Developing Administrative & Management Skills in Mitigating their Challenges and Issues through diplomacy

Developing Administrative &
Management Skills in Mitigating
Their Challenges and Issues
Through Diplomacy
TRAINING/INDUCTION
CEREMONY PAPER
Oyewole O. Sarumi PhD, FCPDM, FCIPMN, MITD
Registrar, CIPDM, Lagos.
Tel: +234 803 304 1421 Email: tlstrategies@gmail.com

CIPDM Training/Induction Ceremony Lecture|
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CIPDM……Mark of Professionalism
Developing Administrative & Management Skills in
Mitigating Their Challenges and Issues Through Diplomacy
Oyewole O. Sarumi PhD, FCPDM, FCIPMN – Registrar, CIPDM, Lagos.
Tel: +234 803 304 1421 Email: tlstrategies@gmail.com
Opening Thought:
“Increasingly, public administration practitioners and academicians are faced with demands from
politicians and citizens that government should be operated like a business. By this they mean it
should be cost efficient”. - Richard C. Box in his article ‘Running Government like a Business.
Implication for Public Administration. Theory and Practice’.
Learning Objectives
At the end of this session, participants will be able to:
• Define administration, management, leadership, and diplomacy.
• Describe challenges and issues in management and administration;
• Explain administrative theory as a political theory;
• Identify the types of administration and management;
• Differentiate between administration, management, and leadership.
• Discuss the spectrum and intersection of administrative and management skills;
• State the dimensions of varying diplomatic tool/skills; and
• Apply diplomacy tools/skills to mitigate administration and management challenges and
issues in organisations.
I. INTRODUCTION
Organisation, private and public thrives when there is a blend of management and administrative
skills in the right proportion. The fact is with adequate resources and personnel, the absence of
good management and administration will spell doom for any organisation. Hence, the
importance of both management and administration in organisations cannot be over-emphasised.
Just like life, there must be issues and challenges especially when the organisation is a living and
learning one. The charge is to identify such issues and challenges on time and map out strategies
to address them to avoid adverse effect on the overall bottom-line and survival of the
organisation.
One thing is certain: it is not at all an easy task to locate the sources of problem faced by admin-
istration especially, but some of the problems may be noted. However, in management, there are
many issues and challenges that are bugging organisations in this contemporary times.
An important aspect of public administration of any modern state is that it is not properly and
efficiently managed. This is because huge amount of money is spent behind the running of public
administration, but the ultimate result does not satisfy the demands of people, or it is not cost
efficient at all. This may not be the case in private enterprise, but in public organisations, the
cost of a state-sponsored project far surpasses the benefit it produces. This is very commonly
found in almost all states, specifically in the developing nations {Samit, 2014}.

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Administrative procedures are part of nearly every public and private organization. Western
democracies have evolved systems which balance political direction and control against the need
for effective and efficient management of the administrative functions which complex modern
societies require.
However, many African and evolving democracies are still grappling with the intricacies of
blending strong administrative system with tenets of democracy without impinging of the rights
of citizenry while delivering good governance.
There has been a huge and on-going development in the administrative functions in the 21st
century. This dynamic development has resulted in steady increase in human and instrumental
resources in the public administration worldwide. The emergence of new public interests and new
arenas of intervention have caused important changes in the machinery and system of public
administration.
This paper seeks to focus on developing administrative and management skills to address the issues
and challenges that cropped up using diplomatic tools and skills thereby assisting to build a strong
organisation that is not only effective but also efficient in the delivery of good dividends to all
stakeholders.
II. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
a. Definitions of Administration
✓ management of the affairs of an organization, such as a business or institution
✓ the duties of an administrator
✓ the body of people who administer an organization.
✓ the conduct of the affairs of government
✓ term of office: often used of presidents, governments, etc.
✓ the executive branch of government along with the public service; the government as a
whole
(In Property law) - from Longman dictionary:
A. the conduct or disposal of the estate of a deceased person
B. the management by a trustee of an estate subject to a trust
Some Author’s definitions:
• Marx defines administration as - Administration is determined action taken in pursuit of a
conscious purpose. It is the systematic ordering of affairs and the calculated use of
resources aimed at making those happen which one wants to happen.
• Frederic k Lane defines administration as organizing and maintaining human and fiscal
resources to attain a group’s goals.
• “Administration is the organization & direction of human & material resources to achieve
desired ends.” - Pfiffner & Presthus.
• “Administration is the direction, coordination and control of many persons to achieve
some purposes or objectives.” - L.D. White

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From Scientific point of view: Administration is regarded as:
✓ a directed coordination and organisation of an object in the discussion towards targeted goals
✓ A scope of human activity which originated as a result of division of labour to help people
influence technological, economic and social processes for attainment of specific goals.
✓ A process which provides necessary targeted transformation of energy, substance and
information while maintaining working capacity and fail-safe operation to achieve targeted
goals.
b. What is Management?
Harold koontz - “Management is the art of getting things done through others and with formally
organised groups.”
F.W. Taylor - “Management is the art of knowing what you want to do and then seeing that they
do it in the best and the cheapest manner.”
George R. Terry - “Management is a distinct process consisting of planning, organising,
actuating and controlling; utilising in each both science and arts, and followed in order to
accomplish pre-determined objective.”
Peter Drucker - “Management is a multipurpose organ that manage a business and manages
managers and manages workers and work.”
c. What is Leadership?
Leadership - Leadership is an influence process that enable managers to get their people to do
willingly what must be done, do well what ought to be done. (Cribbin, J.J.]
Leadership is interpersonal influence, exercised in a situation, and directed, through the
communication process, toward the attainment of a specified goal or goals. (Tannenbaum,
Weschler & Massarik)
Byrd defined leadership as: “the leader's ability to anticipate, envision, maintain flexibility,
and empower others to create strategic change as necessary”.
Vecchio defined leadership as: “the process through which leaders influence the values, behaviors,
and attitudes of others”.
Meaning of Leadership: Art of motivating a group of people. Ability to influencing a group
toward the achievement of goals. It is the skill of influencing the behavior of others.
Why is Leadership important? Research shows that most will achieve about 60% of their
potentials without leadership, but the additional 40% potential is achievable with effective
leadership.
d. Understanding Diplomacy
Generally, diplomacy is an art and a way of life. It is an age-old process through which
agreements are negotiated among nations (Adeniran, 1983:179). Diplomatic skills equip you to

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navigate conflicts and challenging conversations. The objective of diplomacy is to conduct
‘business’ and achieve the goals of a particular state (or organization) in a given context.
Now, let us examine various definitions from different perspectives: What is Diplomacy? It is:
✓ the art and practice of conducting negotiations and maintaining relations between parties;
✓ skill in handling affairs without arousing animousity – USA Dept of State
✓ the art of dealing with people in a sensitive and tactful way.
✓ “the art and practice of conducting negotiations between nations” in order to implement those
polices and pursue those interests.
✓ “the instrument of communication, not the message communicated.” - Edward Marks
✓ “This is the classic function of diplomacy: to effect the communications between one’s own
government and other governments or individuals abroad, and to do this with maximum
accuracy, imagination, tact, and good sense.” (George Kennan)
✓ A skill set that enhances your ability to manage internal and external relationships in a job.
✓ As the ‘science of relations…resulting from mutual interests’. (Charles Calvo)
✓ Diplomacy is adapting differences through negotiations. - Henry Kissinger
✓ A method of influencing the decisions and behaviors of others through dialogue & negotiations
without the use of force, which involves deployment of ‘soft power’.
✓ Tact and subtle skill in dealing with people so as to avoid or settle hostility.
✓ the skill for dealing with people effectively in a positive way including the foreign relations with
other countries.
Diplomacy was first developed as an instrument of inter-state relations, which later necessitated
the adoption of regulations in order to protect state sovereignty (such as Diplomatic Immunities
and Privileges Act [No. 42] of 1962); however, its usage has since been extended to business
management.
In the business environment, diplomacy is seen as the art and practice of conducting negotiations
between organizations, buyers and sellers, as well as private businesses and government. There
are several definitions of diplomacy with regards to business management.
Business diplomacy as a firm's ability to establish and sustain positive relationships
with different stakeholders, including governments, businesses and non-business, stakeholders, to
obtain legitimacy and a social license to operate. (Ruël and Wolters, 2013)
Business diplomacy is a way to constructively engage and negotiate with multiple business and
non-business stakeholders, mitigate geopolitical and commercial risk and influence actors within
the global arena (Alammar & Pauleen, 2015).
Business diplomacy management as an activity that ‘pertains to the management of
interfaces between the global company and its multiple non-business counterparts’ (Saner and
Yiu (2005) p. 302).
From these definitions, it can be inferred that diplomacy denote the tact, courteous, and savvy
displayed by someone for his relations with others. It is used for peaceful resolution of disputes
without resort to violence.

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III. THE CHALLENGES AND ISSUES IN MANAGEMENT AND
ADMINISTRATION
A. ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
In a dynamic and turbulent environment where social, economic and political problems mount
and the demands of society increase faster than the capacity of available resources to provide for,
government, especially the administrative organization for carrying out policies and implement
projects and programs, is called upon to adopt appropriate mechanisms to cope with these
concerns. The bureaucracy is faced with crucial issues and challenges.
Should public administration be ethnocentric or universal? Should public administration be
guided primarily by theories and principles, for whatever these are worth, or should it adapt itself
to environmental pressures and consequently seek new approaches for responding to the
challenges of the environment? Principles of administration are universal, but their applicability
and relevance may yet be conditioned by the physical and social environment.
Technology aims at making life more convenient and improving the quality of life by
introducing new methods and approaches to service delivery. The management of the economy,
for example, may require new perspectives especially with the advent of the debt problem,
borrowing and repayment schemes. A development-oriented public administration must consider
as major concerns, productivity, efficiency, effectiveness, accountability, budgetary deficits and
unstable economy, insecurity, among others. It must address the problems of poverty, sky-
rocketing inflation, ecology, social justice, inequality, and disproportionate distribution of the
goods of society.
Ferrel Heady (1978) posit that Administration in developing countries is characterized by the
following:
• It has an imitative rather than a indigenous pattern characterized by some version of
modern western bureaucratic administration.
• It is deficient in skilled manpower necessary for developmental programs; there is
shortage of trained administrators with management capability, development skills and
technical competence.
• There is emphasis on orientation other than production-directed and program-oriented
goals. It uses the public service as substitute for a social security program and a means to
help solve the unemployment problem.
• There is wide discrepancy between format and reality as demonstrated by the urge to
make things seem more than what they actually are, resulting in a gap between
expectations and realities.
• It has a generous measure of operational autonomy as several groups converge in the
bureaucracy. There are technical experts, professional experts or technocrats and the
military, each desirous to formulate and implement policy decisions on their own
respective turfs.
1. THE TWO BASIC ISSUES
There are two basic issues of Public Administration today as surmised by Lugtu, (2014);
• Policy issues which involve the core role public administrators.

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• Organization issues which are instrumental aspects of management or factors involved in
internal administration.
a. POLICY ISSUES
The range of policy issues the public administrator has to deal with includes the
following: •Welfare Policy - like regulation and control of urban sprawl, slum clearance,
public housing, control of crimes, transport, education, revenue sourcing, social
insurance, health policy and public assistance.
•Economic Issues – like tax sources, credit control, stock market operation and
regulation, antitrust enforcement, encouragement of small business, debt burden and loan
repayment.
•Labor Policy – which includes regulation of industrial dispute workers right to organize
and stage strike; government encouragement to the formulation of labor movements, and
the impact of labor group pressure upon policy and administration.
•Resource Policy – which have to do with such concerns like shrinking farm population,
price control of agricultural products, form of agricultural assistance and subsidies,
cooperative movements, land use planning, natural resource conservation, energy supply,
providing balance between population and resources.
b. ORGANIZATION ISSUES
• Planning of Policies and Programs – with the use of plans, the consciousness of those
responsible for making decisions may be modified and necessary changes identified
and implemented.
• Centralization Argues
• Lateral and Horizontal Allocation of Responsibilities and programs
• Lack of Coordination
• Decision Making and Program Management, (controlling and evaluating
performance) – policies, developing strategies, assigning roles, elicit participation,
and cooperation)
• Confronting public management is how to deal with negative bureaucratic behavior,
abuse of discretion and over indulgence, red tape, graft and corruption.
c. OTHER SIGNIFICANT ISSUES
• Proactive management must look into the future. One prognosis is that in the years to
come there will be more professionals in the work force. This could mean added
expertise inputs to government service.
• Influence upon political and administrative decision making is significantly powerful.
• More public interest groups will pursue collective and community oriented goals
demanding environmental conservation, clean air, eradication of poverty, equitable
allocation of goods and services and this groups completed by citizen awareness of
the responsibilities of government and will be more critical of government policies.
• The environment of society is fast changing; the challenges are continuous; there are
no permanent solutions. (Lugtu, A., 2014)
B. MAJOR ADMINISTRATIVE ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN NIGERIA
According to Walyben (2020), major administrative problems in developing countries like
Nigeria include the following:

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1. Recruitment and promotion
Major administrative problem faced by developing countries is that of recruitment and
promotion. Recruitment into the administrative class posses the most serious problem of
all the other class of the civil service, whereas there are prescribed qualifications for
entering into the professional class, there are no prescribed qualification into the
administrative class.
All that is required is a good honorary degree in any discipline in addition to being
successful in a competitive entrance examination. In other word, the administrative class
is composed of all sorts of people drawn from different discipline.
The majority of these people lack the basic concept and knowledge relevant to their area
of administrations appropriate to their areas of responsibility. In term of promotion, there
is excessive dependence on seniority rather than merit. As a result, many innovators and
achievement-oriented persons are over-looked and marginalized. This situation where
excellence and merit are sacrificed on the altar of seniority, cripples initiative and stifles
morale in the civil service.
1. Remuneration:
The civil service has been faced with unstructured remuneration since independence,
although few attempts have been made to rationalize and harmonize salaries and wages
and other conditions of employment in the civil service. The remuneration has in several
occasions resulted in industrial action by public servant.
2. Corruption and tribalism:
Another major administrative problem in a developing countries is corruption. Civil
servants especially those in high positions are noted for asking for gratification to
perform their official functions.
This really account for the artificial bottleneck in the public service. Corruption has eaten
deep into the fabrics of the nation, especially the civil service such that even promotion
can hardly be done on merit.
3. Relationship between politicians and civil servants:
The relationship between politicians who are ministers and civil servants who are
permanent secretary or director general in the Nigeria public service has always been
controversial and worrisome.
In the case of politicians and civil servants, conflict always arises when the politician
encroaches into administrative matters which are within the prerogative of the permanent
secretary.
Whenever there is such problem the general public is always the victim.
4. Political instability:
Frequent changes in the leadership of the country affect the civil service adversely. In
some cases, it causes premature retirement of the civil servant which sometimes
contravenes the statute of the civil service.

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The statute of the civil service states that a civil servant cannot be arbitrarily retired, job
security is ensured. In other word, permanency which is one of the characteristics of civil
service is usually eroded. In summary, the civil service has been criticized of the
following: low productivity, over staffing (ghost worker), indiscipline, red tape or red
tapism, rigidity, over centralization and secrecy.
Other challenges of public administration are:
5. Governance: Balancing the role of various organs in the process of governance like
public sector, corporate sector, NGOs, civil society etc. in the contemporary era of
globalisation, liberalisation and privatisation.
6. Ensuring sustainable development.
7. Removing trust deficit between administration and people.
8. Last but not the least, raising ethics and morality level in administration.
9. Lack of independence
10. Infiltration of partisan politics
11. Lack of adequate funds for training
12. Weak Public Service
These are some of the challenges facing the profession and one of the fastest way to ameliorate
them is to strengthen the institution of public service since they are the major employers of
Administrators, without independence and adequate funds implementation of Government
policies can be manipulated and done haphazardly which in turn leads to poor policy execution
and lack of loyalty to the executive arm of the government.
The unfortunate lack of training in public service especially for newly employed graduate or
middle executives is also a challenge that can only be addressed when the government
understands the importance of public administration to achieving set goals and objectives rolled
out by the government. Until your relevance is known and felt, the government won't take you
seriously. The laws must be amended to provide the basic amenities and facilities needed for
executors of Government plans and policies to effectively perform their functions.
C. WHAT ARE THE 3 PROBLEMS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
ACCORDING TO ROBERT DAHL?
“Dahl noted the difficulty of constructing a science of public administration that was plagued
by three interrelated problems: values, behaviour, and culture. Underlying all three problems
was the presumption that public administration could establish a set of universal principles
independent of moral or political ends, individual human differences, or social influences. In
discussing these three broad and easily accessible themes. “(adapted from willey library)
In a nutshell, human behaviour, exemplified by cultural norms, etc. gets in the way of public
administration operating as a pure science. This also happens with economics. In other words,
when humans are involved, ‘science’ is not the only determining factor. That's why public
administration and economics are usually considered to be social sciences. In essence values,
behaviour and culture create problems for public administration to be like a science.

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D. ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN MANAGEMENT
There are two eternal truths: life is about change, and managing people is never easy. To
compound the issue, managers are now facing new challenges. The changing economic world is
throwing new challenges to the managers, while the pandemic has produced a rapidly changing
business environment and created a number of new obstacles. Thus , there are myriads of
changes taking place which are influencing the work of managers. Some of these changes
include:
1. Responding to globalization
2. Managing with accountability
3. Action with responsiveness
4. Managing workforce diversity
5. Responding to changing environment
6. Improving quality and productivity
7. Stimulating innovation and change
8. Improving ethical behavior
9. Managing institutional social responsibility
10. Knowledge management
11. Managing with the world of ICTs
12. Helping employees balance work and life conflicts
13. Creating positive tensions
14. Improving customer services
15. Promoting entrepreneurship
16. Coping with temporariness
17. Managing with multiple
responsibilities
18. Improving people skills
19. Working in networked organizations
20. Developing the generation next
21. Managing innovative work teams
22. Responding to changing
expectations
23. Contingent workers
24. Innovation and change
25. Empowerment and teams
26. Downsizing
27. Managing talents
To transform yourself as an effective diplomatic manager and leader, inculcate your professional
vision on these elements, and you will be fitted into the future of work.
IV. ADMINISTRATIVE THEORY AS A POLITICAL THEORY
Let us first examine administrative theory, and how administrative system devolve from it.
a. The Administrative Theory
The Administrative Theory is based on the concept of departmentalization, which means the
different activities to be performed for achieving the common purpose of the organization should
be identified and be classified into different groups or departments, such that the task can be
accomplished effectively.
The other difference between these two is, the administrative theory focuses on improving the
efficiency of management first so that the processes can be standardized and then moves to the
operational level where the individual workers are made to learn the changes and implement those
in their routine jobs. While in the case of the scientific management theory, it emphasizes on
improving the efficiency of the workers at the operating level first which in turn improves the
efficiency of the management. Thus, the administrative theory follows the top-down approach
while the scientific management theory follows the bottom-up approach.
b. Administrative System - What is ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM?
The system that is created by legislation where an agency is empowered to make a binding rule
and regulation.

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It is an integrated application used in operation and tracking of HRM and effective utilisation of
resources to achieve set goals.
c. Administrative Procedures
Administrative Procedures are a set or system of rules that govern the procedures for managing
an organization. These procedures are meant to establish efficiency, consistency, responsibility,
and accountability.
d. The Importance of Administrative Procedures
Administrative procedures are important because they provide an objective set of rules by which
an organization is governed. They also help establish the legitimacy of management action by
ensuring the application of management rules and decisions is done in an objective, fair, and
consistent manner. They also help ensure that managers are held accountable for decisions that
deviate from the procedures.
e. Administrative Procedures in Private Organizations
Administrative procedures are implemented as a set of rules for making decisions regarding key
management functions. These rules are objective and usually written in order to ensure
consistency and fairness. E.g., set of administrative procedures is the rules, policies and
procedures outlined in your typical employee handbook or manual.
The typical handbook - Outlines such procedures as requests for vacation time, sick leave, dress
code, company holidays, and grievance procedures. Also, there are set of administrative
procedures that are for the sole use of management, such as procedures governing hiring, firing
promotion, and budgeting, just to name a few. 60-80% of expenses are due to administrative
processes. Administrative processes are the office tasks that keeps a company humming along.
Administrative processes include human resources, marketing, and accounting.
Basically, anything that entails managing the information that supports a business is an
administrative process.
f. Administration from Organisations perspective
To understand administration from the context and setting of an organization, it can be roughly
explained that: the top leadership or the Board decides the vision, mission, short- and long-term
goals; and the business unit heads then draw out action plans and create or reform processes,
allot responsibilities, direct planning, get people on board and start working towards achieving
those set goals as per defined guidelines.
So, the Board can be the Government and the Business Unit Heads and their teams can be the
public administrators who are the implementers and actually the people who run the show.
V. TYPES OF ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT
A. Types of Administration
It includes among others:

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✓ Public Administration
✓ Business Administration
✓ Office Administration
✓ Development Administration
✓ Personnel Administration
1. Business Administration - Business administration is management of a business. It
includes all aspects of overseeing and supervising business operations and related fields
which, include accounting, finance and marketing.
2. Public Administration - According to L D White, Public administration consists of all
those operations having for their purpose the fulfillment or enforcement of public
policy. On the other hand, as per Woodrow Wilson public administration is a detailed and
systematic application of law. One can also say that public administration is nothing but
the policies, practices, rules and regulation etc., in action.
Can public administration be divorced from social and political systems; certainly not. So, F. A.
Nigro argues that public administration is: essentially a cooperative group effort in public
setting; covers all the three branches of government machinery, the executive, the legislative and
the judicial. He added: since public administration plays a crucial role in formulation of
policies therefore it is a part of the political process as well (for e.g. Bills and Acts).
Negro said: public administration is different from private administration in numerous ways and
that it interacts with various private groups and individuals in providing services to the
community.

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3. The Nature Of Public Administration: On the nature of public administration there
have been two popular views:
• The Integral view - Is all encompassing and consists of sum total of all managerial,
clerical, technical and manual activities and employees form all levels. [endorsed by
L D White and Dimock.] It may differ from one agency to another depending on their
sphere of work.
• The Managerial view - Says that the public administration involves only the
managerial activities. [supported by Simon, Smithburg, Thompson and Luther
Gulick.]
4. Development Administration - Development administration is the name often given to
the way a country’s government acts to fulfill its role in achieving development. (Riggs
1977). “Development administration” is generally similar to the traditional “public
administration” in its concern with how a government implements its rules, policies, and
norms. It differs, however, in its objectives, scope, and complexity.
Development administration is more innovative, since it is concerned with the societal
changes involved in achieving developmental objectives. The three areas of concern:
• How purposefully to guide government action toward development objectives;?
• How actually to take account of the many and complex interdependencies of
societal and complex interdependencies of societal change; and
• How to ensure that governmental administration is dynamic and innovative.
The function of development administration is to assure that an appropriately congenial
environment and effective administration support are provided for delivery of capital,
materials and services where needed in the materials, and services where needed in the
productive process –whether in public, private, or mixed economies. Or mixed economies.
(Gant, 1979)
Six Groups of Needed Inputs:
a) Skilled Manpower,
b) Finances,
c) Logistics (or facilities for the physical flow of goods and services),
d) Information (facilities for the physical transmission of data),
e) Participation (of individuals and groups) and participation (of individuals and
groups), and
f) Legitimate power (to enforce decisions).
Note - these six inputs together compose the content of development action.
5. The Nature of Administration
It is universal.
It is holistic.
It is continuous & on-going process.
It is goal oriented.
It is social & human nature.
It is dynamic.
It is creative or innovative.

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6. Administration of a Business
The administration of a business includes:
✓ performance or management of business operations and decision making;
✓ efficient organization of people and other resources, to direct activities toward common
goals and objectives.
✓ Generally, administration refers to the broader management function, including the
associated finance, personnel and MIS services
7. Effective Administration
Effective administration depends on three basic personal skills, which have been
called technical, human, and conceptual.
The administrator needs:
a. sufficient technical skill to accomplish the mechanics of the particular job for which he is
responsible;
b. sufficient human skill in working with others to be an effective group member and to be able
to build cooperative effort within the team he leads;
c. sufficient conceptual skill to recognize the interrelationships of the various factors involved
in his situation, which will lead him to take that action which is likely to achieve the
maximum good for the total organization.
8. Nigeria Administrative System
The Nigeria Administrative system is made up of 3 level: Executive, Legislative and Judiciary.
Each of this level are affected by macro and micro environmental factors. The scope of this
paper is inadequate to investigate or discuss fully the significance of influences of these
environmental variables on the Nigeria Administrative system.
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B. Levels of Management
In other to fully understand where types of management come to play, it is necessary to quick
discuss the levels of management that are present in organisations. Most organizations have three
management levels:
• Low-level managers;
• Middle-level managers; and
• Top-level managers.
These managers are classified in a hierarchy of authority and perform different tasks. In many
organizations, the number of managers in every level resembles a pyramid.
Below, you’ll find the specifications of each level’s different responsibilities and their likely job
titles.
1. Top-level managers
The board of directors, president, vice-president, and CEO are all examples of top-level
managers.
These managers are responsible for controlling and overseeing the entire organization. They
develop goals, strategic plans, company policies, and make decisions on the direction of the
business.
In addition, top-level managers play a significant role in the mobilization of outside resources.
Top-level managers are accountable to the shareholders and general public.

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2. Middle-level managers
General managers, branch managers, and department managers are all examples of middle-level
managers. They are accountable to the top management for their department’s function.
Middle-level managers devote more time to organizational and directional functions than top-
level managers. Their roles can be emphasized as:
• Executing organizational plans in conformance with the company’s policies and
the objectives of the top management;
• Defining and discussing information and policies from top management to lower
management; and most importantly
• Inspiring and providing guidance to low-level managers towards better
performance.
Some of their functions are as follows:
• Designing and implementing effective group and intergroup work and information
systems;
• Defining and monitoring group-level performance indicators;
• Diagnosing and resolving problems within and among work groups;
• Designing and implementing reward systems supporting cooperative behavior.
3. Low-level managers
Supervisors, section leads, and foremen are examples of low-level management titles. These
managers focus on controlling and directing.
Low-level managers usually have the responsibility of:
• Assigning employees tasks;
• Guiding and supervising employees on day-to-day activities;
• Ensuring the quality and quantity of production;
• Making recommendations and suggestions; and
• Upchanneling employee problems.
Also referred to as first-level managers, low-level managers are role models for employees.
These managers provide:
• Basic supervision;
• Motivation;

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• Career planning;
• Performance feedback; and
• Staff supervision.
C. Types of Management
Now what the types of management that organisation uses for its operations? They are diverse
and many depending on the objectives,
Management is doing things right. It's the discipline of planning, organizing, leading and
controlling an organization.
Management has many faces. The fact is that managers have many styles and management has
many types. According to Anna Mar (2013), the most common types of management are
discussed briefly below:
1. Strategic Management: Strategic management looks at an organization's overall strategy
formation and execution with the goal of growing and sustaining competitive advantage.
Strategic management is an executive function that may report to the owners of a firm.
2. Sales Management: Management of sales territories, teams or accounts.
3. Marketing Management: Management of marketing strategies, products, brands and
promotions.
4. Public Relations Management: Managing communications between an organization and the
public.
5. Operations Management: The management of production of goods and services. Operations
management is a broad field that describes everything from manufacturing management to
retail management.
6. Supply Chain Management: Managing the process of moving a product or service from
supplier to customer.
7. Procurement Management: Managing the acquisition of goods and services from external
sources.
8. Financial & Accounting Management: Managing financial and accounting processes and
teams.
9. Human Resources Management: Responsible for attracting, hiring, training, compensating,
rewarding and managing the performance of employees. Human resources places a key role
in forming and overseeing an organization's culture.
10. Information Technology Management: Managing information technology teams and
processes.
11. R&D Management: The management of research & development processes and teams.

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12. Engineering Management: Managing the application of engineering to business solutions.
For example, new product development, manufacturing and construction.
13. Program Management: Program management is the management of an ongoing portfolio of
projects.
14. Project Management: Project management is the planning, organization and control of
projects.
15. Risk Management: Risk management is the discipline of identifying, assessing and
controlling the chance that objectives and processes will have negative consequences.
16. Change Management: Change management applies a structured approach to business change.
The goal of change management is to help organizations and teams make smooth transitions
to target states.
17. Quality Management: The management of quality planning, control, assurance and
improvement.
18. Innovation Management: The management of innovation processes such as strategy, research
& development or organizational change.
19. Design Management: The management of design processes such as new product design.
20. Facility Management: The management of facilities such as offices and data centres.
21. Knowledge Management: Knowledge management enables the identification, creation,
representation, distribution and use of knowledge. In a knowledge driven economy, this has
become a critical field.
VI. THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT
a. Management and Administration: The differences and meeting point
Management: the act or skill of directing and organizing the work of a company or
organization; the people who are in charge of a company or organization; the act or skill of
dealing with a situation that needs to be controlled in some way.
Administration: all activities that are involved in managing and organizing the affairs of a
company or institution; the government of a country at a particular time.
In this paper, I would like to use two schools of thought to highlight the differences between
Management and Administration. The first uses the Eight categories of differentiating
characteristics.

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These are objectives, success criteria, resource use, decision making, structure, roles, skills, and
attitudes. The second thought is according to Prachi Juneja in Management Study Guide, where he
summarized the difference between Management and Administration under 2 categories: -
Functions and Usage / Applicability.
On the Basis of Functions: -
Basis Management Administration
Meaning Management is an art of getting things done
through others by directing their efforts
towards achievement of pre-determined
goals.
It is concerned with formulation
of broad objectives, plans &
policies.
Nature Management is an executing function. Administration is a decision-
making function.
Process Management decides who should as it &
how should he dot it.
Administration decides what is to
be done & when it is to be done.
Function Management is a doing function because
managers get work done under their
supervision.
Administration is a thinking
function because plans & policies
are determined under it.
Skills Technical and Human skills Conceptual and Human skills
Level Middle & lower level function Top level function
On the Basis of Usage: -
Basis Management Administration
Applicability It is applicable to business concerns i.e.
profit-making organization.
It is applicable to non-business concerns
i.e. clubs, schools, hospitals etc.
Influence The management decisions are
influenced by the values, opinions,
beliefs & decisions of the managers.
The administration is influenced by public
opinion, govt. policies, religious
organizations, customs etc.
Status Management constitutes the employees
of the organization who are paid
remuneration (in the form of salaries &
wages).
Administration represents owners of the
enterprise who earn return on their capital
invested & profits in the form of dividend.

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Practically, there is no difference between management & administration. Every manager is
concerned with both - administrative management function and operative management function
as shown in the figure. However, the managers who are higher up in the hierarchy denote more
time on administrative function & the lower level denote more time on directing and controlling
worker’s performance i.e. management.
The Figure above clearly shows the degree of administration and management performed by the
different levels of management.

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b. Leadership, Management and Administration: The differences and meeting
point
Administration:
• Sergiovanni (1991) defined administration as a process of working with and through
others to accomplish goals efficiently.
An administrator then is one who is responsible for carrying out this process. Administrative
theorists describe the essential roles and tasks of administration as planning, organizing, leading
and controlling.
Management:
Management is also concerned with tasks such as planning, coordinating, directing, defining
objectives, supporting the work of others, and evaluating performance.
Thus, a similarity exists between administration and management.
Leadership:
Leadership is the exercise of high-level conceptual skills and decisiveness. It is envisioning
mission, developing strategy, inspiring people, and changing culture (Evans, 1996, p. 148).
From above, administration, management, and leadership are different but related. Perhaps one
way of framing it is this:
Administration is seeing that the airplanes take off on time, and leadership is at least in part
articulating why the planes need to take off on time and enlisting others in the purposeful
endeavor of making the planes take off on time. Management is seeing to it that once the plane
takes off; it maintains all other operations for it to reach its destination safely.

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In another form, simply, I would like to explain as:
Let's assume that we must climb to the top of a hill: execution hold is management, showing and
going on proper way is administration and making it to climb to that top is leadership.
Briefly:
Leadership defines the destination. Management gets us to that destination. Administration
provides the required logistical services and support to management.
OR:
Management sets the goal and direction of the organization. Administration sets the technical
specifications on how to achieve those goals. Leadership drives, motivates, and inspires people
around the organization to achieve its goals.
Administrators are appointed. They have a legitimate power base and can reward and punish.
Their ability to influence is founded upon the formal authority inherent in their positions. In
contrast, leaders may either be appointed or emerge from within a group. Leaders can influence
other to perform beyond the actions dictated by formal authority. In this sense, managers/
administrators get other people to do, but leaders get other people to want to do.
The Differentiators: Let’s end it with the differentiators.
• Leadership: vision and planning;
• Management: execution and value creation; and,
• Administration: process and tasks.
All are important, and in smaller firms one person may be expected to do everything, with input
(or meddling) from the owners. Most larger firms have figured out the importance of
governance and tend to keep and stick to the above.
VII. DEVELOPING ADMINISTRATIVE AND MANAGEMENT SKILLS
First let us define the word ‘s ill’. To be successful in planning, organizing, leading, and
controlling, managers must use a wide variety of skills. What is a skill?
• A skill is the ability to do something proficiently.
• A skill is an acquired and learned ability to translate knowledge into performance. It is
the competency that allows for performance to be superior in the field in which the
worker has the required skill. (https://www.managementstudyhq.com)
a. Administrative Skills
What are Administrative Skills? Administrative skills…
“…are qualities that help complete tasks related to managing a business.” – Indeed Ed Team
“…are those related to running a business or keeping an office organized, and are needed for a
variety of jobs, ranging from office assistants to secretaries to office managers.” – Alison Doyle

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This might involve responsibilities such as filing paperwork, meeting with internal and external
stakeholders, presenting important information, developing processes, answering employee
questions and more. There are many administrative skills that help perform these responsibilities
in an efficient, quality way. {Bakare, 2021}
These skills are highly transferable, meaning that the same abilities used at a company specializing
in real estate will be relevant and needed at a tech company. People with administrative skills offer
the support that enables companies to succeed at their core mission, whether it's serving clients.
Administrative skills are important because they keep business processes running smoothly. Any
successful, efficient organization should have both administrative professionals who have strong
skills in this area, as well as individual contributors who have good administrative skills.
There are many soft and technical skills (management skills) that contribute to a strong set of
administrative skills. While the technical skills required for administrative tasks may vary from
business to business (such as proficiency with specific software or platforms), there are several soft
or “interpersonal” skills common among people with strong administrative skills. A few
administrative skills required for efficiency and effectiveness in any workplace include:
i. Communication
Communication is a crucial skill to have when performing administrative tasks. You must be able
to communicate processes and information to others, respond clearly to questions and requests and
more. You must also be able to use various types of communication including verbal, nonverbal,
written and visual communication.
ii. Organization
Strong organizational skills to keep your workspace and the office you manage in order. Having
an organized desk, computer and calendar can help you complete administrative tasks in a quality
and time-efficient manner. Administrative professionals might also be in charge of organizing
supply closets, filing systems, processes and more.
iii. Teamwork
Having strong teamwork skills can help you when collaborating on administrative projects,
developing a new process, communicating and putting a new process into place or delegating tasks.
Being a good teammate includes practicing empathy, humility and being a good communicator.

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iv. Responsibility
Tasks related to administration are often important to keeping a business running efficiently. So,
having the responsibility to complete tasks on time and in a quality manner without much oversight
is crucial.
v. Customer service
In administration, it is common to answer questions for others or perform certain tasks that others
are unable to do themselves. These responsibilities can be performed well with strong customer
service skills which include active listening, setting expectations and communication.
vi. Multi-tasking
As an administrative assistant, you might be asked to handle multiple tasks simultaneously. It’s
not uncommon to have to respond in a timely manner to emails, answer calls, address in-person
requests and handle project requests. Combining other skills like organization and time
management gives you the ability to multi-task, allowing you to manage multiple responsibilities
at once by to be able to efficiently.
vii. Time management
Because there are so many various responsibilities involved in business administration, managing
your time wisely is a key skill. Maintaining your calendar, planning time to complete tasks and
setting proper timeline expectations are all parts of being a strong administrator.
viii. Adept in Technology
Having the technological skills necessary to perform data entry, manage team calendars, and
create company reports are highly sought-after admin skills. It is important to be familiar with
Microsoft Office software like Excel, Word, PowerPoint, Outlook, customer relationship
management (CRM) system, customer service platform, or virtual help desk. A thorough
understanding of computer software, browsers, and operating systems to perform.
ix. Enterprise Resource Planning
New technology has changed the way we work daily, and exploring technology is definitely key
to moving forward within a business. A creation of this technological change is Enterprise
resource planning (ERP). This is a common business process management software that provides
one central repository for all information to improve the flow of data across a business.
Administrative professionals may be expected to be familiar with ERP software to develop
custom report cards. Common ERP software for businesses include financial and payroll
software such as Oracle, SAP and Pronto.

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b. Management Skills
What are Management Skills? Management skills can be defined as…
“…. certain attributes or abilities that an executive should possess in order to fulfill specific tasks
in an organization.”
They include the capacity to perform executive duties in an organization while avoiding crisis
situations and promptly solving problems when they occur. Management skills can be developed
through learning and practical experience as a manager. The skills help the manager to relate
with their fellow co-workers and know how to deal well with their subordinates, which allows
for the easy flow of activities in the organization. (CFI, 2021)
i. Types of Management Skills
Managerial skills fall into three basic categories: technical, human relations, and conceptual
skills. But other experts added 3 additional categories as discussed below. The degree to which
each type of skill is used depend upon the level of the manager’s position.
Additionally, in an increasingly global marketplace, it pays for managers to develop a special set
of skills to deal with global management issues.
According to American social and organizational psychologist Robert Katz, and Bartleby
research, there are six basic types of management skills include:
1. Technical skill
2. Interpersonal skill
3. Conceptual skill
4. Diagnostic skill
5. Design skill
6. Political skills.

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A brief discussion on each below:
1. Technical Skills
Technical skills involve skills that give the managers the ability and the knowledge to use a
variety of techniques to achieve their objectives. These skills not only involve operating
machines and software, production tools, and pieces of equipment but also the skills needed
to boost sales, design different types of products and services, and market the services and
the products.
2. Conceptual Skills
These involve the skills managers present in terms of the knowledge and ability for abstract
thinking and formulating ideas. The manager is able to see an entire concept, analyze and
diagnose a problem, and find creative solutions. This helps the manager to effectively predict
hurdles their department or the business as a whole may face.
3. Human or Interpersonal Skills
The human or the interpersonal skills are the skills that present the managers’ ability to
interact, work or relate effectively with people. These skills enable the managers to make use
of human potential in the company and motivate the employees for better results.
4. Diagnostic and Analytical Skills
Diagnostic skills refer to an individual's ability to identify a particular problem and define it.
Diagnostic skill refers to the ability to visualize the best response to a situation. It refers to a
manager’s analytical ability where a manager can logically and objectively investigate and
analyzes a problem or an opportunity and use scientific approaches to arrive at a feasible and
optimal solution.
It is important however that a manager gets to the root cause of the problem so that the
solution is the real and a permanent one rather than simply a short-term or a cosmetic one.
This skill overlaps with other skills because a manager may need to use technical, human,
conceptual or political skills to solve the problem that has been diagnosed.
Analytical skill means, the ability to identify the key variables in a situation. Manager
diagnostic skill and Analytical skill helps him to identify possible approaches to a situation.
These skills are acquired through formal training, practice, and experimentation.
Diagnostics i.e. shaping your context. Examples of diagnostic skills include attention to
detail, understanding oneself, respecting the opinions of others and being more fact-based.
5. Design Skills
Design skills refer to the ability of a person to find solutions to problems in ways that would
benefit the organization. It is the ability to imagine how something will look after it is
moved around or when its parts are moved or rearranged. In addition to these cognitive
abilities or mindset, a further set of skills emerge which reinforce the technical nature
of design.

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Alignment, repetition, contrast, hierarchy and balance. These are five words that
any designer needs to be incredibly familiar with—they make up what we call the
Design Principles, which should be used on every design project you work on. They are key
in creating any successful design.
As a top manager, you should not only recognize a problem but also suggest ways to
overcome them. If you only see the problem, you would become mere “problem watcher,”
and would prove ineffective. Managers at upper organizational levels should be able to
design a rational and feasible solution to the problem by considering the various internal and
external factors.
6. Political Skills
Political skill is defined as: “The ability to effectively understand others at work, and to use
such knowledge to influence others to act in ways that enhance one’s personal and/or
organizational objectives” (Ferris, Treadway et al., 2005). Political skill can be described as
the ability to get your own way without seeming to be selfish or self-oriented. It is the ability
to get your share of power and authority and use it without fear of losing it. (Sonia Kukreja,
2020)
Politically skilled individuals display six important behaviors: thinking before speaking,
managing up, interpersonal influence, social astuteness, networking ability and sincerity
(Ferris, Davidson & Perrewe, 2005). It is the most complex of skills in the sense that it is
required for establishing the right connections and impressing the right people and then
skillfully using these connections to your own advantage. Political skill is most important at
the middle management level because middle managers always aspire to reach the top levels
of management and right connections help in such aspirations.
What are the benefits of political skills? In a recent review of the effectiveness of political
skills, Munyon and colleagues (Munyon, Summer, Thompson & Ferris, 2015) found that
political skill was positively related to self-efficacy, job satisfaction, organizational
commitment, work productivity, organizational citizen behavior (OCB), career success and
negatively related to physiological strain.
They also found that political skills were positively related to task performance because of
the personal reputation and self-efficacy of the individual, showing partial mediation. The
review also focused on which political skill dimensions predicted task performance and
found that networking ability, interpersonal influence, and sincerity predicted task
performance although social astuteness did not show a relationship with task performance.
(CQ NETC)
Political behavior can also have a negative effect on organizations under certain
circumstances. When politically skilled individuals have a strong desire to gain personal
power they tend to be cunning, manipulative and will use whatever means necessary to gain
political power. This extreme form of political behavior is considered one of the dark
personality traits called Machiavellianism. Leaders can avoid ineffective organizational
politics by selecting the right employees and by providing an environment that emphasizes

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the overaching goal of the organization. When those negative effects of political behavior are
mitigated, organizational politics are rather a blessing than a curse. (CQ NETC)
ii. Some Important Management Skills
According to Indeed Editorial Team (2021), the most effective management skills to be
developed regardless of your department or industry, can be grouped into five primary
categories:
1. Leadership
2. Planning
3. Strategy
4. Communication
5. Organization
Here is a breakdown of each category with several examples.
1. Leadership
As a manager, you will likely be responsible for overseeing the work of others and motivating a
team toward a common goal. You might also be responsible for leading meetings, assigning
workloads, and supporting collaboration across teams and departments. Well-developed
leadership skills will help you coordinate tasks and direct all parties to ensure work is completed
according to plan and finished on time.
These are also the skills you’ll need to adequately handle leadership duties such as employee
evaluations and professional development.
Leadership skills examples:
Decisiveness
Team building
Empathy
Dependability
Constructive criticism
Delegating tasks
Empowerment
Integrity
Mentoring
Motivating others
Patience
Relationship management
2. Planning
Whether you’re managing people, projects or a combination of the two, the ability to prepare a
vision for the future and strategize solutions is essential to good management. Planning skills
help when setting goals and determining the most efficient path to meet objectives.
Planning skills examples:
• Cognitive skills
• Adaptability
• Business development
• Critical thinking
• Flexibility

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• Logical reasoning
3. Strategy
A strategic manager is someone who can spot inefficiencies and quickly identify solutions to
challenges. They can also recognize the steps each team member should take to overcome
obstacles and complete projects.
Strategy skills examples:
• Strategic thinking
• Problem-solving
• Conflict resolution
• Creativity
• Analytical thinking
4. Communication
To effectively lead people and projects, you must be able to understand the needs and goals of
the business and convey this information to others through simple and straightforward
instruction. Well-developed communication skills will ensure you’re able to translate the most
accurate information to the right people at the right time. Great communicators actively listen,
retain information well and pass it on efficiently to others.
Communication skills examples:
Active listening
Collaboration
Interpersonal communication
Negotiation
Persuasion
Public speaking
Verbal communication
Written communication
Interviewing
Building relationships
5. Organization
As a manager, you’ll have to balance many tasks at the same time. Often, this means overseeing
multiple project timelines, deadlines and calendar events such as meetings, conferences and
presentations. Excellent organizational skills will help you stay on top of your work, reduce
stress, prevent you and your team from missing critical dates and ensure you can find
information when you need it most. Staying organized will improve your workflow and ensure
you’re able to complete tasks as efficiently as possible. It will also set a great example for any
employees who may report to you.
Organizational skills examples:
Goal setting
Administrative skills
Project management
Time management
Deadline management
Event coordination
Recordkeeping
Scheduling

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iii. How Managerial Skills are Interrelated and blend using Diplomacy
These are the skills an ideal manager must-have. Looking close enough, we will find the skill are
inter-related and irreplaceable. A manager is appointed for making a decision and to solve
problem. No more, no less. So, to make the decision s/he needs to identify a situation which
could be opportunities or threat.
Conceptual knowledge is essential for this as it helps the manager has a complete understanding
of the organization. A manager cannot decide without diagnosing and analyzing. Diagnosing and
analyzing the situation is required to tackle a situation and for this needs information and
resources.
Collecting Information and gathering resources requires communication with colleagues at work
and peoples outsides the organization. Persuading, leading, motivating is required and get the
best out of them. A manager cannot just give decisions and sit in this office; he needs to have
technical skills is for performing the task which was set by the decision.
A good manager has all these skills, but it is not necessarily true that all of them are equally
important or required for the assigned job or post of a manager. The relative importance of these
skills of a manager depends on the manager rank of his in the organizational hierarchy.
Management skills are important for many reasons. They position you to act as an effective
leader and problem-solver in so many situations. Work on honing these skills and watch how
they can impact your job performance and opportunities.
iv. Tips For Succeeding In A Manager Role
Taking on a management position can be a rewarding opportunity to meaningfully contribute to
an organization, take on new responsibilities and grow your professional career. Whether you’re
applying for your first management role, or you’ve been in a leadership position for a while,
growing your skills will help you achieve success.
Here are three things you can do to develop the managerial skills listed above to ensure you’re
ready for the challenges of a new role.
1. Seek opportunities to lead.
Like all professional abilities, managerial skills take practice. To help prepare yourself, look
for opportunities to lead within your current position. For example, volunteer to manage
projects and lead meetings. This can help you identify and improve your areas of
opportunity. For example, the experience of leading a project may help you recognize you
lack experience in team goal setting. Once you’ve highlighted potential weaknesses, you can
spend time working on them.
Additionally, taking small leadership opportunities in your current job will help you
demonstrate your abilities to your supervisor and other senior personnel who may be seeking
managerial candidates.
2. Find a role model.
Look for great leaders both inside and outside your organization and take time to observe
how they interact with others. Pay close attention to the character traits they exhibit, how

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they behave under pressure and what they do when faced with complex challenges. Consider
asking another leader to mentor you to help nurture your managerial talents. While it takes
time and experience to become a successful manager, an accomplished leader’s advice can
help you understand the obstacles and circumstances you may face leading a team.
3. Ask for feedback.
While self-evaluation is important, asking for feedback from others can help you identify
areas to improve that you may have otherwise missed. Next time you have an employee
evaluation, ask your supervisor for feedback on your organization, planning and strategy,
communication and people management skills. Once you know your strengths and
weaknesses in these areas, you can continue developing your best attributes and work on
areas of improvement. This will help ensure you’re well prepared for the demands of a
leadership role.
VIII. THE MITIGATION OF ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT
CHALLENGES AND ISSUES IN ORGANISATIONS THROUGH
DIPLOMACY.
The questions we are asking in this paper is: How does diplomacy helps to mitigate
administration and management issues and challenges in organisation? To proffer a well-
rounded response necessitate a deep excursion into the people skills that are used as tools and
skills of diplomacy. We understand that the primary abilities that fall within the framework of
diplomatic skills set include empathy and compassion, emotional intelligence, conflict resolution
and tact. These skills help individual, managers, workers, and public officials to:
✓ Know how to deal with people without unnecessary “bad blood” and ill-feelings.
✓ Find the right balance between your personal needs and group needs.
✓ Learn how to handle difficulties and settling disputes effectively.
✓ Successfully navigating and channeling request appropriately without hurting others.
✓ Effective handling of disagreement and challenging work situations.
A. The Key Diplomatic Skills Require for Leaders and Managers To Resolve Issues
And Challenges
What are the prerequisites for successful use of diplomacy in organisation and daily life especially
with regards to handling issues and challenges in Administration and Management? The following
diplomatic skills are available to managers and leaders for use to effectively handle any issues and
challenges that may arise in the workplace.
i. Attentive Listening: This is active listening which involves listening with all senses. It is the
ability to focus completely on a speaker, understand their message, comprehend the
information and respond thoughtfully. You need to be able to listen to not just what is being
said but also how it is being said to understand, and react appropriately to, others. Great
listening doesn’t come easily. It’s hard work. Be motivated to listen, but if you must speak ask
questions for clarity on what’s been said or not said.

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ii. Emotional Intelligence: Emotional intelligence (otherwise known as emotional quotient
or EQ) is the ability to understand, use, and manage your own emotions in positive ways to
relieve stress, communicate effectively, empathize with others, overcome challenges, and
defuse conflict. People with higher emotional intelligence can usually use tact and diplomacy
more naturally in communication. Emotional intelligence is a measure of how well we
understand our own emotions and the emotions of others. The ability to express and
control emotions is essential, but so is the ability to understand, interpret, and respond to the
emotions of others. This is essential in a good diplomatic relationship.
iii. Showing Empathy and Compassion: As an extension to emotional intelligence, empathy is
your ability to see the world from another person’s perspective. Diplomacy often requires that
you have empathy and compassion for the feelings and perspective of other people. Empathetic
people have the ability to imagine what it would be like to walk in another's shoes. Someone
who is diplomatic tends to avoid impulsive responses driven by selfish motives. Instead, a
diplomatic person tries to approach discussions, negotiations, and disagreements with intent to
understand the other party's point of view.
iv. Rapport: Rapport is a close and harmonious relationship in which the people or groups
concerned understand each other's feelings or ideas and communicate well. It is the ability to
relate to others in a way that creates a level of trust and understanding. It is a connection or
relationship with someone else. It can be considered as a state of harmonious understanding
with another individual or group. It is closely linked to tact and diplomacy as well as emotional
intelligence and good manners. It is important to build rapport with your client/colleague as it
gets their unconscious mind to accept and begin to process your suggestions. They are made
to feel comfortable and relaxed-open to suggestions.
v. Politeness: Politeness is the practical application of good manners or etiquette so as not to
offend others. (Wikipedia). This is a behaviour that is respectful and considerate of other
people. It is important to be polite because it puts other people at ease and helps build strong
relationships. Politeness also helps decrease the social distance between two people, making it
easier to communicate. Being polite and courteous, respecting other people’s view-point and
cultural differences is is especially important when communicating with customers and
colleagues and in many interpersonal relationships.
vi. Negotiation: By definition, diplomacy is the point of contact between two or more sovereign
states. It is therefore the only branch of public power that, even as a last resort, may never
resort to duress; its action is through dialogue, otherwise known as negotiation. The art of
managing a complex negotiation process is the ultimate skill in the fields
of diplomacy and international relations. Diplomatic Negotiations involves seeking
familiarity, not friendship, discuss differences in advance and assign roles and responsibilities.
(PON Staff, 2021)

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vii. Open mindedness: Facilitate effective communication by maintaining an "open mind." Avoid
passing judgment on or expressing criticism of communicated messages. You do not have to
agree entirely with the other person’s thoughts and opinions, but it is important that you respect
them. Demonstrate empathy by trying to understand the situation from the other person’s
perspective.
viii. Consideration & Tact: Tact is basic sensitivity toward others in communication. A person
who is "tactless" acts or speaks freely without regard for the feelings of others. In contrast, a
tactful person considers the environment, the people nearby and the potential group
ramifications of a message. By considering these factors before speaking, a diplomatic person
avoids making insensitive statements that easily offend others, attract ire and cause workplace
tension.
ix. Compromise: This is an an agreement or settlement of a dispute that is reached by each side
making concessions. Effective communication is a necessary component of compromise.
When a problem exists, both individuals must work collaboratively to formulate a list of
potential solutions as well as trade-offs that they will agree to. It is to come to agreement by
mutual concession. Compromise has been the main way of solving conflict among individuals,
groups, and countries since the beginning of humanity; it is the main tool of diplomacy. At the
core of compromise, there is empathy, if not sympathy, for others.
By being ready to compromise, we understand the views, needs, and emotions of others, and
we try to accommodate them by either adjusting our approach or, sometimes, by giving up on
our claims partially. The importance of compromise in diplomacy could be realised if we think
of all possible conflicts that could have happened and those that actually happened in reality.
x. Assertiveness: This is the quality of being self-assured and confident without being
aggressive. Assertiveness can help you express yourself effectively and stand up for your point
of view, while also respecting the rights and beliefs of others. Being assertive can also help
boost your self-esteem and earn others' respect. Let’s note that the reason for using tact and
diplomacy is very often to persuade or influence others to think or behave in a certain
way. Assertiveness is fundamental to this process and a skill that many people lack.
xi. Reflection: Validate the thoughts and feelings of the person speaking by reflecting back what
he has communicated. This can be accomplished by summarizing the main idea of the
speaker’s message. For example, "You feel like you have tried several options and are not sure
about what step to take next." This communication skill helps the speaker feel like she is being
understood and gives her the opportunity to clarify and add more detail if necessary.
xii. Conflict Resolution: A primary benefit of diplomatic skills is that you avoid conflict by
navigating safely through it when it comes up. Diplomatic people figure out how to protect the

33 | P a g e
feelings of another person in a conflict while still asserting their perspective. Using a "cushion"
in conflict communication helps in conflict resolution, according to Dale Carnegie Training.
A cushion is language conveying respect for the other person's opinions before stating your
own. You might say, for instance, "I really understand where you're coming from, Bob.
However, here is why I think this situation is unique and requires a different approach.
B. THE DIPLOMATIC FUNCTIONS IN ORGANIZATIONS:
If leaders and managers in organisation are desirous of using diplomacy to resolve issues and
challenges in administration and management, then it is critical to note the key areas of
diplomatic functions that are relevant and useful. These include:
• Representation;
• Communication;
• Negotiation;
• Advocacy
• Mediation;
• Observation of situations;
• Reporting and feedback systems;
• Public relations; and
• International relations.
In all interactions and relationships with key actors in both public and private organisation,
managers/leaders are at liberty to use any of the above or combination thereof to tackle the
problem, as necessary.
C. HOW TO USE DIPLOMACY TO MITIGATE ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN
ORGANISATION
We can infer from the above that diplomatic leadership involves negotiating, representing
interests and policies, speaking publicly, and resolving conflicts. Diplomacy – the professional
activities or skills of managing international relations – usually involves dealing with others
without causing bad feelings. Diplomatic leadership requires a person to be a good manager,
resilient negotiator, and a trusted adviser. It enables her to raise awareness and assist
constituents.
Using diplomatic skills to resolves issues and challenges in administration and management of
organisation remain one of the best options to create a workplace that is devoid of rancour,
acrimony and backstabbing that impart negatively on productivity.
How do we mitigate issues and challenges using diplomacy tools? Diplomatic managers and
leaders must be astute and wise in deploying these tools to tackle any of the already discussed
issues and challenges in administration and management. Since people are the most important
asset in organisation, diplomatic skills is the needed tool to get organisation running with
minimal disruption.
According to Tara Duggan (2020), to do these effectively, the following are used proficiently
when handling any issues and challenges:

34 | P a g e
a) Work on Building Relationships
When confronting issues and challenges, diplomacy allows a leader to build productive
relationships. People who build these relationships accept criticism and step in to solve
problems without being asked. They pay attention to details and ask probing questions
but also know when to show restraint. A good diplomatic leader knows when to show
appreciation and make other people feel good about themselves. Effective leaders also
apologize when necessary to preserve these relationships.
b) Use Negotiation in Agreements
Issues and challenges are common in organisation, and managers responsibilities is to
modulate them for peace and harmony. Hence, negotiation might be a great tool to deploy
when team or groups are involved. Negotiation skills help a diplomatic leader achieve her
goals. Negotiation, the process between two disagreeing parties trying to seek a solution,
involves making deals, solving problems, managing conflict, and preserving
relationships.
During the bargaining process, the lack of dependence on others, or a strong best
alternative to a negotiated agreement, represents power. Some positions grant power due
to the authority or control they exert. In other cases, that means a leader exudes power
even if it does not necessarily seem granted to her.
c) Safeguarding Integrity is Key
Diplomatic leaders act in accordance with their own core values and that of the
organization they represent no matter the importance of issues or challenges at hand. So,
adherence to standards of business conduct and maintenance of ethical standards must not
be compromised. This expectation demands prudence, care and being virtuous. Balance
between the benefit of the few and the majority can be difficult to determine or decide.
Diplomatic leadership involves setting a good example and showing others what it means
to have integrity and honesty in all dealings.
d) Gaining Advantage Without Force:
A leader commands subordinates, who are an organization’s most important assets.
However, she does so without force or coercion. When employees become engaged,
productive, and satisfied, they tend to work harder to achieve business goals. Leaders
have a tremendous impact on whether or not employees get engaged. To gain an
advantage, a diplomatic leader provides interesting work for her employees that they take
pride in, feel in control of and for which they feel respected. Diplomatic leaders create
opportunities for dialogue with others and inspire subordinates by creating a culture
steeped in observance of professional etiquette.
Furthermore, when a diplomatic leader/manager speaks, it is essential to mind your language.
Language mining is a diplomatic tool – communication – that leader/manager can use to handle
issues and challenges that arise in their daily operations.
The London School group share about five areas to be polite and diplomatic when speaking for
our consideration:

35 | P a g e
e) Listen And Be Understanding
When we show other people that we are listening to them, and that we understand them,
they will be more willing to listen and accept our opinion. Don't just say "I disagree",
show them that you are listening and that you understand them before you explain your
opinion. You can do this by using statements like: Yes, but...I see what you mean, but...I
agree up to a point, but…etc.
f) Avoid negative words - instead use positive words in a negative form
People react to positive sounding words, even if they are used with a negative auxiliary.
Don't say: I think that's a bad idea. Say: I don't think that's such a good idea.
g) Use the magic word if necessary: Sorry
This word can be used in many ways: to interrupt, to apologise, to show you don't
understand, to disagree. It diffuses tension and it allows you to start a statement more
comfortably. Sorry, but can I just say something here…..Sorry, but I don't really agree…
Sorry, but I think that's out of the question….etc.
h) Use little words to soften your statements
Break down negative sentences with some softeners. Don't say: I don't like it. Say: I
don't really like it I'm afraid. Don't say: Can I say something? Say: Can I just say
something here? Don't say: I didn't catch that. Say: Sorry, I didn't quite catch that.
i) Avoid 'finger pointing' statements with the word 'you'
This is aggressive and too direct. Try to avoid saying 'you' and put the focus on 'I' or 'we'.
Don't say: You don't understand me. Say: Perhaps I'm not making myself clear. Don't
say:You didn't explain this point. Say: I didn't understand this point. Don't say: You need
to give us a better price. Say: We're looking for a better price.
j) Provide support and creative solutions.
When approaching challenging situations, tasks or projects, find ways to offer support to
your coworkers. Show that you're open to collaboration and solving problems that achieve
objectives.
k) Help mediate work conflicts.
Use your diplomatic skills to help others solve conflicts. For instance, help others listen to
all sides of a situation and work together to find a solution that is beneficial for everyone.
This not only demonstrates your diplomatic capabilities, but it also showcases your ability
to lead a team to work together to solve a problem.
D. HOW TO DEVELOP ADMINISTRATIVE SKILLS THROUGH DIPLOMACY
Developing your administrative skills through the acquisition of diplomatic skills can help have a
stronger work ethic by completing tasks in a punctual and quality manner while working well
with others. (Bakare, 2021). Furthermore, Robert Half (2018) identified six (6) practical advice
in developing Administrative and Management Skills through Diplomacy. The following might
be considered when working on your administrative skills:

36 | P a g e
i. Set personal career goals
Setting specific, measurable goals to increase some or all of the above administrative
skills can help you improve over time. It can help to meet with trusted friends, colleagues
or mentors to identify areas of improvement to determine which skills you should
prioritize.
ii. Get organized
Organization is an important part of being a good administrator. Take time to make a
clean, organized workspace for yourself that can help you prioritize tasks, manage your
time well and respond quickly to others who need the information you have.
iii. Mimic other strong administration skills
If you have a colleague or manager that has strong administrative skills that you find
effective, try adopting their practices in your own work. For example, if you find that
their style of note-taking is especially helpful, you might also practice taking notes in this
way.
iv. Pursue Training and Development
Investigate your company's internal training offerings, if it has any. Ask if your employer
would provide tuition reimbursement for an outside development course, conference or
seminar. Consider the skills you want to develop and whether you can demonstrate how a
particular training program will improve your administrative skills, on-the-job
performance or contributions to the firm.
v. Join Industry Associations (or Professional Associations)
Become active in organizations like the International Association of Administrative
Professionals. Participate in committees, attend seminars and other educational events,
and talk with your fellow administrative professionals at meetings. Networking tips can
prove valuable to help you get out there and connect. Lisa Tynan (2021) identified the
following tips for a successful networking:
• Identify what networking style works best for you
• Use social media effectively
• Practice networking in your workplace
• Offer to help
• Be consistent
• Follow up
vi. Choose a Mentor
Find someone with strengths in the area you wish to improve and ask if he or she will
assist you. If your employer doesn't have an in-house mentoring program, look for
individuals inside or outside the organization whose administrative skills you admire.
vii. Take on new Challenges
If you feel stagnant in your current role, ask your manager about ways you can assume
more challenging assignments. Most supervisors will welcome initiative from staff;
clearly, it will add value to the team. Showing motivation and ambition also may help
you stand out as a candidate for promotion.

37 | P a g e
viii. Help a Nonprofit Cause
If you can't do more at your company, consider possibilities outside the office, such as
through charitable organizations. These groups may be receptive to your interest in
supporting them, and you might find mentors who can help you expand your abilities and
knowledge. By volunteering on committees or for leadership roles, you can develop
administrative skills that not only benefit the organization but also are applicable to your
paid job.
ix. Participate in Diverse Projects
Listen up during meetings for colleagues requesting assistance with special initiatives.
This may be your opportunity to expand your skill set by getting involved in other areas
of the department or company. Also offer to help if your boss or colleagues seem
overloaded with projects.
E. MITIGATING OTHER CHALLENGES USING DIPLOMATIC SKILLS
As an administrator, manager or even employee, you are bound to face some common issues and
challenges related to productivity and communication. Knowing how to recognize these
challenges and address them helps increase your confidence and ability to lead a team. (Bakare,
2021).
According to Indeed Editorial Team, 2021, the following are some of the most common issues
and challenges managers face, and where diplomatic skills can be applied to create rapport,
harmony, and an enabling work relationship that boost productivity:
1. Decreased performance levels
2. Being understaffed
3. Lack of communication
4. Poor teamwork
5. Pressure to perform
6. Absence of structure
7. Time management
8. Inadequate support
9. Skepticism
10. Difficult employees
11. Transition from coworker to manager
12. Weak workplace culture
1. Decreased Performance Levels:
Employees may experience periods of time where they are not as productive as usual. A
decrease in productivity can sometimes affect other team members and overall goals, making
it important to help employees feel motivated.
Managers who consistently review processes and procedures within the company can
increase efficiency. Perform a workflow analysis to review your current systems and
restructure weak areas. Another way to address this challenge is by asking questions and

38 | P a g e
offering solutions to their problems. One-on-one meetings provide a great opportunity for
managers to reestablish work hours and expectations regarding work productivity.
2. Being Understaffed
Managers must recognize when it's time to hire another team member to help fulfill
responsibilities within their department. Because the hiring process is time-consuming, it's
helpful to get assistance from other managers and human resources professionals when
pursuing a new candidate. If needed, ask for help when creating a job description,
interviewing applicants and selecting the right person for the desired role. Consider having
applicants complete a sample work test to help you determine the best fit for your team.
3. Lack of Communication
Another challenge managers face when overseeing teams is ensuring effective
communication. Because every team member has a different personality, there is a chance for
miscommunication from time to time.
Increase the frequency of communication to ensure employees know exactly what you expect
of them and when you need them to complete it. Redefine standards that reinforce your
team's goals and purposes. Consider implementing a messaging platform for the workplace
that allows everyone to communicate quickly. Let them know if you prefer one form of
contact over another.
4. Poor Teamwork
Sometimes, employees may lose focus on collaboration when they spend a lot of time
completing individual tasks. To re-establish teamwork, managers should revisit the purpose
of a project. Managers who take the time to acknowledge their team's efforts and clarify the
purpose of their work commonly see increased levels of motivation.
Consider dividing your team members into partners so they have a chance to work with
someone for a specific project. Team-building exercises are another great way to help
everyone learn how to work better together. Base the content of your exercises around the
challenges your team faces. For example, if they need to get to know each other better, focus
on relationship building.
5. Pressure to Perform
Some managers, especially new managers, to feel like they are under pressure to achieve
greatness from the very start of their role. If you frequently feel stressed about your
leadership position, take time to revisit the reasons why you were hired for the job.
Recognize that leaders learn from experience and mistakes. While planning helps, you will
likely face unexpected situations. The way that you choose to resolve conflicts and react to
challenges reflects your ability to lead.
6. Absence of Structure
A common challenge that managers face in the workplace is the absence of structure,
especially when overseeing a new team. Depending on the work environment, some teams
may need to be supervised more closely than others in order to maintain productivity levels.
Take time to develop an organizational structure that helps employees know what you expect
of them. In addition, show your team respect to encourage loyalty.

39 | P a g e
7. Time Management
Because managers are responsible for overseeing the members of their team and
communicating with other department heads, they typically struggle with balancing their own
tasks. One way to prioritize your own work responsibilities is by scheduling time throughout
the day to do specific work. Let your team know the times you'll be available to them and the
times you plan to focus on your work. Regularly update your calendar, and share it with team
members so they know when they can reach you.
8. Inadequate Support
Managers sometimes need approval from the executive team of a company or the business
owner before moving ahead with a project. When the decision-making process takes longer
than expected, it may slow down their team's progress overall. The most important thing to
do in this situation is to be honest with your team members. Let them know that you are
waiting for information from the executive team, and if possible, allow them to work on
other projects. Try to arrange for a one-on-one with the decision-maker to expedite progress.
9. Skepticism
Teams often question the transparency of management when they feel distanced from their
supervisors, especially if certain employees feel like they are doing more work than others.
When people feel they are not part of the plan, their level of trust becomes compromised.
Clear communication and honest interactions help resolve skepticism in most instances
because it builds trust between an employee and manager. When you delegate tasks, explain
why you assigned it and how it contributes to the overall goal.
10. Difficult Employees
Sometimes, managers oversee employees who cause tension in the workplace. Knowing how
to properly address any issues before they become major problems is one common challenge
managers face. To address specific concerns, request feedback from your team members to
learn about any issues they may have with completing work or communicating with team
members.
Implement any feasible suggestions to show you're listening to your team. Take time to listen
to their concerns and find out what you can about the situation. If you're unsure of what to do
next, consider enlisting the support of an HR professional in your company. Their training
supports conflict resolution and other aspects of employee relations.
11. Transition from Coworker to Manager
People who get promoted at work often find themselves managing old coworkers. This
situation may feel awkward at first, but with time and the right leadership, it may become
less of an issue. Ensure team members that you're there to support their efforts and ensure
they have everything they need to accomplish their goals. It may help to have a meeting
shortly after the transition where you address the change in roles and allow your team
members to ask any questions.
12. Weak Workplace Culture
When teams feel like they're not connected with the rest of the workplace, they could
experience a decrease in motivation. Teams that feel they are part of a larger group,
experience more confidence and trust. One way to promote a strong work culture is by
planning lunch outings and rewarding employees who exceed expectations.

40 | P a g e
All the above challenges involve resolution practices where diplomatic skills are involved bearing
in mind that people are the key factors in mitigation of any predicaments. The diplomatic manager
and leader must adept in the use of relevant diplomatic skills to tackle any of above challenges. For
example, to address ‘decrease performance level’, a combination of skills like EI, communication
skills, reflection and open-mindedness might be engaged to get it resolve. Let’s note that you are to
deploy diplomatic skills in as addendum to the necessary competencies and policies in operations
within the unit or organisation.
IX. CONCLUSION
Management is about directing, improving, innovating in order to reach the organization’s goal of
profit-maximizing. Administration is about analyzing reports, correcting mistakes and solving
problems in order to reach the same goal. A company, an organization, an institution, or a nation
needs both. It must not only keep things going; it must also make things go: a distinction which
represents a succinct, yet valid, definition of the difference between administration and
management”.
Effective administration and management are critical to ensuring that the public sector has the
expertise needed to address the most pressing civic problems facing society. This includes a wide
range of actors, including federal, state, and local career civil servants; political appointees;
contractors; academics; and professional associations and good government organizations.
This is a broad field and a deep bench for the nation to draw upon to address the challenges and
issues in administration and management successfully using the array of diplomatic skills
discussed in the body of this paper.
The stakeholders must decide to work together and make progress for the overall benefit of the
society. Our duty as an institute is to inspire action by providing forum such as this where state
and non-state actors can rob mind together to come up with workable solutions to arrest the
malaise of spate of insecurity and economic doldrums the country is battling presently.
In the body of this paper, we have established that diplomacy is central to efficient and effective
mitigation of management and administrative challenges. Diplomatic skills make a manager or
employee to be shoulder above their peers. Those who possess diplomatic skills turns in superior
performance, and it also accelerate career growth, and makes one more attractive during talent
hunt, or promotion in the organisation.
Effective use of diplomatic skills by individual in organisations and nations administrative system
regularly will entrench justice, bonding and satisfaction which yields sustainable development and
growth in all aspect of human and organisational endeavours.
A robust and sustainable diplomacy is about maintaining positive relationship, creating harmony,
and engendering goodwill and mutual trust. When alloyed with a strong administrative system,
then the trajectory of the product is potential exponential growth for the benefit of the organisation
and nations who combines both in the right proportion.
Administrative professionals who acquired diplomatic skills play a key part in holding a team
together and a lot of organizations would fall apart without them. Professionals who hold well-

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