2. Recap….. What is
biogeography
The discipline can best be defined as the
study of patterns of distribution of living
organisms in space and time.
There are two distinct parts of this definition:
It looks at distribution patterns-where living things live, or
used to live or might live in the future
We look at a species physical environment, how it adapts
to its particular environment, its biology and its
evolutionary history. 8/25/2022
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5. NATURE AND SCOPE OF
BIOGEOGRAPHY—Island
Biogeography
All islands have one thing in common:
-they are isolated.
These are areas of land separated from the
mainland by sea or fresh water where few
terrestrial organisms can survive for long
Island have limited size in comparison to
adjacent land masses.
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6. Island Biogeography……
they are subject to an oceanic climate which
has a
lower temperature humidity,
higher wind speeds than mainland areas of
similar latitude.
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10. Island Biogeography cont….
Geologically,
they are relatively young,
being formed after the mid-Tertary Period by
volcanic extrusions and
associated coral reefs and atolls or in a few
cases, large detached pieces of continental rock.
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11. Continental Islands
These are actually detached pieces of the
adjacent land mass to which they were
connected in the recent past.
They are usually located on the continental
shelf and are surrounded by comparatively
shallow water.
It can be concluded that the majority of
continental islands’ organisms are derived
from the nearby land mass and will be quite
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12. Continental Islands
Continental Islands which are connected to the
Asian mainland are
Sumatra,
Java,
Borneo
and Ceylon.
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13. Continental Islands
New Guinea was formerly part of Australia and
supports a basically similar relic fauna and
Flora.
British Isles are another example of
continental islands with Ireland separating
from Great Britain before the latter became
separated from mainland Europe.
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16. Island Ecosystems
The climate of Islands is generally cooler,
wetter and windier than the mainland.
They have a longer coastline with their
associated habitats than the mainland.
If an Island is smaller than nine hactares, it
will consist of either all rock or mainly beach
habitat restrict the number of organisms to a
few salt-resistant or salt tolerant species
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17. Island Ecosystems
Flying organisms may be capable of reaching
even the most distant islands, especially if
they are able to alight on the surface of water
to rest without becoming waterlogged
Smaller birds and bats and insects army be
carried passively on high wind currents.
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18. Island Ecosystems
Flying organisms can also carry other
organisms or the resting on the bodies of other
organisms, such as eggs spores seeds and
fruits which attach themselves to various parts
of the body of the flying organism, thus
hitching a ride to islands
Floating rafts can also carry other organisms
with them to the destined islands.
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19. Island Ecosystems
Generally it is easier for plants to travel to
islands than it is for animals because:
Plant tend to have long dormant periods which can
come to life again when environmental conditions are
favourable.
The dispersal mechanims plants carry such as being
sticky, having hooks and being light pre-disposes them
to easier transportation across oceans to Islands
The spore of some other plants such as bryophytes
are so small that they can be easily carried long
19
20. Island Ecosystems
Another advantage plants have over animals is that
a successful colonization only requires a single
fertile spore or seed whereas for animals a breeding
pair is required.
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21. The equilibrium theory of
Island Biogeography
The ETIB describes the theoretical relationship
between
immigration and
extinction of species to islands,
depending on their size and distance from the
mainland or other species source.
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22. The equilibrium theory of
Island Biogeography
the number of species present on an island is
determined by a balance between immigration
and extinction.
Generally, as the number of species present
increases, the immigration rate decreases and
the extinction rate increases.
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23. The equilibrium theory of
Island Biogeography
Famous naturalist,
Darwin Wallace
Hooker noted some patterns in nature and sought
explanations for them.
Macauthor and Wilson(19670) used
Darlington’s case study of reptile and
amphibian species occuring on islands of the
West Indies. 8/25/2022
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24. The equilibrium theory of
Island Biogeography…..
Darlington had concluded that division of the
area by ten,
Hence in going from one island to the next
divides the number of reptile and Amphibian
species by two.
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25. The equilibrium theory of
Island Biogeography
Isolated islands
have fewer species
per unit area than those
closer to other islands………
WHY?...............
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26. The equilibrium theory of Island
Biogeography-effect of isolation
The nearer the source the richer the Biota
The more isolated the island the fewer the
animal and plant species .
Each sea barrier further reduces the number of
species of the next island, which in turn
becomes a poorer source for the next
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27. Criticisms of the equilibrium
theory
The theory has been criticised because of its
simplicity since it treats all species together
with the implicit assumption that they are equal
in numbers and constant for a given island
Tivy (1993) points out that the theory assumes
that species number and emigration rate are
depended
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28. Criticisms of the equilibrium
theory
However , large islands are more likely than
small ones to be in the path of migrants.
Furthermore the theory does not take
environmental, biotic or historical factors into
account.
The relationship between species number and
island area is less close on temperate islands,
where temperature is a more important limiting
factor than on tropical islands.
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29. Criticism cont……..
Only one of the predictions of the theory, that
the number of species on an island will
increase directly with increase in area now
seems reliable.
Large nature reserves should therefore retain
more species and suffer fewer extinctions
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30. Criticisms cont….
There is also the human aspect which is also
devastating in nature
In Zimbabwe species such as wattle,jacaranda
and lantana are vigorous alien invaders which
have replaced indigenous species.
The introduction of monoculture also
introduced pests and exotic weeds.
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31. NATURE AND SCOPE OF
BIOGEOGRAPHY
Biodiversity loss and extinction risk.
Biodiversity hotspots and conservation
priorities.
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32. Biodiversity loss and extinction
risk
biodiversity loss is the extinction of species
(human, plant or animal)
or can be regarded as local reduction or loss
of species in a certain habitat.
Species loss can be permanent or temporary
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33. Biodiversity loss and extinction
risk
richness,
evenness and
heterogeneity
are considered to be the main dimensions along
which diversity can be measured.
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34. Diversity indexes…
Simpson's Diversity Index is a measure of
diversity.
In ecology, it is often used to quantify the
biodiversity of a habitat.
It takes into account the number of species
present, as well as the abundance of each
species
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35. Diversity indexes……
The two main factors taken into account when
measuring diversity are
richness
evenness
Richness
is a measure of the number of different kinds
of organisms present in a particular area.
eg species richness is the number of different species
present
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37. Diversity indexes
D = sum(n / N)2
n = the total number of organisms of a
particular species
N = the total number of organisms of all
species
Simpson's Index of Diversity 1 - D
Simpson's Reciprocal Index 1 / D
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38. Biodiversity hotspots and
conservation priorities.
A biodiversity hotspot
is a biogeographic region with significant levels of
biodiversity that is threatened with destruction.
Eg forests are considered as biodiversity hotspots.
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39. Fundamental biogeographic
processes
The patterns of species distribution across
geographical areas can usually be explained
through a combination of historical factors
such as: speciation, extinction, continental
drift, and glaciation.
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40. Fundamentals of ecosystem
change---evolution
Darwin – survival and reproduction of the
fittest –natural selection
variation occurs by mutation and
recombination mutation results when DNA is
changed
Recombination – offspring receive two
different copies or alleles of each gene
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41. SPECIES CONCEPT
The species concept
Niche and neutral theories of biodiversity
Species assembly rules/processes
Measures of diversity
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42. ECOSYSTEM STRUCTURE &
FUNCTIONING
Biotic controls over functioning of ecosystems.
Species interactions: Predation;
herbivory/grazing; competition; facilitation;
mutualisms. Primary production in
ecosystems. Factors controlling primary
production; Global patterns of primary
production; Methods for measuring primary
production. [10]
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43. DRIVERS OF ECOSYSTEM
CHANGE
: Land use changes and habitat destruction.
Over-exploitation. Climate change and its
impacts on species distributions. Can species
migrate fast enough in modified landscapes to
remain within climatic optima? Alien species
invasions and biodiversity loss.
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44. MAPPING BIODIVERSITY AND
ECOSYSTEMS
Species level. Species range vs species
distributions. Extrapolating from point
collections to species distributions. Range
maps. Ecological niche modeling and
geographic distributions of species; modeling
techniques and discrepancies. Mapping
habitats. Mapping communities, ecosystems
and biomes. Measuring ecosystem energy
with satellite remote sensing
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47. Actors in the EIA process
Proponent
Advisors
Environment Ministry
Public
Impact Assessors/Consultants
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48. Overview of Stages in the EIA
Process
screening
Scoping
Impact predication
Impact Assessment
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
Review
Monitoring
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49. Assessment of the
Environment
Screening
Which projects require an EIA?
EIA Guide lines
Scoping
Selecting relevant environmental effects
Baseline Survey
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50. Assement continue.............
Review
Adequacy of the EIS for its completeness
with reference to legislation
Monitoring
Check whether the impacts caused by the
project are consistent with forecasted
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51. Overview of EIA Methods
and Techniques
Checklists
Interactive matrices
Networks
Cost benefit Analysis
Overlaying
Simulation Modeling
Multi-criteria decision making
Methods to determine the relative importance
of effects
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53. Baseline study /Impact
identification
Ecological and biodiversity survey using GIS
and Remote Sensing RS
Water Resources Surveys using GIS and RS
Topographical and Soils surveys using
GIS and RS
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54. Impact Prediction Methods
Impact prediction using GIS
- Example of a dam construction
Scenario modeling using GIS
- Example of a dam construction
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55. Impact Assessment Using
Multicriteria analysis and GIS
- make an estimate of the w value of present
or future situation(significance assessment)
- Example of a dam construction
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61. Introduction
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What is socio-economic impact assessment?
Measure of a project’s impact on the social and
economic fabric of affected areas and stakeholders
Involves public in assessing project necessity
Gives public chance to accept or reject project
Cost-benefit analysis of a project and its impacts
63. Structure of presentation
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Objectives
Major socio-economic issues
Typical socio-economic impacts
Methods of socio-economic impact
assessment
Management and mitigation plan
Composition of consulting team
Activities or tasks
64. Objectives
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By the end of the training you should be able to:
Define SEIA and its purpose (See Introduction)
Identify the major socio-economic issues involved in
SEIA
Identify the likely socio-economic impacts
Select appropriate methods to analyze the socio-
economic impacts
Prepare appropriate TOR’s for the SEIA
Select or put together an SEIA consulting team
65. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC
IMPACT ASSESSMENT: THE
ISSUES TO CONSIDER
Dr. Lazarus Zanamwe
With assistance from
Mrs. I. Mbengo
67. Major Socio-economic issues
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Planning phase issues to consider:
Social issues:
Impact on local communities way of life
Displacement or relocation of people
Compensation and housing of displaced people
Consultation, participation and support from local
people
68. Planning phase (contd.)
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Social issues
Dealing with possible resistance to development
Restrictions to access (e.g. pathways, religious
sites)
Threat to traditional sites and artifacts
Threat to historical and paleontological sites and
materials
69. Planning phase (contd.)
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Social issues
Loss of access to traditional natural resources
Management of illegal access and squatting
Provision of adequate housing for employees
Increased risk to public health
70. Planning phase (contd.)
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Economic issues
Land tenure issues
Effect on property values
Permanent loss of land (opportunity cost)
Effect on household incomes
Effects of secondary and downstream economic
activity
Sustainability of chosen technology
71. Planning phase (contd.)
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Economic issues
Compliance with national policy, law and
standards
Compliance with operative
master/development/structure/local plans
Compliance with international conventions and
protocols
Compliance with voluntary standards
72. Major Socio-economic issues
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Construction phase issues to consider:
Deforestation
Loss or change of biomass and biodiversity
Loss of genetic materials
Endangered species
Effect on local wildlife movement patterns
Loss or change of local ecosystems
Loss or change of soil quality and quantity
Erosion
Sedimentation of water bodies
73. Construction phase (contd.)
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Threat to cultural or historical sites or artifacts
Demographic changes
Health concerns
Noise and dust
Accidents
Diseases
Pollution of water bodies
75. Operational phase issues
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Issues to consider include:
Socio-cultural changes to communities
Disruption of wildlife populations
Conflict between wildlife and people
Disruption to distribution and behaviour of wildlife
Stress on natural environmental features
76. Operational phase issues
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Issues to consider (contd.)
Increase in vehicular traffic to/from and environs
Lack of control over tourist behaviour
Handling and disposal of waste products
Change in economic status of local communities
Environmentally unsustainable secondary
economic activities
77. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACT
ASSESSMENT: TYPICAL SOCIO-
ECONOMIC IMPACTS
Dr. Lazarus Zanamwe
With assistance from
Mrs. I. Mbengo
78. Typical socio-economic impacts
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Typical impacts to consider include:
Air pollution
Increased fire hazard
Illegal hunting
Noise and nuisance from vehicles
Increase vehicular wear and tear on roads
Reduced aesthetic value of landscape
79. Typical socio-economic impacts
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Typical impacts (contd.)
Increase in social ills
Impact on standards of living
Damage/ loss of historical/ cultural sites and
materials
Increased risk of diseases
Loss of access to traditional natural resources
Change in employment and income levels
80. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC
IMPACT ASSESSMENT:
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
Dr. Lazarus Zanamwe
With assistance from
Mrs. I. Mbengo
81. Methods of SEIA
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Various methods to be considered
Baseline survey
Traffic counts
Description of current socio-economic status of
the development
Used in management and monitoring plan
Used during the operational phase
82. Description of current status
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Issues to consider include:
Demographic status
Size, distribution and composition
Scenic status
Social and economic activities
Administrative, political and cultural setup
Social infrastructure
Religious considerations
83. Public consultation
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Rationale for public consultation:
Public are stakeholders in any development
Many interest groups need to be informed
Mandatory in Zimbabwe to consult
84. Objectives of public
consultation
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Project creates changes
Information empowers people to make better
decisions
Consultation taps into local indigenous
knowledge
Consultation can help avoid gaps in EIA process
Local people can assist with suggestions on
management and monitoring
Democratic right to be consulted
85. Methods of public consultation
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Many and varied include:
Passive methods
Press conferences
Information notices
Brochures
Participatory methods
Key informant interviews
Questionnaire interviews and polls (voting)
Focus group discussions
Written submissions or testimonials
Delphi techniques
Public hearings
Internet sites
86. Passive methods
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Press conferences, information notices and
brochures
Give information on proposed development
Proponent’s point of view
One way communication system
Possibility of feedback through written responses
e.g. letters to the editor
87. Key informant interviews
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Aimed at persons who are influential or key
stakeholders
Chiefs and other community or traditional leaders
Business leaders
Religious and cultural groups
Politicians and various government departments
Local authority leaders
Professional groups or umbrella bodies
NGO and other civil society groups
88. Key informant interviews
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Elements of KII:
Need to develop an interview guide
Awareness of the proposed development
Opinion on whether the development should go ahead
Perceived socio-economic impacts
Perceived significant impacts
Opinion on management and mitigation measures
89. Elements of KII:
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Constraints
Time
need to set up appointments
some respondents might only be available after hours
Availability of respondents
Spatial distribution of respondents
Time and transport management
Interview guide is complex to construct
Need different guides for different key informants
90. Questionnaires and polls
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Elements of Q & P:
Designed to collect information directly from the
public or communities
Similar topics as in the KII
Sample is larger than the KII
Additional subjects might also be included
91. Elements of Q & P:
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Constraints
Need to obtain permission from relevant authorities
Willingness of respondents to participate
Timing is crucial in terms of work cycle
Need an entry person point
Questionnaire is complex to design
Number of questions versus time for interview
Designed in English but needs translation
Decide on open or closed-ended questionnaire
Questions might be difficult to analyses or code
92. Elements of Q & P:
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Advantages:
Larger sample tends to be representative
Responses from the public compared to the KI
Quantitative data generated gives statistical
soundness
Polling gives concrete decisions or directions
93. Focus groups discussion
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Designed to gather data from group settings
Group dynamics important
6-12 persons with similar interests or backgrounds
Opinions are obtained from group participation
FGD guide with up to 10 questions prepared
Additional questions arise from the discussion
94. Focus groups discussion
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Constraints
Group formation
Timing
Formulating appropriate questions
Team formation
The facilitator
The note takers
Electronic means to back up
Expense to set-up
95. Focus groups discussion
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Advantages
Derived from group dynamics
Insights of local concerns can be gained
Suggestions will have community backing
All community concerns can be addressed
Can be used to generate questions for KII and Q
& P
97. Public hearings
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Tend to be large gatherings of interested
parties
Take place in some form of hall
Gives all who can attend a chance to participate
Take as long as there are suggestions
Questions to guide the discussions are
prepared
98. Written submissions / testimonials
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Obtained either during public hearings or
through adverts in the press
Aimed at collecting written opinions on the
desirability or otherwise of the development
Should be submitted as part of the EIA report
99. Internet sites
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The proponent may establish an Internet site
Should be functional throughout the life of the
development
Should have room for comments from the
public and other stakeholders
Should be up-dated on a regular basis
100. Overall constraints to Public
Consultation
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Constraints to Public Consultation can arise
from:
Poverty (powerlessness, voicelessness, vulnerability,
fear)
Locality (rural settings)
Educational status (illiteracy, non-local languages)
Ethnicity (culture, religion, traditions)
Legal systems
Political context
Interest groups
confidentiality
101. Tips for successful PC
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Timely
Continuous
Assure confidentiality at all times
Coincide with project cycle activities
Overcome constraints
Reach all important stakeholders
103. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACT
ASSESSMENT: INDICATORS OF
POTENTIAL IMPACTS
Dr. Lazarus Zanamwe
With assistance from
Mrs. I. Mbengo
104. Indicators of potential impacts
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Environmental carrying capacity of sensitive
ecological sites or cultural properties
Social carrying capacity
Disruption of local community ties due to relocation
Potential sources of conflicts
People versus wildlife
Tourism versus local communities
Local communities versus interest groups
Resistance to development or relocation
105. Indicators of potential impacts
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Physical carrying capacity of local
infrastructure
Vehicular traffic
Pedestrian traffic
Stress on the social infrastructure (e.g. sanitation,
water, electricity, food outlets, waste and refuse
collection, etc)
106. Indicators of potential impacts
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Economic impacts
Loss of business due to relocation
Reduced or increased business due to the
development
Decreased or increased revenue base for local
authority
Downstream activities might have positive or
negative socio-economic impacts
107. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACT
ASSESSMENT: MANAGEMENT
AND MONITORING PLAN
Dr. Lazarus Zanamwe
with assistance from
Mrs. I. Mbengo
108. Management and monitoring plan
Significant Impact M & M Plan
Deforestation -Minimal land clearance
-Reforest using native species
Means of access -Utilize land of little value
-Harmonize with surroundings
Noisy traffic/
accidents
-locate away from residential areas
-Monitor to reduce noise levels
-Carry out road safety awareness
campaigns
-Carry out driver education
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109. Management and monitoring plan
Significant Impact M & M Plan
Pollution of water sources - Protect and control freshwater resources
and watersheds
Waste disposal -reduce and recycle waste
Construction materials -Source from sustainable sources
-Use natural materials to blend with
environment
Cultural concerns -consult local leadership on actions to
take
- Respect local cultures
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110. Management and monitoring plan
Significant Impact M & M Plan
Human health -Public health awareness
campaigns for staff, clients, the
public
-Expand health delivery services
Influx of outside workers -employ locals during construction
and operation
Carrying capacity / stress - Record visitor statistics as
management and monitoring tool
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111. Composition of team
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Consider the following experts:
Environmental impact assessment specialist
Civil engineer: wastewater, roads, water supply
Ecologist
Park and recreational planner
Ecologist
Sociologist or anthropologist
Archeologist or paleontologist
Specialist in tourism economics
Specialist in tourism marketing
Legal expert(s) land tenure, environmental law,
cultural property
112. Summary of Overview
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The session has covered the following topics:
Introduction and objectives
Major socio-economic issues
Typical socio-economic impacts
Methods and techniques
Indicators of potential impacts
Management and monitoring plan
Composition of an SEIA team
113. Looking forward
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The next session will cover in detail
Public Consultation
Assessment criteria tables
Overview of EIA in Zimbabwe
