This document discusses conservation threats to biodiversity in Nepal. It outlines that Nepal is a biodiversity hotspot containing 25% of the world's terrestrial biodiversity. The major threats include habitat loss and degradation, invasive species, infrastructure development like roads and dams, overexploitation of resources, climate change, and indirect drivers like population growth and policy gaps. Specific threats are discussed for different ecosystems and species. The threats are interlinked and exacerbating declines in biodiversity across Nepal. Mainstreaming conservation and addressing threats holistically is needed to protect Nepal's biodiversity.

1. CONSERVATION THREATS
TO BIODIVERSITY IN NEPAL
(A term paper presentation on EES 603 Biodiversity conservation and
Restoration)
Presenter:
Amit Chaudhary
Faculty of Forestry
Agriculture and Forestry University

2. GLOBAL DECLINES IN NATURE
2
IPBES, 2019
Major drivers of biodiversity decline; their interaction and implications Isbell et al., 2022

3. BIODIVERSITY STATUS
 Mountains support 25% of the World’s terrestrial biodiversity and
Nepal is also a biodiversity hotspot in the Eastern Himalayan hotspot of
34 global biodiversity hotspots (Wester et al., 2019).
 Nepal’s unique geography and resultant physiographic and climatic
conditions have resulted in the diversity of flora and fauna.
 118 Ecosystems are found; of these 80 ecosystems are in PAs and also
12 global ecoregions. Nepal’s share in global biodiversity is Birds
(9.5%); Mammals (5.2%); Butterflies (3.7%); Flowering plants (3.2%);
Reptiles (1.9%); Amphibians (2.5%); Freshwater fishes (1.9%) of
species (GON/MoFSC, 2014).
 Agrobiodiversity and livestock genetic diversity are well-valued in
terms of in situ conservation and 24,683 accessions of local landraces
(Joshi et al., 2020).
3
Updated
from
6
th
National
Report
to
CBD
of
Nepal,
MoFE,,
2018

4. THREAT STATUS
 Based on available knowledge; different threats, as in the adjacent table,
had been identified for varied management regimes.
 Loss and degradation of habitat; poaching and illegal trade; Human-
wildlife Invasive Alien Plants (IAPs) are major threats to forest
biodiversity (GoN/MoFSC, 2014).
 Threats from the spread of Invasive Alien Plants (IAPs) accelerated along
with other impacts of climate change is also impacting biodiversity at
large (Shrestha & Shrestha, 2019).
 The challenges of unplanned roads and hydropower on the biodiversity
and their microhabitats are significant and distributed spatially from the
Terai forest and are more prominent in hilly regions (Bista et al., 2021).
 Grazing of livestock and human disturbance has been detrimental to the
Red Panda population as well as other plant diversity both in Terai and
Mountains (Thapa et al., 2020). 4
S.N. Threats
Prov.
1
Madhesh
Bagmati
Gandaki
Lumbini
Karnali
Sudurpaschi
1 Habitat loss and deforestation 2 3 3 2 2 2 3
2 Illegal hunting and trade 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 Human Wildlife Conflict 2 2 3 3 3 2 3
4 Invasion by IAPs 2 2 3 2 2 3 2
5 Forest fire 2 3 3 3 3 3 3
Protected Areas
6 Poaching 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
7 Grazing 3 3 2 2 3 4 4
8 Illegal timber harvesting 1 2 2 2 2 3 2
9 Uncontrolled tourism 1 1 2 2 2 3 1
Rangeland
10 Over grazing 2 3 2 2 4 3 3
11 Invasion by IAPs 2 2 3 2 3 3 3
Wetlands
12 Human Encroachment 2 3 2 3 2 3 3
13 Over-fishing 3 3 3 2 2 3 3
14 Pollution 2 3 3 3 2 3 3
15 Widespread mining of gravel 3 3 3 3 2 3 3
16 Illegal hunting and trapping of birds & wildlife 2 2 2 2 2 2 3
17 Invasion by IAPs 2 2 3 2 2 2 2
Agrobiodiversity
18 Loss of Agrobiodiversity 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
19 Improper use of pesticides 3 3 4 3 3 3 2
20 Urbanization 3 3 3 3 2 3 3
21 Lack of incentives to conserva local land races 2 3 2 3 3 3 3
Mountain
22 Poaching 2 3 3 2 2 2 3
23 Overharvesting of plant species 2 3 3 3 N/A 4 2
24 Climate change 3 2 3 3 2 3 3
25 Unplanned and unregulated rural roads 4 4 4 3 3 4 4
Species Loss
26 Over exploitation of timber and NTFPs 3 3 2 3 3 4 4
27 Invasion by IAPs 2 2 2 2 3 3 3
Genetic Resource Loss
28 Loss of local landraces 2 2 3 3 4 2 3
29 Loss of wild relatives 2 3 3 2 4 2 3
30 Increased Vulnerability to pest and diseases 2 3 3 3 3 3 2
Source:
Nepal’s
6
th
National
Report
to
CBD,
MoFE,
2018
Threats ranking: 1= low; 2=Moderate; 3=High; 4= Very high

5. HABITAT DESTRUCTION/ LAND USE
 The rate of deforestation is substantial in Nepal over the period of 2001 to 2016 (Shrestha et al., 2018). A study of
48 Asian countries on the expansion of cultivated land and artificial surfaces showed that Nepal had the second
highest highland expansion after Bhutan in the period 2000 – 2020. (Yang et al., 2022).
 Area of large forest patches has decreased by 43.08% of the Elephant range has been decreased while the remaining
habitat is largely fragmented affecting its functionality (Ram et al., 2021). Decreased habitat patches have also
affected Red Panda (Bista et al., 2022) and the decline in wetlands in KTWR affects various endangered species
such as wild water buffalo, fishing cats, and migratory birds. (Chhetri, et al., 2013).
 Major threats to the critically endangered, Bengal florican in the protected areas is improper habitat management by
intensive burning, grass harvesting, overgrazing, and hence loss of suitable habitat (Baral et al., 2020). While
unmanaged grazing of rangelands has posed negative impacts on Pika (Thapa et al., 2018).
 Urbanization, mismanagement of waste, and rapid increase in crow population has led to roosting competition for
Flying fox and other fruit bats; and decreasing foraging habitats of bats in Kathmandu Valley (Thapa et al., 2017;
Prajapati, et al, 2020).
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6. INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT
 The apex predators in Nepal are critically impacted by Wildlife Vehicle collisions,
especially in tigers, leopards, and striped hyenas; while also intensifying habitat
fragmentation as for the range of dhole as well as other species like sloth bears and
tigers, quality reduction and obstruction in wildlife movement; also observed in
case of Red Panda (Quintana et al., 2022; Bista et al., 2022 ).
 Urban constructions such as roads and concrete surfaces alter the local hydrology
and hence the associated soil moisture and rise in road-kills; thus, the distribution
of frogs as well as amphibians in cities like Kathmandu (Aryal et al., 2020).
 Numerous hydropower dams in India and Nepal are likely to affect the tiger habitats
as well (Palmeirim et al., 2021). The larger capacity Projects with higher impacts
are located in the ecologically sensitive zones (habitat of red panda & musk deer)
such as MBNPBZ; SNPBZ; GCA; and LNPBZ (Ghimire & Phuyal; 2022).
6
(Ghimire & Phuyal; 2022)
Source: (Awale, 2019)
MBNPBZ: Makalu Barun National Park Buffer Zone; SNPBZ: Sagarmatha National Park Buffer Zone; GCA: Gaurishankar
Conservation Area; LNPBZ: Langtang National Park Buffer Zone

7. INVASIVE ALIEN PLANT SPECIES
 Of 182 naturalized plant species in Nepal; 27 species are invasive in Nepal of which 4 (Chromolaena odorata,
Eichhornia crassipes, Lantana camara and Mikania micarantha) – the world’s worst invasive species (Shrestha &
Shrestha, 2021)
 Spread of Mikania micarantha in KTWR, the Bengal florican habitat has impacted its presence (Baral et al., 2019;
Chhetri et al., 2013) and also posed a significant risk in the rhino habitat in Chitwan NP (Murphy et al., 2013) also to
the unique biodiversity of Jalthal along with the combined effect of Mimosa diplotricha and Chromolaena odorata
(Sharma et al., 2021, Sharma et al., 2020).
 Considerable negative impact of P. hysteroporous on soil seed bank of grasslands hence altering the composition of
native food plant species for Rhinoceros inside PAs and cattle outside (Khatri-Chettri et al., 2022; Timsina et al., 2011)
 Potential impact of climate change distribution of 24 invasive alien species in Nepal has been studied with 75% of
IAPs will expand their suitable regions in climate change RCP 6.0 scenario for 2050; with the expansion of invasion
hotspots towards mountain region (Shrestha & Shrestha, 2019).
 IAPs (Leerisa hexandra, E. crassipes) in Ramsar sites of Pokhara resulted in the decline of economically important
plants (lotus, wild fruits, fodder) & fish diversity/ production (Pathak et al., 2021) 7

8. CLIMATE CHANGE
The upward shift in the high mountain tree species Abies spectabilis 0.93m and Betula utilis 0.42 m upward in
the Sagarmatha region is causing shrinkage of the Alpine Ecoregion due to change in temperature and
precipitation (MoFE, 2021a). It is causing the loss of habitat of Snow leopards on an average 25% is predicted
in different studies also increased human- wildlife conflict in the Himalayan region (Forrest et al., 2012; Aryal
et al., 2016). Climate change acts as potential threat to Pika (Koju et al., 2021).
Pant et al. (2020) assessed, small populations of rhinoceros are moderately vulnerable due to invasive species,
floods, habitat degradation, droughts, and forest fire aggravated by climate change; with loss of 51.25% and
56.54% of suitable habitat under RCP 4.5 for 2050 and 2070 respectively (Adhikari and Shah, 2020).
Climate change will reduce the climatically suitable areas for the majority of traded MAPs and even the
MAPs with a limited range like Jatamansi, Kutki, Satuwa, and Bikh (Shrestha et al., 2022; Rana, et al.,2020).
While there are some positive impacts of climate change in sustaining agrobiodiversity but could cause the
extinction of the wild varieties and local landraces, not resilient to climate change-induced extremities (MoFE,
2021b). 8

9. OVER EXPLOITATION/ TRADE
 Biodiversity in Nepal along with Sub-Saharan Africa, India and China is projected to be threatened by cropland
intensification (Zabel et al., 2019). Due to the underutilization of native agriculture genetic resources; in an
average, 40% of diversity has been lost (Joshi, et al., 2020).
 Overexploitation of high-value and rare species such as Pterocarpus marsupium (DoF, 2018); Ophiocordyceps
sinensis (Shrestha & Bawa, 2013); Nardostachys jatamansi, Rheum australe, and Picrorhiza scrophulariflora
(Pyakurel et al., 2019; Wooloff, et al., 2022) have threatened their survival due to intensive harvesting and
degradation of their natural habitats also causing threats to wildlife such as Pika (Thapa et al., 2018).
 Nepal is the hotspot from where tigers were poached mostly (110 seizures over 2000 -2022 of which 54 had been
made in the Bagmati Province ranking it 5th state-wise in overall assessment) though now has reduced over the last
four years while Nepal is still a trafficking hotspot (Wong & Krishnasamy, 2022).
 The risk of poaching still prevails for the rhino and has increased for small mammals like red panda (Badola et al.,
2020; Bista et al., 2020) pangolin (Bashyal et al., 2021; Phuyal et al., 2023); birds (Bhushal, et al., 2020; Joshi, 2022;
Rai, 2009) and reptiles (Marshall, et al., 2020; Poudel, N. 2022).
9

10. INDIRECT DRIVERS
Study of human population within the tiger range including Terai Arc Landscape of Nepal, using Shared
Socioeconomic Pathways indicated that tigers would remain conservation-reliant species in future as well
pertaining to the increasing urbanization and its modes with respect to urban governance, education economic
reform and movement of people and goods (Sanderson et al., 2019).
Unemployment as well as cultural factors driving people to wildlife hunting and trade of endangered wildlife
such as pangolin and some easy money-making motives as for red pandas (Phuyal, et al., 2023; Bista et al.,
2020). Miscommunication during the awareness campaign indicating the high price also raised killings.
The negative attitude of the people experiencing conflict with park administration and bearing a higher
amount of crop loss as well as ignorance could act as barrier for conservation initiative (Shahi et al., 2023).
Policy gaps like integrating biodiversity conservation in the local level policy; conflicts in policy formulation
and implementation between different tires of government overshadow biodiversity issues at the provincial and
local level; the central level policies are indifferent towards the indigenous values (Baral et al., 2022). 10

11. DISCUSSION
The expansion of human activities in highland intensify habitat fragmentations as most of the expansion
occurs on ecological lands (Yang et al., 2022) and mostly affected low or lower-middle-income countries.
Agricultural intensification in the highlands is estimated to impact biodiversity in the Himalayan hotspots;
where there is a chance of switching local landraces to hybrids. Also, the cropland user organisms will be
impacted severely (Zabel et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2022).
Deterioration in habitat quality accounted for the deaths of tigers in the national parks rather than direct
anthropogenic causes such as killings (Bhandari et al., 2019). While the problem of some invasive species is
also being out of control in vital habitats like floodplains that support prey species for Tigers and forage for
megaherbivores. Forage diversity decline is aggravated by over grazing (Tuladhar et al., 2022).
Threats are interlinked, as the encroachment, cultivation expansion, planned conversion, and development of
infrastructure have been causing the loss of forest habitat and forest-dwelling species. Hunting and habitat
factors were primary threats to Pangolin conservation (Phuyal et al., 2023). 11

12. DISCUSSION
Biodiversity mainstreaming into sectors like tourism, and physical infrastructure (road, hydropower, etc.) and
in local policies is yet to be realized seeking better alternatives (MoFE, 2018).
Climate change is likely to cause habitat shifts and loss of suitable habitats stressing wildlife to search for
alternative forage and hence increasing negative competition for survivability.
Sal focus management of the lowland forest is also threatening biodiversity in some unique localities like Jalthal
(Sharma et al., 2021). Over-exploitation of Bijaysal (DoF, 2018) or no management in Community forests due
to lack of active management decreased tree diversity (Poudyal et al., 2019).
Specific threats as, Diclofenac use in livestock has threatened the vulture population (Chaudhary et al, 2019); &
cross-breeding between domestic and Wild Water Buffalo (Khulal et al., 2019), threatening endangered species.
Multiple impacts interact affecting various aspects of genetics and life history of certain wildlife populations as
well as core elements of ecosystems ultimately causing decline overtime; aggravated by anthropogenic pressure.
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13. CONCLUSION
Biodiversity is threatened by different anthropogenic and natural threats causing a decline at different
levels: genetic, species, and ecosystem levels in Nepal.
While habitat destruction was prevalent for a long time; Invasive Alien Species and Climate Change are
emerging threats. These are affecting biodiversity rapidly and intensely compared to other factors.
Human needs for infrastructures for economic growth are driving extreme resource consumption as well
as the destruction of natural habitats. This has led to habitat degradation and population decline,
sometimes beyond recovery.
 Biodiversity is linked to livelihood and resilience such as food security. Its loss will negatively impact
the human well-being. Lack of such awareness at large is the underlying driving factor of unchecked
consumption and destruction.
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14. AVERTING THREATS
The human activity expansion in the highlands needs cautious design of policies and
activities to lessen the ecological loss in the critical habitats as primary forests and fragile
lands such as Chure. It is further imperative to provide climate refugia in the context of
range shifts in future (Thapa et al., 2022).
Research, advocacy, and awareness of species are vital in shaping policies regarding
conservation and management (Poudel, et al., 2021; Bista et al., 2020 ).
Alternatives of intensive cultivation could be explored by integrating trees and valuable
NTFPs in form of agroforestry practices that would garner agrobiodiversity; with more eco
friendly food culture over time.
Understanding the political ecology of biodiversity conservation is vital in garnering the
support of varied stakeholders in biodiversity conservation (Brown, K., 1994) as Nepal is
opting for landscape-level conservation.
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15. https://thehimalayantimes.com/uploads/imported_images/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/Nepals-Flora-and-fauna.jpg
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REFERENCES
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