infested tree for mulch. When replacing dead trees choose species which are immune
to pine wilt such as Norway or Colorado blue spruce, Douglas–fir, cedar, hemlock or white pine

Telomere Length Essay
Currently one of the worlds most discussed about biological issues is ageing, and how we can stop it
or even more reverse it. Ageing is defined as the deterioration of bodily function and organs
necessary for living and fertility over time. A large multitude of theories that explain the causes of
ageing exists but one worth going more depth in is telomere length. Telomere is an area of repetitive
nucleotide at each end of a chromatid that protects the chromosome from deterioration or fusing
with neighboring chromosomes. It is believed that telomere shorting complements human aging as
well as premature aging syndromes. Those two points are the key hypothesis to the specific research
article that telomere length direct affects longevity. If proven true this would mean homeostasis
would play an important part in the variation of longevity in the human population. Homeostasis
being the regulation of a system in order to maintain a regulated ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
In particular telomere length has become a required biomarker for anyone analyzing the effect of
and variables into human fitness. Telomere length has been related to obesity, bone demineralization
and other aging indexes, including high risk of premature death and development of cancer. It has
been found believable that the presences of short telomeres trigger cell senescence in vivo, in
consequence affecting organ and tissue function. Their observation strongly support that telomere
shorting is a major cause of cell senescence in organs with high proliferative potential, detectable in
aged human individuals. Which causes the degeneration of organs and bones that lead to the age
related diseases that are shorting the lifespan of humans. Telomere length has become an excellent
predictive measure for some of these age related disease because of its close correlation to the

Roundworm Essay
Roundworms are smooth–skinned, unsegmented worms with a long cylindrical body shape tapered
at the ends. They include free–living and parasitic forms and have many different ecological roles.
My research paper sheds light on roundworms and specifically Caenorhabditis elegans and the
major studies done using this worm. C. elegans is a non–hazardous, non–pathogenic and non–
parasitic organism. It is small and grows to about 1 mm in length. It lives in the soil in many parts of
the world, where it survives by feeding on microbes such as bacteria. It is of no economic
importance to man. However there has been a great amount of effort invested into the study of this
worm which is elaborated in my thesis. Introduction Roundworms are parasites that can infect
people. They usually live in the intestines. There are different kinds of worms that can cause
infection, and they can range in length from 1 millimeter to 1 meter. Most often, eggs, or larvae, live
in the soil and get into the body when you get them on your hands and then touch your mouth. Some
can also get into the body through the skin. Like other parasitic ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
elegans has a short life cycle. From egg to egg takes about 3 days, about the same time needed for
genetic crosses in yeast. Its life span is around 2 to 3 weeks under suitable living conditions.
Compared to the use of other model organisms, such as mice, the short life cycle of C. elegans
reduces the experimental cycle and facilitates biological study. What is unique to this organism is
that wild–type individuals contain a constant 959 cells. The position of cells is constant as is the cell
number. It is transparent. It is easy to track cells and follow cell lineages. The complete cell lineage,
depicting which cells are derived from which, was completed in the 1980s by John Sulston. This
provides a great tool for research on how genes influence cell fate. These traits enable the study of
the biology of a single cell in an intact, living

Local Adaptation of Plants Essay
In this study, the effect of introducing non–local plant material into a certain environment for
restoration purposes was investigated. Several studies already showed that plants exhibit local
adaptation to their sympatric environment (Howe et al., 2003; Savolainen et al., 2007; Leimu and
Fischer, 2008; Salmela, 2014). We hypothesized that if A. arenaria shows evidence of local
adaptation, we expect the plants of the experimental site, and closely related ones, to have a greater
performance than allopatric populations (Vander Mijnsbrugge et al., 2010). Results indicated an
increase in survival with increasing distance from the study site in the first phase of the experiment.
In the second phase, the relation between survival and distance ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
However, we did not see an effect of the origin of the plants on the condition, so we cannot
completely confirm this theory. Also, since the relation between the distance and survival was
positive, we cannot say we confirmed the theory of local adaptation. In our analysis, we used
geographic distance as a measure for the differentiation between the various populations. In most
cases, environmental distance is the best way to study population divergence ( Joshi et al., 2001;
Bischoff et al., 2006; Leimu and Fischer, 2008; Bischoff and Tremulot, 2011). This implies that
populations that are close to each other but very dissimilar can differ a lot more from each other than
populations that are more distant but more similar (Bischoff et al., 2006). In Leimu and Fisher
(2008) they stated that geographical distance is only a good measure if it is correlated with
environmental distance, where the latter can be an important selective agent for local adaptation. By
this, the results could be different with the use of the environmental distance. Also, the experimental
plants were in the field during autumn and winter, implying that aboveground herbivores were
largely absent. It is demonstrated that also aboveground herbivores can act as selective forces in
plant populations, since these herbivores can have strong negative effects on the plant fitness (Jarosz
and Davelos, 1995; Abdala–Roberts and Marquis, 2007; Arany et al., 2009). Taking both

Factors That Affect Our Soil Affects Them And Their Movements
C. elegans are a nematode a member of the phylum nematode family. They are roundworms with
smooth, unsegmented skin and are about one millimeter in length. C. elegans. The do not have a
respiratory and circulatory system, but they do have a hypodermis, excretory system and muscles.(1)
They are model organisms to use in experiments because they have a short life span, which makes
them manageable, they are inexpensive, and most importantly they are transparent.(2) Therefore,
whatever you do to them you will be able to see through a microscope. I conducted a research on C.
elegans to test to see how every day fertilizer that we apply to our soil affects them and their
movements. When you are putting fertilizer on your soil you are adding extra nutrients to the soil to
make your yard look nicer. Although, if you are not careful you may also be putting too much
fertilizer on your soil which is raising the concentration of all the nutrients in the soil abnormally
Therefore, the reason for my experiment is to see how adding fertilizer may affect C. elegans. This
research is important because, if we don't know what happens if we add fertilizer to C. elegans
environment, then we can potentially be killing them. Therefore, if we are killing the C. elegans,
then we are killing the environment itself. My hypothesis on this experiment is that NPK fertilizer
will affect C. elegans negatively, causing them to decrease in motion and repel from the fertilizer.
Methods: One the first day

Essay about Organic Biofumigants
Organic Biofumigants In recent years, production of many crops has become inhibited by taking
several herbicides and pesticides off the market. If a producer wishes to be in organic production,
this is even further inhibited by products useable to stay within organic guidelines. Biofumigants are
basically any product used to control pests and competing weed species within a crop. This has
become a hurdle for many producers due to labeling issues as well as the desire to keep the crops
and their land feasible for "organic" production. There has been a great deal of research and
discoveries pertaining to alternative methods of controlling the crop inhibitors (weeds and pests) in a
more organic matter. Organic biofumigants have become ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Biofumigation is the suppression of soil–borne pests and pathogens by releasing biocidal
compounds into an agricultural system (Boydston, 2004). The system which was used on this potato
crop included the planting of a glucosinolate releasing crop in the fall after the previous crop was
harvested. It was stated that these crops grow and cover quickly. The plant is able to develop a great
deal of biomass before freezing temperatures arrive later in the fall. After the cover crop is
established, the plant showed to have profound affects on the control of pests and weed. This was
especially prevalent in controlling nematodes which are proven to inhibit plant growth a great deal
(Boydston, 2004). This is a great example of the use of organic biofumigants. Some of research
found for this project referred to biofumigation as organic amendment to a soil or agricultural
system. Farmers have had pressure on them in recent decades to switch to a pest control method that
does not hurt the environment (Akhtar & Malik, 2000). With the addition of organic amendments to
the soil, plant–parasitic nematodes are much easier to control than the use of traditional methods
(pesticides) that have some potential to hurt the environment or user if applied (Akhtar & Malik,
2000). A large part of biofumigation is the release of glucosinolate as outlined above. Glucosinolate
containing biomass releases isothiocyanate (ITC). This is the lethal compound to nematodes.

Development Of Soybean Cultivars With Multiple Nematodes...
In the mid–1950s, the first SCN resistance soybean sources, PI 90763 and PI 84751 and cultivars
Ilsoy and Peking, were identified (Ross and Brim 1957). During the last 20 years, more than 120
soybean germplasm with SCN resistance have been reported (Concibido et al. 2004; Vuong et al.
2013). However, most of them present resistance to only one or few SCN races and only eight
soybean germplasm including Peking, PI 88788, and PI 437654 have widely been used for breeding
programs in the US (Vuong et al. 2013). Understanding of resistance to the nematodes have
remained limited because most of the reported resistance QTL have not been cloned. Also,
continuous cultivation of soybean cultivars with the same resistance sources may accelerate
selection pressure for SCN as well as other nematode species. Therefore, development of soybean
cultivars with multiple nematodes resistance would be essential to prevent losses by the nematodes
that can occur in the same field. The lack of diversity for SCN, RKN, and RN resistance source in
current soybean cultivars still emphasizes the necessity of identifying new resistance genes/QTL.
Therefore, continuous germplasm screening to find new germplasm and genes/QTL would be
required for successful soybean breeding programs. The identification of new genetic sources with
broad spectrum resistance to multiple SCN HG types, RKN and RN would be beneficial for the
development of germplasm and varieties to reduce losses from these nematode species (Lee

Pan Troglodytes Research Paper
Did you know that you share the same genetics as a mouse, or what about a fruit fly, and also a
chimpanzee? In this paper I will be talking about how we share the same genes, and what the
percentage is o the same genes we share with the 7 model organisms. I will also be telling important
information on why we are related and how this all came to be.
You are probably wondering, what is a model organism? The definition of a model organism is a
species that has been widely studied, usually because it is easy to maintain and breed in a laboratory
setting and has particular experiment advantages. Over the years, a great deal of data has
accumulated about such organisms and this in itself makes them more attractive to study, according
to eol.org. Another term that you ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Us, Homo sapiens, and pan troglodytes shared a common ancestor at least 5 to 7 million years ago
(Mya). Its crazy to think that we have some of the same genes of an animal that we see at the zoo.
Since the pan troglodytes is the closest model organism with a common ancestor as us, it makes the
pan troglodytes are the most useful to understanding biology and evolution, of course next to the
human genome itself. Scientist have also discovered that there are around 40 million differences in
genes among the three billion DNA molecules, in each genome.
We also have the Mus musculus, which is the house mouse. Some of the differences in the mus
musculus and homo sapiens are for example the immune system process, metabolism, stress
response, etc. According to genome.gov, areas in which rat models have already helped to advance
medical research include: cardiovascular diseases (hypertension); psychiatric disorders, which is the
study of behavioral intervention and addiction, and also neural regeneration. We have about 2.6
billion base pairs with the mus

Sheep Are An Important Part Of The Global Agricultural...
array of raw materials. Wool is one of the first textiles, although in the late 20th century wool prices
can be used in candle and soap making , while sheep bone and cartilage has been used to furnish
2011). Dictyocaulus filaria has a direct life cycle, embryonated eggs are coughed up or swallowed
and hatch in the small intestine then first–stage larvae are passed in faeces. Under favorable
grazing sheep. Following ingestion, third–stage larvae ex–sheath in the small intestine, penetrate the
intestinal wall and enter the mesenteric lymph nodes. Here, larvae develop, moult to

Sensory System Analysis
The sensory system plays a crucial role for organisms to survive by detecting environmental cues. In
animals, the sensory signaling is largely mediated by chemoreceptors belonging to the GPCR
superfamily [21], as well as by ion channels that mediate mechanosensation, thermosensation and
others [89]. Chemosensory GPCRs in vertebrates are encoded by several gene families, which
includes the olfactory receptors (ORs), vomeronasal receptor type 1 and 2 (VRs 1 and 2), taste
receptor type 1 and 2 (TRs 1 and 2), and trace amine–associated receptor (TAARs) [21]. Apart from
these, GPCRs also mediate vertebrate vision by means of the Opsin family genes that belong to the
large Rhodopsin family (Class A) of GPCRs [90]. Previous evolutionary mining of ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
This mainly includes the nematode chemoreceptors (or nematode chemosensory GPCRs) as well as
the insect odorant and gustatory receptors. The insect odorant receptors (IORs) were initially
thought to be GPCRs due to the presence of seven–transmembrane regions, but subsequent studies
showed that they lack homology to GPCRs. Also, compared to the GPCRs, the IORs possess a
distinct structural topology in their N–terminus, which is located intracellularly [92]. Moreover,
recent data has shown that IORs function as both heteromeric ligand–gated ion channels and cyclic
nucleotide–gated ion channels, but not known to be functioning as receptors coupling with G
proteins [93,94]. Similarly, the insect gustatory receptors, responsible for taste perception in insects
(sweet and bitter taste) are unrelated to mammalian taste receptors or other GPCR families, but
shares homology with the insect odorant receptors [95,96]. These findings raise the possibility that
insect gustatory receptors are not GPCRs and they also function as ligand–gated ion

Nematophagous Research Paper
Diverse fungi species have been demonstrated in possessing the distinguished ability in trapping and
devouring nematodes. The start of the infection process consists of the nematophagous fungus's
trapping structure (hyphae) interacting with the surface of the nematode cuticle, ultimately killing
the nematode and serving as a source of nutrients (Mendoza de Gives, et al., 1999). It is not certain
whether the formation of traps is due to hormones diffusing or physical contact signaling. These
fungi are commonly distributed in terrestrial and aquatic biomes, which construct intricate trapping
devices that have adhesive networks and constricting rings to capture nematodes and extract their
nutrients. It is also likely that hydrolytic enzymes are involved during the infection with regards to
facilitating penetration by permeabilizing the nematode's cuticle, inducing cytotoxic effects,
digesting the tissue, and preventing invasions of other microorganisms (Tunlid, et al., 1994). ...
oligospora) is one of the best researched nematophagous fungi, with strains found in diverse soils
including decaying wood and metal–polluted soils, and thus lived as saprophytes (Yang, et al.,
2011). Over the years, chemical control of nematode parasite species is very expensive and does risk
affecting the agricultural ecosystem, by having detriments on beneficial predators and microbes.
This has raised the concern in seeking biological control methods such as using A. oligospora.
Hyphal trap formation is dependent on environmental conditions; parasitic nematodes generally
attack the roots of plants hence, A. oligospora tends to colonize the roots and is advantageous for
biological control. (Singh, et al., 2012) The fungi's broad range of adaptability and development
make them ideal candidates for regulating parasitic nematodes of plants and animals in agriculture
since the trapping encompasses adhesion, penetration, and immobilization of nematodes (Zhao, et
al.,

Sheep Is An Important Part Of The Global Agricultural Economy
Introduction
array of raw materials. Wool is one of the first textiles although in the late 20th century wool prices
can be used in candle and soap making while, sheep bone and cartilage has been used to furnish
2011). Dictyocaulus filaria has direct life cycle, embryonated eggs are coughed up or swallowed and
hatch in the small intestine then first–stage larvae are passed in faeces. Under favorable
grazing sheep. Following ingestion, third–stage larvae ex–sheath in the small intestine, penetrate the
intestinal wall and enter the mesenteric lymph nodes. Here, larvae develop,

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