This presentation represents the event or incident which triggered the parameter to be added in Indian Drinking water standards.

1. HISTORY OF INDIAN
DRINKING WATER QUALITY
PARAMETERS

2. FRESHWATER RESOURCES
ON EARTH
Source : UN- Water 2014

4. ➢Globally, over 1 billion people lack access to safe
drinking water.
➢2.5 billion lack access to adequate sanitation.
➢Estimated that 5 million people globally, primarily
kids, die from water-related diseases annually.
FLOODING & STORM SURGE
For the year 2015

6. GANGA POLLUTION

7. Uttarkhand Environment Protection &
Pollution Control Board (UEPPCB)
Ganga has been
certified as Class D
Present level of
Coliform in the Ganga
at Haridwar is
5500 MPN/100 ml

10. VIBRIO
CHOLERAE
BACTE
RIA
VIRUS
ES
PROTOZ
OA
HEPATIT
IS A
GIARDIA
LAMBLIA
SOURCE OF WATER-BORNE DISEASES

11. • 312 B.C - Tiber river, Italy was polluted by
Roman sewers.
• Till 1850s connection was not known.
• 1854- John Snow deduced cause of
contamination of Broadway Street well, London,
England.
Washing sick baby’s diaper in
cesspool.
HUMAN WASTE
BACKGROUND STUDY

12. TYPHOID
Epidemics tend to follow wars, famine and other
conditions that result in mass casualties.
EFFECTS
✓ High fever over several days.
✓ Weakness, abdominal pain,
constipation, and headaches
✓ Red spots over arms, back and chest
✓ Progressing to Delirium
✓ Decaying sores and the stench of
rotting flesh.
OCCURRENCE :
➢430 B.C- Plague killed 1/3rd of
population of ATHENS, Ancient
Rome. [Peloponnesian War]
SOURCE
Salmonella typhi
Communicable disease caused
by contamination of feces in
water & food.
Common among prisoners- hence
called Jail Fever.
➢1489 - First reliable description of the
disease (Spain)
➢1907 - First carrier in New York,
U.S.(Mary Mallon)
➢Unhygienic practices as a Cook
infected people.
➢1911 – VACCINATION made
compulsory in U.S. (Ty21a and Vi
capsular polysaccharide vaccine)
➢1908- First continuous use of
chlorination for drinking water supply in
New Jersey, U.S.
➢1896- First effective vaccine developed
by British Scientist Almroth Edward
Wright.
Poor sanitation
and hygiene.

13. CHOLERA
The disease first spread by trade routes (land and sea) from
Indian Subcontinent (Bengal) to Russia in 1817, from
Europe to North America and the rest of the world.
EFFECTS
✓ Rapid dehydration.
✓ Diarrhea (rice water stool)
accompanied by vomiting.
✓ Loss of skin elasticity
✓ Muscle cramps
✓ Decaying sores and the stench of
rotting flesh.
7 LARGE PANDEMICS
SOURCE
Vibrio Cholerae
Communicable disease caused
by contamination of feces in
water & food.
Killed around 10s of Millions of
people globally.
➢1891 – Worst year with cholera death
rates hitting 174 / 1,00,000 people a year
at Chicago, U.S.A
➢1827-1835 – North America & Europe
➢1839-1856 – North Africa to South America
➢1863-1875 – India to Naples & Spain
➢1881-1896 - India to Europe, Asia &
South America
➢1899-1923
➢1961 - Indonesia
➢1817-1824- First affected- Bengal, India &
spread to S.E. Asia, MiddleEast, Europe &
Eastern Africa.
Poor sanitation
and hygiene.
PREVENTION-Chlorination
of water & proper sewage
disposal.

14. HEPATITIS AThe disease first spread by improper
cooking of SHELLFISH (contaminated with
wastewater & fecal sources) during 1812.
EFFECTS
✓ Nausea,
✓ Vomiting,
✓ jaundice,
✓ fever,
✓ Diarrhea and abdominal pain
✓ Liver failure
OCCURENCE
SOURCE
Hepatitis A Virus
Communicable disease caused by
contamination of water with
infected fecal matter.
Common in military medial camps
history.
➢1991 – Formalin-inactivated
hepatitis A vaccines (HAVRIX) was
found.
➢1863 – Peak incidence recorded
during Fall & Winter.
➢1915– Spread in British, French &
other allied forces during World
War-I
➢1940-1941 – Spread in Palestine,
North Africa & Germany
➢1812- Civil War, 71691 cases
recorded in U.S.
Damages Liver and sometimes
FATAL.
PREVENTION-
Immunization &
Vaccination.

15. THERMOTOLERANT COLIFORM BACTERIA
OCCURRENCE :
Escherichia coli occurs in high numbers
in human and animal faeces, sewage
and water subject to recent faecal
pollution.
Indication of Breach in water
distribution system integrity.
Total coliform bacteria that are able to ferment lactose at 44.5 °C
within 48hrs are known as thermotolerant coliforms.
1989 - Total Coliform Rule (TCR)
was developed.
CAUSE- Water borne diseases like
diarrhea, cholera, typhoid
1886- Theodor escherich, German-
Austrian pediatrician discovered bacterial
organism in the feces of healthy individuals
& later it was named after him as
Escherichia coli (E.Coli)

16. REUSE
PURPOSE
COLIFORM
Agriculture/
irrigation
< 200/100ml
Urban No fecal
coliform/100ml
Groundwater
Recharge
No fecal
coliform/100ml
MICROBIOLOGICAL QUALITY GUIDELINES

17. Post World War-II Era
INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
[18TH – 19TH CENTURY]
MANUFACTURING TRANSPORTATION

19. • Fire in Cuyahoga river, Ohio, USA since 1930s.
• Oil slicks & flammable industrial
waste dumping – caused huge fire by
1969
• Reason for enactment of CLEAN WATER ACT, 1972.
• Importance of clean water not understood till 19th
century.
INDUSTRIAL WASTE

20. PHYSICAL PARAMETERS
AESTHETIC, PALATABILITY & HYGENIC PURPOSE
Cause – disinfectants

21. COLOUR
Yellow Brown appearance
Measured in Hazen Units (HU)
CAUSE
✓Apparent color- color of the
whole water sample (dissolved +
suspended solids)
✓True Color- color measured after
filtering the suspended solids.
OCCURRENCE :
➢Green color- copper leaching
➢Red color – Rust from iron
pipes
➢Black color – Sulphur
reducing bacteria in hot water
tank.
➢Brown color – Organic
compounds like tannin

22. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
5 Hazen Units
(HU)
Permissible
limit
15 Hazen units
(HU)
COLOUR

23. ODOUR & TASTE
Foul smell
Measured in THRESHOLD
ODOUR NUMBER (TON)
OCCURRENCE :
➢Strong chlorine taste- Disinfection with chlorine
➢Metallic taste– High mineral – Iron & Manganese
➢Rotten egg odour– Decaying organic deposits
underground washed along with water flow.
Hydrogen sulphide
➢Musty smells– Organic matter or even pesticides
➢Salty taste – High levels of sodium, potassium and
magnesium

24. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
Agreeable
Permissible
limit
Agreeable
ODOUR & TASTE

25. pH
CAUSE
➢ Extreme pH values (pH>11)
results in irritation to the
eyes, skin, and mucous
membranes.
➢ Low pH values (pH < 4), cause
redness and irritation of the
eyes
➢ Affects degree of corrosion &
disinfection efficiency.
OCCURRENCE
Controlled by the carbon
dioxide–bicarbonate–carbonate
equilibrium system.
➢ Measure of the acid–base
equilibrium
➢ Major importance in
determining the corrosivity of
water
Most important operational water-quality
parameter
pH < 8 - Effective disinfection with
chlorine

26. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
6.5 - 8.5
Permissible
limit
No relaxation
pH

27. TURBIDITY
AESTHETIC ISSUES
➢Reduce light penetration into
deeper depths.
➢Affects growth of aquatic
organisms.
CAUSE
Phytoplanktons, sediments
through storm water
runoff, quarrying, mining.
MEASUREMENT
➢Nephleometric Turbidimeter – Function of particulate matter
density and light reflected into detector. (NTU)
➢Jackson Turbidimeter – measures by attenuation. (JTU)
( Long column of water required to obscure a candle flame viewed
through it).
Haziness of fluid due to
particulates invisible to naked
eyes.
5 NTU 50 NTU 500 NTU

28. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
1 NTU
Permissible
limit
5 NTU
TURBIDITY
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Agriculture/
irrigation
200 mg/L
Public sewers 600 mg/L
Inland surface
water
100 mg/L
Marine/
Coastal Areas
100 mg/L
(In terms of Suspended
solids)

29. TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS
CAUSE
TASTE & SCALING ISSUES
(Ca, Mg, Na+, K+, HCO3-, NO3
Cl-, SO42-, and CO32-)
The inorganic salts and small amounts of organic
matter present in solution in water.
SOURCE
Originate from natural sources,
sewage, urban and agricultural
run-off, and industrial
wastewater.

30. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
500 mg/L
Permissible
limit
2000 mg/L
TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Agriculture/
irrigation
2100 mg/L
Public sewers 2100 mg/L
Inland surface
water
2100 mg/L
Marine /
Coastal areas
-

31. HOW CONTAMINANTS ARE
REGULATED?
CRITERIA FOR
CONTAMINANT
SELECTION
SIX YEAR REVIEW
PROCESS

32. 1910-1945
‘ITAI- ITAI’
DISEASE
CADMIUM
➢Mining operations @ Kamioka mine.
➢Jinzu river polluted with cadmium discharge
➢1955 - cause for disease identified
➢1968 – Itai-Itai disease officially
recognized.
•Softening of bones
•Kidney failure.

33. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
500 mg/L
Permissible
limit
2000 mg/L
CADMIUM
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers 1.0 mg/L
Inland surface
water
2.0 mg/L
Marine /
Coastal areas
2.0 mg/L

34. CYANIDE
Halts cellular respiration
Union Carbide India Limited
pesticide plant
‘Methyl Isocyanate (MIC)’ gas
leakage.
BHOPAL DISASTER
[1984]

35. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
0.05 mg/L
Permissible
limit
No relaxation
CYANIDE
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
0.2 mg/L
Public sewers 2 mg/L
Inland surface
water
0.2 mg/L
Marine /
Coastal areas
0.2 mg/L

36. LEAD
Lead poisoning causes
infertility.
Lead paint in 19th century –
increased children exposure.
1656- German physician found dust
& fumes with lead caused
‘MORBI METALLICI’
Affects smelters, miners & potters.
CAUSE –[500 BCE-300BCE]
➢Roman aqueducts with lead.
➢Lead pipes & solders in
plumbing.
FIRST SMELTED METAL

37. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
0.01 mg/L
Permissible
limit
No relaxation
LEAD
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers 1.0 mg/L
Inland surface
water
0.1 mg/L
Marine /
Coastal areas
2.0 mg/L

38. MERCURY
NEUROLOGICAL DISEASE
Numbness in hand & feet,
muscle weakness, paralysis.
1932-1968 - CHISSO’S
CORPORATION chemical factory
effluent discharge into Minamata
bay.
1959 – Cause found to be ‘Methyl
mercury discharge’.
MINAMATA TRAGEDY
[1956]

39. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
0.001 mg/L
Permissible
limit
No relaxation
MERCURY
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers 0.01 mg/L
Inland surface
water
0.01 mg/L
Marine /
Coastal areas
0.01 mg/L

40. MOLYBDENUM
Essential micro nutrient in
human diet.
CAUSE
Ammonium molybdate imparts a
slightly astringent taste
OCCURRENCE
Occurs as Molybdenite ores
found in Earth

41. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
0.07 mg/L
Permissible
limit
No relaxation
MOLYBDENUM
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers -
Inland surface
water
-
Marine /
Coastal areas
-

42. NICKEL
CAUSE
✓Vomiting
✓Cancer
✓Dermatitis (Skin irritation)
OCCURRENCE
Found in drinking water by leaching of
metals in pipes & fittings & through
dissolution from Nickel- ore bearing rocks.
Leaching in Copper – Nickel
pipe fittings
Nickel carcinogenity is caused by nickel replacing
zinc and magnesium ions on DNA-polymerase.

43. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
0.02 mg/L
Permissible
limit
No relaxation
NICKEL
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers 3.0 mg/L
Inland surface
water
3.0 mg/L
Marine /
Coastal areas
5.0 mg/L

44. PESTICIDE ERA [1940-1950]
• Nation wide ban on DDT
by 1970
• DDT affects reproducing
ability of fish-eating birds.
Book released during 1962,
documented the detrimental
effects of DDT on the
environment

45. PESTICIDE
• Found persisTenT in ground and surface water of
U.S.A [1979-1987]
• 2009, Internationally banned under sTockholm
convenTion on Persistent Organic Pollutant (PoP)

46. PESTICIDE VALUES
Alachlor 20 µg/L
Atrazine 2 µg/L
Aldrin/ Dieldrin 0.03 µg/L
Alpha HCH 0.01 µg/L
Beta HCH 0.04 µg/L
Butachlor 125 µg/L
Chlorpyriphos 30 µg/L
Delta HCH 0.04 µg/L
2,4- Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid 30 µg/L
DDT 1 µg/L
Endosulfan (α,β & sulphate) 0.4 µg/L
Ethion 3 µg/L
Gamma-HCH (Lindane) 2 µg/L
Isoproturon 9 µg/L
Malathion 190 µg/L
Methyl Parathion 0.3 µg/L
Monocrotophos 1 µg/L
Phorate 2 µg/L
PESTICIDE
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers -
Inland surface
water
-
Marine /
Coastal areas
-

47. POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS
BIOMAGNIFICATION
Fishing was banned in Upper
Hudson[1976]
There were 7 million pounds of
PCBs in leaky area landfills, 1.3
million pounds of PCBs in the
Hudson River.
OCCURRENCE [1938]
In the basement- a chamber blasted out of
living bedrock - of the Hudson Falls G.E.
plant.
PCB slurry was stored in a sump & the
overflow pipe of sump led to the river.
PCB are a group of 209 different chemicals which share a common
structure but vary in the number of attached chlorine atoms.
HUDSON RIVER CONTAMINATION
[1947 - 1977]
PCBs used as dielectric and coolant fluid in
transformers, capacitors
General Electric corporation, New York,
U.S.A
[1929]
Monsanto corporation
began manufacturing.
EFFECT
Liver cancer, gall bladder cancer, biliary
tract cancer, gastrointestinal tract
cancer, brain cancer and breast cancer.

48. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
0.0005 mg/L
Permissible
limit
No relaxation
POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers -
Inland surface
water
-
Marine /
Coastal areas
-

49. POLYNUCLEAR AROMATIC HYDROCARBON (PAH)
Benzo[a]pyrene [BaP]
Found in coal tar
recognized as
carcinogenic[1984]
OCCURRENCE
Most commonly encountered PAH
in drinking water, fluoranthene
(FA), phenanthrene, pyrene (PY),
and anthrace
PAH are pollutants formed from the combustion of
fossil fuels.
SOURCE OF POLLUTION
COAL TAR used as coating
material in pipes
Coal tar
tape
[1996]
COAL TAR discontinued from being
used as coating material in pipes Skin cancer

50. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
0.0001 mg/L
Permissible
limit
No relaxation
POLYNUCLEAR AROMATIC HYDROCARBON (PAH)
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers -
Inland surface
water
-
Marine /
Coastal areas
-

51. ARSENIC1983- First Case Of Skin
Disease @ West Bengal
Drinking water contaminated with
naturally occurring inorganic arsenic
1993- contamination in tubewell
confirmed at Nawabganj District,
Bangladesh.
Mining technique like hydraulic
fracturing- CAUSE

52. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
0.01 mg/L
Permissible
limit
No relaxation
ARSENIC
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
0.2 mg/L
Public sewers 0.2 mg/L
Inland surface
water
0.2 mg/L
Marine /
Coastal areas
0.2 mg/L

53. TOTAL CHROMIUM
HINKLEY GROUNDWATER
CONTAMINATION
[1952-1966]
Pacific Gas & Electric (PG&E), Hinkley,
California operates a compressor station
for natural gas transmission lines.
EFFECT
✓Cr(III) is an essential nutrient in
human diet
✓Cr(VI) has carcinogenic effect –
DNA damage.
✓Causes Dermatitis.
The MCL for total chromium was established in 1991.
SOURCE
Chromium is found naturally in Earth’s crust
Cr(VI) – used in cooling water system to
fight corrosion.
Erin Brockovich (Environmentalist) filed
case against PG&E of California in 1993.
PG&E effluents discharge into unlined ponds.

54. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
0.05 mg/L
Permissible
limit
No relaxation
CHROMIUM
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
(mg/L)
Cr6+ Cr
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
- -
Public sewers 2.0 2.0
Inland surface
water
0.1 2.0
Marine /
Coastal areas
1.0 2.0

55. TRIHALOMETHANES (THM)
➢ [1974] - Trihalomethanes as
human carcinogens
➢ [1979] - EPA standards
established for THM.
OCCURRENCE [1974]
Resulting from the reaction of chlorine or bromine
with organic matter present in the water being
treated.
THMs are chemical compounds in which three of the four hydrogen
atoms of methane (CH4) are replaced by halogen atoms.
DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS
[1987 - 1992]
THMs used in industry as solvents or refrigerants
Chloroform (most common) has a
characteristic odor and a burning, sweet taste
EFFECT
Bladder and colon cancer, and adverse
pregnancy outcomes including
miscarriage, birth defects and low birth
weight.

56. TRI HALO
METHANE
VALUES
Bromoform 0.1 mg/L
Dibromo
chloro
methane
0.1 mg/L
Bromo
dichloro
methane
0.06 mg/L
Chloroform 0.2 mg/L
TRIHALOMETHANES (THM)
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers -
Inland surface
water
-
Marine /
Coastal areas
-

57. RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
➢Nuclear power growth in U.S
➢Colombia river polluted with
cooling water.
OCCURRENCE :
➢ Naturally occuring in Earth
mineral as radon gas.
High concentration leads to
genetical malformations in
animals
Cancer & fatal
[1944-1971]
α emitters- bone cancer & kidney
damage.

58. Radio-
active
materials
LIMITS VALUES
(Bq/L)
α -Emitters Acceptable
limit
0.1
Permissible
limit
No
relaxation
β -Emitters Acceptable
limit
1.0
Permissible
limit
No
relaxation
RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES (µCi)
α
-Emitte
rs
β
-Emitters
Land for
agricultur
e/
irrigation
10-8 10-7
Public
sewers
10-7 10-6
Inland
surface
water
10-7 10-6
Marine /
Coastal
areas
10-7 10-6
➢ A becquerel (Bq) is the SI derived unit of radiation activity.
➢ The Bq is defined as the activity of a quantity of radioactive material in
which one nucleus decays per second.
➢ A microcurie (µCi) is a decimal fraction of the deprecated non-SI unit
of radioactivity defined as 1 Ci = 3.7 × 10¹ decays per second.⁰

59. ALUMINIUM
NEUROLOGICAL DISEASE
Numbness in hand & feet,
shaking, rigidity, Slowness of
movement, and difficulty in
walking, memory loss.
Cause found to be
accumulation of
Aluminum in brain
tissues.
OCCURRENCE :
➢Commonly found in Earth’s
crust.
➢Coagulant residual effect.
PARKINSON’S DISEASE
[1817]
ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
[1906]

60. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
0.03 mg/L
Permissible
limit
0.2 mg/L
ALUMINIUM
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers -
Inland surface
water
-
Marine /
Coastal areas
-

61. AMMONIA
Taste & Odour problems
➢ Earthy-tasting water
➢ Pungent smell
➢ Colonization of filters by
ammonium-oxidizing
bacteria.
➢ Involves in biological
process like nitrogen
fixation, mineralization &
nitrification
Source:
➢ Strata rich in humic substances.
➢ Disinfection with chloramine.
➢ Cement mortar lining in pipes
Indicator of faecal
pollution
Cement mortar lining

62. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
0.5 mg/L
Permissible
limit
No relaxation
AMMONIA
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers 50 mg/L
Inland surface
water
50 mg/L
Marine /
Coastal areas
50 mg/L

63. ANIONIC DETERGENTS
Phosphate additives-
sodium
tripolyphosphate
[1940-1970]
OCCURRENCE
Most commonly encountered in
domestic laundry detergents
High concentration leads to
Eutrophication & algal
bloom
Detergents are ‘Surfactants’ which are similar to
soap but are more soluble in hard water.

64. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
0.2 mg/L
Permissible
limit
1.0 mg/L
ANIONIC DETERGENTS
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers -
Inland surface
water
-
Marine /
Coastal areas
-

65. BARIUM
CARDIO-VASCULAR DISEASE
Sickness to paralysis
FATAL
[Dr. Alexander Stewart Allen]
Source
✓ Natural occurring Alkaline Earth
metal in igneous &sedimentary
rocks.
✓ Presence of industrial waste,
mixing of natural saline and
brine waters, salt water
intrusion
‘Pa-Ping’ Disease [1930]
1930 – Cause found to be high
concentration of BARIUM in salt of the
soup consumed by children at villages
in Kiating, China.

66. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
0.7 mg/L
Permissible
limit
No relaxation
BARIUM
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers -
Inland surface
water
-
Marine /
Coastal areas
-

67. BORON
CAUSE
✓Hazardous to water plants.
✓Decrease in crop yield.
✓Irritates skin & eyes.
✓Cause Arthritis (Joint pain)
OCCURRENCE
Abundantly found in minerals in following
forms.
(borax, boron oxide and boric acid)➢ Essential micro nutrient in
human diet.
➢ Indicates the presence of
other hazardous substances.
➢ Found in groundwater through
weathering of rocks, runoff
through landfills.

68. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
0.5 mg/L
Permissible
limit
1.0 mg/L
BORON
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
2.0 mg/L
Public sewers 2.0 mg/L
Inland surface
water
2.0 mg/L
Marine /
Coastal areas
-

69. CALCIUM & MAGNESIUM
Essential macro nutrient in
human diet.
CAUSE
✓Kidney stone
✓Hardening in domestic equipment.
✓Decrease detergent efficiency.
Calcium carbonate
scale
OCCURRENCE
Occurs naturally in Earth’s crust
High concentration of
magnesium
Kidney
Stone

70. CALCIUM & MAGNESIUM
REUSE PURPOSE VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers -
Inland surface
water
-
Marine / Coastal
areas
-
ELEMENTS LIMITS VALUES
(mg/L)
CALCIUM Acceptable
limit
75
Permissible
limit
200
MAGNESIUM Acceptable
limit
30
Permissible
limit
100

71. CHLORIDEOCCURRENCE
Leached from various rocks into
water by weathering
Essential micro nutrient in
human diet.
EFFECTS
Pitting corrosion is a localized form
of corrosion by which cavities or
"holes"
Galvanic corrosion is an
electrochemical process.

72. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
250mg/L
Permissible
limit
1000 mg/L
CHLORIDE
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers -
Inland surface
water
-
Marine /
Coastal areas
-

73. COPPER
CAUSE
✓Corrosion in pipes.
✓Imparts metallic, bitter taste.
✓Blue- green colour to water.
✓Staining in sanitary ware &
laundry
OCCURRENCE
Occurs naturally in Earth’s crust
Essential micro nutrient in
human diet.

74. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
0.05 mg/L
Permissible
limit
1.5 mg/L
COPPER
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers 3.0 mg/L
Inland surface
water
3.0 mg/L
Marine /
Coastal areas
3.0 mg/L

75. FLUORIDE
FLUOROSIS
[molted enamel]
Dental imperfections
precipitated the staining &
Resistant to tooth decay
1945- adding fluoride to
community water supplies
to prevent cavities
-‘FLUORIDATION’
1900-1930 –Dentist McKay found
more patients with brown strains in
Colorado springs and Bauxite.
1931 – ALUMINIUM COMPANY OF
AMERICA conducted their own study of
the water in Bauxite using more advanced
equipments to ensure that they were not
the cause.
Cause was found to be ‘high
concentration of fluoride’ in
places with fluoride rich
mineral like fluorspar
COLORADO BROWN STAINS
[1901-1933]

76. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
1.0 mg/L
Permissible
limit
1.5 mg/L
FLUORIDE
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers 15.0 mg/L
Inland surface
water
2.0 mg/L
Marine /
Coastal areas
15.0 mg/L

77. IRON
CAUSE
✓Promotes undesirable bacterial
growth (iron bacteria).
✓Develops slimy coating layer on
the piping .
✓Reddish brown colour to water.
✓Staining in sanitary ware &
laundry
OCCURRENCE
Second abundant metal in Earth’s
crust
Essential micro nutrient in
human diet.

78. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
0.3 mg/L
Permissible
limit
No relaxation
IRON
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers 3.0 mg/L
Inland surface
water
3.0 mg/L
Marine /
Coastal areas
3.0 mg/L

79. MANGANESE
NEUROLOGICAL
IMPAIRMENT
Weakness, mask-like facial
expression, depression.
OCCURRENCE :
➢Found in Earth’s crust.
➢Bio accumulated in lower
organism
MANGANISM- PARKINSON’S LIKE
SYNDROME
[1935]
Deposition in mains of
distribution system causing
discolourisation.

80. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
30 mg/L
Permissible
limit
100 mg/L
MANGANESE
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers 2.0 mg/L
Inland surface
water
2.0 mg/L
Marine /
Coastal areas
2.0 mg/L

81. MINERAL OIL
HUMAN CARCINOGEN
[1980]
WHO listed untreated &
mildly treated mineral oil
as Grade 1 Carcinogens.
OCCURRENCE
➢Found in fuels & their
products.
➢Mixture of alkanes &
cycloalkanes related to
petroleum jelly.
➢Major oil spills.
Colorless, odorless oil made from petroleum as a by-
product of distillation of petroleum to produce gasoline.

82. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
0.5 mg/L
Permissible
limit
No relaxation
MINERAL OIL
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
10 mg/L
Public sewers 20.0 mg/L
Inland surface
water
10.0 mg/L
Marine /
Coastal areas
20 mg/L

83. NITRATE
METHEMOGLOBINEMIA
Lacks oxygen carrying
ability in haemoglobin.
Occurs in infants- nerves
turn blue.
FATALSource: Intense farming
Pit latrines
1959 – Cause found to be elevated
concentration of NITRATE in
groundwater at villages in Romania
and Bulgaria.
BLUE BABY
SYNDROME[1943]

84. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
45 mg/L
Permissible
limit
No relaxation
NITRATE
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers -
Inland surface
water
10 mg/L
Marine /
Coastal areas
20 mg/L

85. PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS
Causes sudden collapse and
loss of consciousness. FATA
SOURCE
Pesticides, explosives, dyes and textiles
production.
❑ 1974 – Accidental spillage due to
derailment at SOUTHERN
WISCONSIN, U.S.A.
❑ Concentration of Phenol in nearby
well-water reached 1130mg/L.
❑ Forms chlorophenol in disinfected
water.
1939- Nazis used it for
individual execution by
injecting to prisoners.
Phenol [1834] has a distinct odor that is sickeningly
sweet and tarry.
➢ Caused poor taste, diarrhea,
mouth sores and burning
mouth.
➢ Six- months later no ill
effects were noticed.

86. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
0.001 mg/L
Permissible
limit
0.002 mg/L
PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers 5.0 mg/L
Inland surface
water
1.0 mg/L
Marine /
Coastal areas
5.0 mg/L

87. SELENIUM
KESHAN DISEASE, CHINA
Heart failure & pulmonary
edema.
Due to selenium deficiency &
linked to the coxsackie B
virus
OCCURRENCE :
➢Found in Earth’s crust with
sulfur containing minerals.
➢Volcanic, sedimentary &
carbonate rocks.
➢Present as Selenites &
selenates in water
Keshan disease
[1960-1970]
High concentration leads to
gastrointestinal disturbances.

88. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
0.01 mg/L
Permissible
limit
No relaxation
SELENIUM
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers 0.05 mg/L
Inland surface
water
0.05 mg/L
Marine /
Coastal areas
0.05 mg/L

89. SILVEROCCURRENCE
Occurs naturally in environment
in forms of insoluble oxides,
sulphides & some salts. Essential bacteriostatic
Used as emergency disinfectant.
Argyria [980CE- 1978]
Silver compounds can cause some
areas of the skin and other body
tissues to turn grey or blue-grey.
Guidelines are based on
possible cosmetic effects,
such as skin discoloration.

90. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
0.1 mg/L
Permissible
limit
No relaxation
SILVER
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers -
Inland surface
water
-
Marine /
Coastal areas
-

91. SULPHATE
CAUSE
✓Vomiting
✓Laxative effect
✓Imparts bitter taste
✓Corrosive & scale effect on distribution
system
OCCURRENCE
Found in Earth’s crust naturally in
minerals. Indicates presence of decaying
organic matter

92. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
200 mg/L
Permissible
limit
400 mg/L
SULPHATE
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers -
Inland surface
water
-
Marine /
Coastal areas
-

93. HYDROGEN SULPHIDE
CAUSE
✓Rotten-egg smell
✓Cause eye irritation.
✓Black colour to water.
✓Affects CNS and death.
✓Indicates sewage pollution
OCCURRENCE
Hydrolysis of sulphide minerals &
by sulphur reducing bacteria
Corrosive & flammable element
which imparts odour issues in
water.

94. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
0.05 mg/L
Permissible
limit
No relaxation
SULPHIDE
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers -
Inland surface
water
2.0 mg/L
Marine /
Coastal areas
5.0 mg/L

95. TOTAL HARDNESS
Measure of dissolved minerals
in mg/L of CaCO3
EFFECT
✓Corrosion & scaling
✓ Increased soap consumption
✓Contributes to taste of water
OCCURRENCE :
➢Calcium ions - lime
➢Magnesium ions – chalk
(Essential nutrients to human)
SOURCE
Dissolved polyvalent metallic
ions from sedimentary rocks,
seepage and runoff from soils
(ppm)

96. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
200 mg/L
Permissible
limit
600 mg/L
TOTAL HARDNESS
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers -
Inland surface
water
-
Marine /
Coastal areas
-

97. TOTAL ALKALINITY
Capacity to neutralize acid
without change in
pH of water.
EFFECT
✓Balance the corrosion due to acidity
✓Imparts soda taste to water
✓Acts as buffer to maintain pH
Essential in regions affected by
acid rains.
SOURCE
Dissolved Calcium carbonate ions
from limestone, seepage and runoff
from soils

98. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
200 mg/L
Permissible
limit
600 mg/L
TOTAL ALKALINITY
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers -
Inland surface
water
-
Marine /
Coastal areas
-

99. ZINC
CAUSE
✓Leaching of piping.
✓Develops slimy coating layer on
the piping .
✓Imparts astringent taste to
water.
✓Chalky color to water.
✓High concentration - fever,
nausea, vomiting, stomach cramps
and diarrhea.
OCCURRENCE
Found in Earth’s crust as zinc
ores. Essential micro nutrient in
human diet.

100. LIMITS VALUES
Acceptable
limit
5 mg/L
Permissible
limit
15 mg/L
ZINC
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers -
Inland surface
water
-
Marine /
Coastal areas
-

101. HISTORY OF SEWERS
HISTORY OF TREATMENT METHODS
➢[1870], Sir Edward Frankland, demonstrated
chemical breakdown of sewage using
microorganisms forming nitrified effluent.
➢[1885-1891] Contact filters were constructed
throughout UK & US [1890] Lawrence
Experiment Station, U.S developed ‘Trickling
filter’.
1912 - The Royal Commission on Sewage
Disposal [8th report] set the '20:30 standard'
(International standard for sewage discharge
into rivers)
which allowed 20 mg BOD and 30 mg
suspended solid per litre.
SOURCE-
Great Stink (1858) of Thames river &
Cholera outbreak led to the
Metropolitan Commission of Sewers.
➢1840 – First attempt of using sewage as a
fertilizer in the farm of cotton mill by James
Smith, Glasgow, Scotland, U.K.
➢Middle ages – Roman periodically emptied the
cesspool and sold as Fertilizers to farmers.
➢Mid- 19th Century – Modern sewage systems
were first built.
➢Ancient Mesopotamians, Indus Valley
Civilization, Ancient Greece - Used basic
Sewers discharge into Cesspool.
HISTORY OF SEPTIC TANK
1860s- ‘Cesspool was invented by L.H. Mouras,
France.
1895 – Donald Cameron, England patented an
improved version as ‘Septic tank’.
➢1846 –William Higgs patented the Reservoir
or tanks which collected contents of sewer
from the cities, towns & villages.
➢1850s – Horizontal-flow tanks were
designed.
➢1905- Radial flow tank was designed.

102. BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD)
OCCURRENCE
‘Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal’
established by British Government
during 1898, selected BOD5 as definitive
test for organic pollution of river.
Why 5 days test period?
Supposedly the longest time that river water
takes to travel from source to estuary in
the U.K.,
BOD is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic biological organisms to break
down organic material present in a given water sample at certain temperature over a specific
time period.
Most commonly expressed in mg of O2 consumed/ L of sample during 5 days of incubation
at 20 °C
[1984] Secondary sewage treatment regulations- U.S EPA is
expected to remove 85% of the BOD measured in sewage and
produce effluent BOD concentrations with a 30-day average of < 30
mg/L and a 7-day average of < 45 mg/L.
1910 - BOD test was developed in England, to predict the ‘oxygen
sag’ when sewage is discharged into the river and how long it
would take the river to ‘self purify’.

103. CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)
OCCURRENCE
‘Potassium permanganate’ (KMnO4)
strong oxidant used to measure COD
for many years.
Effectiveness varied widely
(BOD was found to be greater)
Potassium Dichromate (K2Cr2O7 )
Most effective, cheap, easy to purify
and able to oxidize almost all organic
matter.
COD is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed to oxidize soluble &
particulate organic matter to CO2 & H2O.
Used to indirectly measure the amount of organic matter in mg of O2 consumed/ L
of sample
Higher COD levels mean a greater amount of oxidizable organic
material in the sample, which will reduce dissolved oxygen (DO)
levels.

104. BOD & COD
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers -
Inland surface
water
250 mg/L
Marine /
Coastal areas
250 mg/L
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
100 mg/L
Public sewers 350 mg/L
Inland surface
water
30 mg/L
Marine /
Coastal areas
100 mg/L

105. BIOASSAY TEST
OCCURRENCE
A Toxicity Identification Evaluation is
conducted to determine the
relevant toxicants by USEPA.
The methods involve exposing living
aquatic organisms to samples of
wastewater for a specific length of
time.
Bioassay test is typically conducted to measure the effects of a
substance on a living organism.
Used to determine the concentration of a particular constitution of a mixture that may cause
harmful effects on organisms or the environment.
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
90% survi
val of fish
after 96
hours in
100%
Public sewers
Inland surface
water

106. TEMPERATURE
OCCURRENCE
The normal temperature of sewage is
slightly higher than the temperature of the
water supply due to the usage of water.
Temperature has an effect on the biological activity of
bacteria present in the sewage and it also affects the
solubility of gases.
REUSE
PURPOSE
VALUES
Land for
agriculture/
irrigation
-
Public sewers -
Inland surface
water
Shall not
exceed 5˚C
above the
The temperature changes when
sewage becomes septic because of
chemical process.
At higher temperature, viscosity is
lesser.

107. THANK YOU