Essay On Synthetic Fibre

Essay On Synthetic Fibre
Natural fibers represent environmentally friendly alternatives to conventional reinforcing fibers
(glass, carbon, kevlar). Advantages of natural fibers over traditional ones are low cost, high
toughness, low density, good specific strength properties, reduced tool wear (nonabrasive to
processing equipment), enhanced energy recovery, CO2 neutral when burned, biodegradability.
Because of their hollow and cellular nature, natural fibers perform as acoustic and thermal insulators
and exhibit reduced bulk density [33, 34].
Some of the disadvantages and limitations of natural fibers, when used as reinforcement for
composites, are related to the lack of proper interfacial adhesion, poor resistance to moisture
absorption, limited processing temperature to about 200°C, and low dimensional stability
(shrinkage, swelling). Researches are being done to improve these properties and are implemented
continuously [35, 36]. The fiber surface heterogeneities such as surface defects, impurities, surface
flaws, etc. affect the mechanical properties of the composites remarkably. Modification of fiber
surface is generally used in order to reduce the surface defects, improve the adhesion between the
fiber ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In addition to surface modification, another technique adopted to enhance the mechanical strength of
a natural fiber composite is the use combined natural and synthetic fiber (like glass) as
reinforcement in the same matrix material. This results in a hybrid composite.
The physical and mechanical properties of the composites are determined by the fiber/matrix
interface. By chemical treatments such as dewaxing, mercerization, bleaching, cyanoethylation,
silane treatment, benzoylation, peroxide treatment, isocyanate treatment, acrylation, acetylation,
latex coating, steam–explosion, etc. the interfacial properties can be improved [34,
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Acetaldeunge Lab Report
For example the wave numbers of v (C=O) absorptions for the following compounds:
Formaldehyde (HCHO) 1750 cm–1.
Acetaldehyde (CH3CHO) 1745 cm–1.
Acetone (CH3COCH3) 1715 cm–1.
Introduction of an electronegative group causes –I effect which results in the bond order to increase.
Hence the force constant increases and the wave number of absorption rises. MESOMERIC
EFFECT It is responsible for lengthening or the weakening of a bond thus causing lowering of
absorption frequency. Since nitrogen atom is less electronegative than oxygen atom, the electron
pair on nitrogen atom in amide is more labile and hence it participates more in conjugation.
Due to this greater degree of conjugation, the C=O absorption frequency is much less in amides as
compared to that in esters.
FIELD EFFECT In ortho substituted compounds, the lone pair of electrons on two atoms influences
each other through space interactions and changes the vibrational frequencies of both the groups.
This effect is called field effect. Interpretation of spectra–
1. N–H stretching vibrations (secondary amine) Secondary amines show a single weak band in the
3350 – 3310 cm–1 region. These bands are shifted to longer wavelengths than primary amines due
to hydrogen bonding. The position, intensity and the breadth of the band indicates whether the group
is free, exhibit intermolecular hydrogen bonding.
2. C–H stretching vibrations (Aromatic/Aliphatic) Aromatic C–H stretching bands occur between
3100 and 3000 cm–1. Weak combination and overtone bands appear in the 2000–1650 cm–1 region.
The absorption due to C–H stretch from methyl or methylene groups occur in the region of 3000–
2840 cm–1
3. Ring stretching vibrations (C=C & C=N stretching vibrations) Ring stretching vibrations occur in
the general region between 1600 and 1300 cm–1. The relative intensities and the band pattern
depend on the substitution pattern and the nature of the substituent. 4 C–N stretching vibrations
(secondary amines) – Aromatic amines display strong C–N stretching absorption in the 1342–1266
cm–1 region.

Sn2 Reaction Lab Report
Pronin, Reiher, and Shenvi provide a shortcut to produce compounds with tertiary alkylisonitriles or
tertiary alkylamines from tertiary alcohols through a transformation similar to a Sn2 reaction. This
could make it easier to synthesize natural products that have anticancer, antimalarial, or antifungal
properties. In a Sn2 reaction, a nucleophile displaces a leaving group so that the substrate's
stereochemistry is flipped. The structural flip could change a compound's chemical properties. This
cannot take place on tertiary carbons because triply substituted carbon electrophiles are too crowded
for the Sn2 reaction's backside attack. This method transforms tertiary alcohols into tertiary
alkylisonitriles while inverting the stereochemistry. In this method, a special acid catalyst and a
nitrogen–containing molecule, a derivative of cyanide is used. The special acid catalyst is scandium
(III) trifluoromethansulfate. The acid helps detach a fluorous functional group from one side of the
central carbon and then nitrogen forms a new bond on the other side. The substrate alcohol is ...
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Figure 2 was unorganized and harder to follow. There were three different sections, a through c, but
they weren't spaced out and it was difficult to decide if the chart was with section b or c. It would
have been easier to read if each section was its own figure (Figure 1, Figure 2, etc.) instead of 2a,
2b, or 2c. Figure 2 was about the Ritter–type reaction, this was not mentioned in the article
straightforward saying this was the Ritter–type but the article provided a useful reference. The other
figures were clearly labeled and were useful in understanding this method. The stereochemistry was
shown in all compounds in the figures. This had to be present in order to show that particular
reactions and products were stereoselective and had stereochemistry. If not the figures would be
incomplete and wouldn't be

Morphine
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) ID of morphine is (5α,6α)–7,8–
didehydro– 4,5–epoxy–17–methylmorphinan–3,6–diol. The general formula for Morphine is
C17H19NO3 and it is recognized as a benzylisoquinoline alkaloid with two additional rings
attached to complete the overall structure.
As shown in Figure 2, morphine is a five member ring system that acts as a backbone for the
structure. This includes a benzene ring (A), two cyclohexane rings (B and C), the piperidine ring
(D), and tetrahydrofuran ring (E). It seems that due this type of configuration, the compound proved
to be slightly flexible because of the phenantherene ring system (A,B, and C)[6]. Furthermore,
several functional groups exist in the morphine structural configuration. For instance, the ether
linkage between C4 and C5, the 3o amine group adjacent to C16, hydroxyl groups located on C3
(ph3nolic alcohol) and C6 (allylic alcohol), and the unsaturated double bond between C7 and C8.
Shown below, in Figure 3, are the primary functional groups in morphine: ... Show more content on
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In addition, it was determined that morphine consists five chiral centers[6] which involves the C5,
C6, C9, C13, and C14 sites.
Consider, each chiral structure has its own pharmacological profile, and therefore, posses different
properties and physiological effects on the human body. Further examination and extensive studies
show that the pharmaceutical active structure is (–)–Morphine[6]. The essential difference between
these two structures is the placement of the piperidine ring (D) between the C9 or C10 and C12 and
C13. For example, if ring D is attached on C9 and C13, it will yield
(–)–Morphine. On the other hand, if the piperidine ring is attached on C10 and C12, it will be
detected as

Mercedes Benz
During the recession in 1990, Mercedes –Benz struggled to adapt to changing markets. The luxury
car market lost money for the first time in history in the 90's. In 1993, there was a big sales slump in
Mercedes–Benz sales. In its search for additional market share, new segments, and new niches
Mercedes started developing a range of new products. One of the most radical and largest of the new
range of products is AAV (all activity vehicles). In order to be competitive in the market, Mercedes–
Benz needs to control costs and also meet the customer requirements at the same time. To achieve
this goal, Mercedes–Benz adapted target costing. Is Mercedes–Benz heading in a right direction
with target costing? Should they continue to use it? If ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
From this, engineers determined that chassis quality was important. A fourth table was created to
know the importance index of various function groups by using information from table1 and table 3.
For example, the importance index for chassis is calculated by multiplying each row in table 3 with
the relative percentage of each column of table1 that is (.50 x .41) + (.30 x .32) + (.10 x .18) + (.10 x
.09) = .33. A final table was developed to calculate the target cost index for each functional group.
The target cost index was calculated by dividing each important index (from table 4) with target cost
(from table 2). For example, the importance index for Chassis is .33 and the target cost is 20% so the
target cost index is 1.65. A function group with target cost index ration less than 1 indicates that it is
a candidate for possible cost reduction. That is the ratio of cost to benefit is low. Options available
are: Re evaluating assumptions or importance, reduce cost of existing design by working with
supply partners. In general, 80% of the components and systems are provided by suppliers. So
working with the suppliers for cost reduction is very critical for target costing. Through an iterative
process, either the importance index or the target cost is adjusted to bring the target cost index to the
desired level. By using target costing, Mercedes controlled costs at the

The 's Cultural And Sociological Values
Ecstacy.MDA. Nutmeg. A ubiquitous spice that can be found in kitchens worldwide, nutmeg has
been harnessed in cooking, rituals, and a multitude of different ways across multiple cultures for
millennia (Baxamusa, 2011). Its most common use in near day–to–day cooking is something that is
not given a lot of thought to, but with Drug culture becoming increasingly prevalent in younger
demographics, nutmeg has become a cheap and easily sourced alternative (Shafer, 2010). Through
analysis of its chemical components, its structures and properties, in comparison to other illicit drugs
such as MDMA (Ecstasy) and MDA (3, 4–Methylenedioxyamphetamine), credence can be given to
the relationship between its popularity rise in youth culture, and its ... Show more content on
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Exotic and Aromatic, nutmeg became monopolized by the Dutch in the early 1600's after the
massacring the islands native population (AUBREY, 2012). Here the first plantations of the spice
were established and all other sources which could pose a threat to the economic assets of the Dutch
were eradicated. Prior to this, it had been considered a rare commodity predominantly throughout
Europe, Asia and the Middle East, where its earliest uses were traced back for Indian medicinal
purposes around 700 B.C.E (Nagano, 2009). Nutmeg was sought by the rich, for its potency to
induce hallucination ‒ which can now be related to the prevailing substances that are found in its
oils. These oils are what give basis to nutmegs association with madness.
The links between nutmeg and madness, or rather the symptoms of being in an altered physical and
mental state, correlates to the molecular composition of nutmeg's oils. Specifically, nutmeg consists
of numerous psychoactive compounds that have been found in its fixed oils (24 – 40%), known also
as the butter as well as in the volatile oils (5–15%) of the total sample (Nagano, 2009). The most
influential and common compounds as the cause for these effects being: Myristicin (13.57%),
Safrole (4.28%) and Elemicin (1.42%). Estimated to account for 20% of the oils within nutmeg
(Muchtaridi, Subarnas, Apriyantono, & Mustarichie, 2010), each of these molecules

Carboxylic Acid Lab Report
Carboxylic acid synthesis, reactions and pharmacological activity Carboxylic acid is organic
chemical compound that contain a functional group that is carboxyl group –COOH which is made of
hydroxyl group and carbonyl group both attached to the same carbon which is attached to hydrogen
atom or alkyl group thus the general formula of the carboxylic acid is R–COOH with R represent
alkyl group or a hydrogen atom. Carboxylic acid functional group is partly ionized in solution so it
is a weak acid, however it's acidity is considered as the chef chemical characteristic of it as it is
generally more acidic than the other organic compounds that contain hydroxyl group and more
acidic than the common organic functional groups but it is generally weaker than the common
mineral acids such as hydrochloric acid (HCl). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
All acid derivates can be hydrolyzed by water to yield carboxylic acids, the condition of this
reaction are vary wildly from mild to severe conditions as it depend on the compound that is
involved. The easiest acid derivate to hydrolyzed is acyl chloride because it require only the addition
of water, carboxylic acid salts can be hydrolyzed simply at room temperature by the addition of
water and strong acid such as hydrochloride acid (HCl) on the other hand carboxylic nitriles, esters
and amides are less reactive and must be typically heated with water and a strong base or acid to be
converted to carboxylic acids, if a base is used then a salt is formed instead of an acid which can be
easily converted to an acid by the addition of hydrochloric acid, the amides are less reactive and
require more vigorous treatment and nitriles can be partly hydrolyzed under milder

Chymotrypsin Essay
Chymotrypsin mimics. D'Souza along with other researchers were investigated the use of an
artificial chymotrypsin with the binding site of cyclodextrin with the catalytic site of an imidazolyl
group, a carboxylic acid and a hydroxyl acid. The synthetic chymotrypsin has a reduced molecular
weight and they believed that the real and artificial enzyme had the same catalytic activity. The
model enzyme as seen in figure 1 has a molecular weight of 1365 g mol–1 and is made up of 24
serine proteases. The active site is only known through X–ray crystallography and because of this
knowledge surrounding the mechanism is limited. The crystallography data shows the proposed
mechanism involves three main molecules in the active site. These are serine 195, histidine 57 and
aspartate 102. They believe the functional groups hold all importance in relation to reaction. The
functional groups are a hydroxyl group an imidazolyl group and the carboxylate ion. Figure 1: Small
mimic molecule of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If the charge relay system was occurring the pH would be more consistent with that of the
chymotrypsin at 7.4. The solvent isotope effect that is claimed to be evidence of the charge relay
system is the same as that for the hydrolysis of m–(tert–butyl) phenyl acetate by for –chymotrypsin
which alters the pKa of the secondary hydroxyls allowing hydrolysis to occur. Breslow and Chung
back–up the claims made by Zimmerman determining that the reaction must proceed via the
imidazole acting as a general base to deprotonate the cyclodextrin hydroxyl group. The claim that
the mimic model hydrolyses 2.5 equivalents of m–(tert–butyl) phenol continuously Zimmerman
claims that this is false as they monitored the release of m–(tert–butyl) phenol. Since the mimic
contains thirteen secondary hydroxyl groups, multiple acylation's are able to occur without

History Of Aspirin
The synthesis of aspirin is very important in today's society. One of the age old methods of treating
patients with inflammation problems, blood coagulation problems, fevers, and having a high risk of
heart problems involves the patient ingesting an oral supplement of aspirin. Using aspirin as a
therapy can decrease the risk of a second heart attack (Baigent 2009). In fact, the FDA has approved
four drugs for the prevention of vascular problems, and aspirin is one (Furie 2010). In addition,
aspirin is used daily by many seniors in the U.S. In a recent survey, it was found that in people
ranging from 45 to 75 years of age, 52% percent reported that they were currently taking aspirin,
and 20% reported that they had used aspirin in the past (Thompson, ... Show more content on
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In an esterification reaction, a carboxylic acid reacts with an alcohol. The synthesis of aspirin is an
esterification reaction. Initially, the proton, i.e. the hydrogen ion, from the acid attacks the acetic
anhydride and attaches itself on a double bond oxygen. This makes the compound more
electrophilic, meaning that it has a higher affinity for electrons. This is what sets off the reaction.
The salicylic acid then acts as an alcohol and attaches its OH group onto a carbon on the acetic
anhydride. Then, the hydrogen from the OH group (the alcohol group) of the salicylic acid falls off,
forming a tetrahedral intermediate, and the hydrogen ion reassociates with the conjugate base of the
acid used as the catalyst. Next, the hydrogen that came from the acid initially, transfers its electrons
and forms a double between the adjacent oxygen and carbon. However, the hydrogen atom does not
fall off after the transfer of electrons but is kept there with a positive charge. With this, another
transfer of electrons occurs and an acetyl group is generated from the breaking of the acetic
anhydride. Now, the acetyl group breaks off the positive hydrogen attached and acetic acid is
generated as a result. With this, the ester, the aspirin, is created (Watson

Joining Macromolecules In An Organ's Body
Proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids are all essential macromolecules for basic
biological functions within an organism's body, and other everyday applications. They are used in
chemical reactions to achieve many results, such as energy storage, DNA coding, waste
management, and a number of other uses. However, most of the chemical reactions involving
macromolecules rely heavily on the shape and structure of the molecule; such as the amount of
monomers in the macromolecule. The process of joining macromolecule monomers together is a
chemical reaction called dehydration synthesis, or also known as a condensation reaction. The
functional groups of a macromolecule are reacted together to form various types of bonds, and
produce water ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Ecologically speaking, the plant life is heavily dependent on dehydration synthesis. The cell wall of
a plant is entirely composed of a carbohydrate– cellulose– that was constructed with dehydration
synthesis and other nutrients. The cell walls are the leading reason for plants', and trees' stiffness. To
further expand upon this idea, a maple tree is able to grow tall, partially due to the stiff cell wall.
The importance of healthy and strong plant life to the environment should not go unnoticed. More
importantly the contributions of dehydration synthesis are indirectly and directly responsible for the
above applications, and drive several biological systems. Medically speaking, the absence of
proteins has been linked to several health disorders such as Alzheimer's and Creutzfeldt–Jakob
disease. The importance of properly constructed proteins is the difference between a healthy
functioning brain and a disease that could result in death or other extreme negative side

Organic Chemistry Of Chemical Reactions
Organic Chemistry
Organic chemistry is the chemistry of carbon compounds. It deals with the structure, properties and
reactions of compounds that contain carbon and includes those from nature as well as synthetic
compounds. Organic chemistry, often termed as the 'chemistry of design', allows new molecules to
be created such as in the manufacture of plastics, polymers, fuels, soaps, detergents, drugs and
medicines. These, if carefully designed, have important properties for the improvement of mankind.
One such example of manipulating organic compounds through chemical reactions is the
development of Aspirin and later, other associated analgesics or non–steroidal anti–inflammatory
drugs.
Brady Grindrod
2014
Organic chemistry, often termed the 'chemistry of design', is the chemistry of carbon compounds. It
deals with the structure, properties and reactions of compounds that contain carbon and includes
those from nature as well as synthetic compounds. Through the modification of a molecule's
structure and functional groups, new molecules can be created such as in the manufacture of
plastics, polymers, fuels, soaps, detergents, drugs and medicines. These, if carefully designed, have
important properties for the improvement of mankind. One such example of manipulating organic
compounds through chemical reactions is the development of Aspirin and later, other associated
analgesics or non–steroidal anti–inflammatory drugs (NSAID's) such as ibuprofen and celecoxib.
The relief

62 Aldehyder
Esmeralda Curiel Organic Chemistry November 11, 2014 Experiment 62 – The Aldehyde Enigma
INTRODUCTION In the Cannizaro reaction an aldehyde is simultaneously reduced into its primary
alcohol form and also oxidized into it 's carboxylic acid form. The purpose of this experiment is to
isolate, purify and identify compounds 1 and 2 which contain 4–chlorobenzaldehyde, methanol, and
aqueous potassium hydroxide. Compounds 1 and 2 are purified by crystallization. . The purified
product will be characterized by IR spectroscopy and melting point. As detailed in Pavia 's Organic
Laboratory techniques the reaction is expected to proceed via the following reaction: Aqueous ...
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For the organic layer, we had a melting point range of 240–243°C. For the IR spectra, we did note
the C–Cl bond although there was not an OH bond present. ANALYSIS The reaction involves a
nucleophilic acyl substitution on an aldehyde, with the leaving group concurrently attacking another
aldehyde in the second step. First the Potassium hydroxide attacks a carbonyl, which forms a
tetahedral intermediate which then collapses when attacked by another hydroxide. The carbonyl is
formed again when its hydride attacks another carbonyl. In the final step of the reaction, the acid
and alkoxide ions formed exchange a proton. In the presence of a very high concentration of base,
the aldehyde first forms a doubly charged anion from which a hydride ion is transferred to the
second molecule of aldehyde to form carboxylate and alkoxide ions. Subsequently, the alkoxide ion
acquires a proton from the solvent. 4– chlorobenzoic acid which was the aqueous layer has a
theoretical melting point of 240–243°C, the organic layer, 4–chlorobenzyl alcohol has a theoretical
melting point of 68–71°C. During our experiment we were unable to collect any data for the organic

Radioisotope
How many electrons does Mg^(2+) have?
A: Magnesium (Mg) has 12 electrons. The atomic number is 12, meaning it has 12 protons. The
number of protons is equal to the number of electrons, therefore there are 12 electrons. This ion
however has a +2 charge, meaning that it has lost two of its original electrons. This means that
Mg^(2+) has 10 electrons. Given that the half–life of the radioisotope carbon–14 is 5730 years, how
useful do you think this isotope would be for dating bones that are over a million years old?
A: This isotope would not be very useful for dating bones that are over a million years old. This is
because carbon is in the living plants and animals since they consume nutrients with it and the air
they breathe contains it. When ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Oxidation–reduction (redox)
The process of losing electrons is called oxidation and the process of gaining electrons is called
reduction. When transferring electrons between two substances, one always reduces and another one
oxides known as a redox reaction.
An example of this is H_2+F_2→2HF Neutralization reactions
Neutralization reactions involve the reaction of a base and an acid to produce a salt and water.
An example of this is HBr+KOH→Kbr+H_2 O acid+base→salt+water
For the following chemical reaction:
C_6 H_12 O_6+6O_2→6CO_2+6H_2 O+energy
Identify
The substance(s) being oxidized.
A: Glucose is oxidized, as we can see there is no longer any H attached to the carbon and oxygen. It
loses electrons therefore is being oxidized. The substance that is reduced.
A: Oxygen is being reduced because it gained water and energy will be created in the process.
Lesson two For each of the four macromolecules, list their Monomer(s) Functional groups (list two)
Linkage type Provide the primary function for this macromolecule
Macromolecules
Carbohydrates Monomer(s): monosaccharide Functional groups (list two): hydroxyl and carbonyl

Chemical Reactions And Synthesis Of Organic Compounds
Organic chemistry is the complexity of natural compounds. It is applied to the production of
mundane objects that include: plastics, polymers, soaps, detergents and drugs. Such compounds of
organic chemistry involve the identification, modelling, chemical reactions and synthesis – it
initiates the concept of design implemented in organic compounds (Helmenstine A, 2014). An
example of an organic compound is the product of organic drugs in which are manipulated behind
the chemistry of its design. A particular category of drugs: NSAIDs (Non–steroidal anti–
inflammatory drugs) is one the most common types of medication utilised to treat a range of
conditions associated with the human body. Aspirin, paracetamol and ibuprofen are among the
category of NSAIDs (Deruiter, 2002, p.1). The product formed by the basis of organic chemistry
provides the insight that organic compounds can be morphed and designed in a way to produce a
particular product. Thus, organic chemistry is the application of organic molecules to form products;
it is the chemistry of design.
Organic compounds derive from elements within the second row of the periodic table, more
specifically carbon due to its periodic position. Carbon has the ability to donate and take four
valency electrons, thus it has the tendency to form various bonds in comparison to other elements
(UT Dallas, 2014). Organic compounds are produced by covalent and ionic bonding – an important
aspect of organic chemistry. In the aid of carbon,

To Synthesize a Fragrance Used Commercially in Two Steps...
What's That Smell? Due Date/Submission Date: 02/17/2014 I. Purpose To synthesize a fragrance
used commercially in two steps by using a chemoselective reduction reaction, and a polymer–
supported reaction. II. Reaction Equations and Mechanisms III. Calculations Part 1 Theoretical
Yield 1) (1.62 g ethyl vanillin x 154.16 g ethyl vanillyl alcohol) / (166.18 g ethyl vanillin) = 1.503 g
ethyl vanillyl alcohol 2) (0.3 g NaBH4 x 154.16 g ethyl vanillyl alcohol) / (37.83 g NaBH4) = 1.223
g ethyl vanillyl alcohol Percent Yield = (1.03 g / 1.223 g) x 100 = 84.2% Melting Point Range ( ̊C):
83.9, 84.4, 85.0 Melting Point Average ( ̊C): 84.43 Rf Values Starting material = 4.0/5.5 = 0.73 Final
product = ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
While we refluxed the solution there was no color change, the solution stayed clear. After gravity
filtration the solution stayed clear. After roto vap, solution was a milky brown color. IR spec data
showed a weak OH peak as well as strong C–O stretches around 1200 cm–1. V. Discussion
Questions: 1. Our percent yield for alcohol was 84.2% which is average. We rushed through our
vacuum filtration and probably did not let the solid dry long enough and might have not transferred
all of the solid to the vacuum filtration from the beaker. 2. The TLC results showed two different
spots that traveled different distances on the TLC plate, one for ethyl vanillin and one for ethyl
vanillin alcohol which proves there is no evidence of the starting material in our final product. The
product (ethyl vanillin alcohol) was more polar and interacted more with the solvent than our
starting material (ethyl vanillin). This increase in polarity is due to the extra alcohol group in the
ethyl vanillin alcohol and the smaller Rf value also indicates it is more polar and pure than the ethyl
vanillin. 3. The IR spectrum of the starting material shows a medium/strong C–O bond at around
1500cm–1, also the starting material shows a strong C–H bond at around 3000cm–1 and another
medium C–H bond at 2865cm–1 indicating an aldehyde group whereas the product does not. The IR
spectrum of the product shows a two weak broad O–H peaks at around

Melting Point Analysis Of Acetaminophen
ABSTRACT:
The objective of this lab is to synthesize acetaminophen from p–aminophenol. The techniques used
to do so, consist of: reflux with heat to allow reaction to occur at a reasonable time period,
extraction and filtration to isolate the desired product, and characterization of the product by
analyzing IR spectras and melting points. Acetaminophen considered synthesized, primarily due to
the IR spectrum exhibiting all the bond vibrations is the amide group. The percent yield of 124.6%
imply that there was a mechanical error that occurred, thus, also tampering with the progression of
the chemical reaction. The wide melting point range of 165 C–169 C denote the impurity of the
acetaminophen product.
INTRODUCTION
Chemical synthesis is an imperative technique most relevant to organic chemists. Synthesis employs
a succession of chemical reactions by using pre–existing structures to make new and functional
ones. A combination of lab techniques could be developed in order to synthesize and attain the
desired product. This particular experiment calls for the use for reflux, extraction, recrystallization,
infrared spectroscopy, and melting point analysis. The overall objective of this lab is to utilize these
steps to synthesize acetaminophen from p–aminophenol and characterize it .
To synthesize acetaminophen, calls for the following chemical reaction:
Equation 1
P–aminophenol is the reactant and acetic anhydride is added

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Silylation
Advantages
i. Derivatives of alkylation are very stable ii. Some of these reactions can be done in aqueous
solutions iii. Alkylation reagents are widely available iv. They are wither strong basic or acidic in
nature.
Disadvantages
1. They are only limited to acid hydroxyl groups and amines
2. The reagents used are mostly toxic
Alkylating agents and how they act.
a. Boron trichloride in methanol or chloroethanol: an acidic hydrogen group undergoes esterification
in the presence of boron trichloride an ester derivative. Acid BCl3
RCOOH + ClCH2CH2OH → RCOOCH2CH2Cl + H2O
b. Tetra–butyl–ammonium hydroxide (TBH): forms butyl ester with derivative or carboxylic acid
that improves the retention time in the gas chromatography column. TBH ... Show more content on
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Reagents are sensitive to moisture
III. They also have odor and can be hazardous
IV. Acidic by–product is formed by the reagents which can damage the columns during Gas
chromatography Acylating reagents used and their mechanism of action;
Reagents used in acylation are mostly halogenated or contain halogen compounds in their structures.
I. Fluorinated anhydrides react with amines, phenols, and alcohols to give highly volatile and stable
derivative of the prior analyte to be used. Acid receptor or amines are needed to enhance the
reaction.
II. Penta–fluoro–benzoyl Chloride can be used for stoically hindered functional groups. It is can also
be used in the derivatization of secondary amines which are highly sensitive and alcohols. An acid
by–product e.g. hydrochloric acid is formed during the process but can be neutralized with the use
of sodium hydroxide. Chiral derivatization in Gas Chromatography
Special reagents are required for the derivatization of chiral compounds which are superimposable
and grouped as enantiomers. The reaction of purely chiral reagents with enantiomeric compounds
will proceed to the formation of a racemic mixture that is two derivative enantiomers of one
compound and is separated using gas Chromatography to give separate diastereomers for each
enantiomer. Chiral derivatization is in high demand due to research on chiral

Acetaminophen From PAminophenol Lab Report
The purpose of the experiment was to extract acetaminophen from p–aminophenol using a synthesis
reaction technique, as shown in Scheme 2. Acetic anhydride was poured into p–aminophenol and
used reflux to break down chemical bonds. This was one step process to perform the synthesis.
Information about the chemical reaction was provided from the lab manual (Arizona State
University, 2017).
Scheme 2. The N–H bond in p–aminophenol and one of the C–O bond in acetic acid is severed to
form the product.
Since the temperature of the aluminum block did not exceed 100 ℃, the temperature of the reaction
was 100 ℃ as well. The reflux that was caused by the magnetic stirrer allowed the reaction to have
the necessary thermal energy to perform the reaction. The crystals that formed at the end was the
acetaminophen.
0.152 grams of p–aminophenol was combined with Exactly 0.5 mL of water and 0.3 mL of acetic
acid. A magnetic spin vane and a magnetic stirrer on the hot plate was used to reflux the reactants.
The heat was necessary to break down the covalent bonds in p–aminophenol and polarity of water
was essential to create acetaminophen. Originally, the experiment did not turn as planned because
the temperature was set above 100 ℃ and the solution was evaporated. The experiment was
conducted again with another group. The vial was then placed in an ice bath while before it was
poured down the Hirsch funnel and rinse the vial with 0.5 mL of cold to the pour the remaining
crystals into the

Table 1 Organizes All Observational And Statistical Data
Table 1 organizes all observational and statistical data throughout the experimentation. Mass and
volume amounts from various reagents were based upon these values and therefore are insignificant
in a table. Each beginning, intermediate, and final product demonstrated shows the initial mass
recorded before the next reactionary process began. At the end of each experimentation set, a dollop
of sample was utilized to examine IR peaks and melting point range. The IR peaks displayed are the
peaks present in the experimental samples that support the pure identity of the product. General
observations during and after procedures were noted and are displayed above.
Figure 4. IR spectra of benzaldehyde
Figure 5. IR spectra of benzoin ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
DISCUSSION
The first place to start on overall success of the experimentation would be the IR and melting point
values. If the IR and melting point reveal to match exactly with literature values, the whole of
experimentation can be deemed successful. Unfortunately, the reality is not as simple, for even a
slight impure peak or skewness in melting point shows flaw in the sample product. Benzaldehyde
was the first chemical in question. For this lab example, pure benzaldehyde was provided. For
exemplary purposes, the IR of benzaldehyde was taken to track the peak alterations that could occur
in later steps. The melting point provides further evidence of the purity of the benzaldehyde, but
purity was assumed and therefore melting point was not taken. Benzaldehyde is a simple aromatic
compound with a aldehyde group; therefore, expected peaks are the aromatic ring constituents, C=O
bond representative of aldehydes, and C–H bonds representative of aldehydes. According to the
expected literature values in place for this functional groups, benzaldehyde was sufficiently pure,
containing all the correct values. With the correct IR spectrograph available, all following IR
samplings follow stepwise in junction with the first. Further skewness can thus be considered flaw
in procedure and not benzaldehyde. Benzoin condensed from a catalyzed reaction with Vitamin B
and benzaldehyde, mixed with various basic and acidic

Pentanal Vs 1 Pentanol Essay
Pentanal and 1–Pentanol A compound contains atoms from two or more elements chemically
bonded to form a different and new substance. The two compounds Pentanal and 1–Pentanol
originate came from two separate functional groups. Pantanal comes from the functional group
Aldehydes which are an organic compound containing a Carbonyl functional group and is attached
to Hydrogen and one R group. On the other hand 1–Pentanol comes from the Alcohol group, which
is also an organic compound which is Hydroxyl functional group with the basic structure of (R–
OH). 1–Pentanol has a boiling point of about 138C which is much greater than the Pentanal with
102C which caused by having OH polar group and it also allows 1–Pentanol to form hydrogen
bonds with water, therefore increasing its intermolecular forces and eventually creating a high
boiling point. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The aldehyde group in pentanal is polar and because none of the Hydrogen atoms are directly
bonded to oxygen so no Hydrogen bonding is possible. From the other hand 1–pentanol is an
alcohol with five carbon atoms with the molecular formula C5H12O, also 1–Pentanol is both
Hydrogen donor and accepter which causes an increase in the boiling point. (Smith, 2001) The
figure below shows the similarities in the two compounds Pentanal and 1–Pentanol that they both
have the same number of carbon atoms with the same arrangement. The difference is on that end
carbon atom where two Hydrogen atoms are removed to make the aldehyde group. Everything else
stays the same, as well as the position of the functional group and the number and their

Organic Chemical Synthesis : The Process Of Aspirin
Aspirin Synthesis Organic chemical synthesis is the process of creating a different substance from
two or more existing substances. It can be done naturally or through man made techniques.
Synthesis has been going on for ages, although there was a time that we did not actually know that
was what we were doing. The first conscious synthesis was when urea was made in 1828. Since
then, this science has continued to become more developed and since World War II it has been
growing exponentially. A complete synthesis consists of three broad steps. First, there is the
chemical reaction, second purification of the substance, and thirdly characterization of the
substance. This paper goes into further details on each step. Retrosynthesis is the process or working
backwards from the molecule that one wants to end up with and figuring out what components and
steps are necessary to make it. I think this can be likened to baking. If you want to bake a fancy
chocolate cake you can start with the end product in your mind and work backwards until you get to
the eggs, flour, sugar, and coco powder required to make it. Retrosynthesis is important and
necessary because it gave scientists a new way to think about synthesis. Instead of just looking at
starting materials and trying to figure out what can be made from them, now we can look at what we
want to end up with and figure out how to backtrack into the answer of how to make it. Aspirin, well
rather, the bark of the willow tree has

Optimization of Ritalin for more Effective Results Essay
Ritalin (Methylphenidate) Optimization
Ritalin Pills
Abstract:
Attention–deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is currently the dominating psychiatric disorder
found in children. The creation of the drug Ritalin based on the molecule
Methylphenidate in the early 90's sparked a widespread use of this psycho stimulant, which still
remains as one of the most popular drugs used to counteract the symptoms of ADHD. My ultimate
goal in this research project is to design analogs for the drug Ritalin in the hopes of discovering a
more effective version of this medication. Through research, it can be concluded that none the
analogs suggested are suitable candidates for new drugs based on the results.
Introduction:
With 3–5 percent of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The molecular structure of methylphenidate contains a phenethylamine portion which superimposes
on its supposed neural substrates dopamine and norepinephrine, allowing it to interact with its
intended receptor (figure 2). (1) A closer examination of this compound's molecular structure reveals
that it complies with Lipinski's rule of five, even though its partition coefficient is yet to be found. It
molecular structure contains 3 hydrogen acceptors and 1 hydrogen donor, whiles its molecular
weight is 233.31 g/mol, well under the suggested limit of 500 g/mol.
In this project, analogs of the drug compound Ritalin (methylphenidate) will be designed in order to
attempt to optimize it. When the designs ar e complete, the software provided by the chemistry
department of UC Davis will be used to generate the necessary data to predict their effectiveness
and assess their potential in becoming suitable candidates for new drugs.
Fig. 2: Methylphenidate compared to
Dopamine and Amphetamine
The first analog of Ritalin (figure 3) has a structure that is somewhat similar to that of the original
drug. However, the ester functional group(figure 4) is replaced by an imine group (figure 5). This
creates a molecule that has one less hydrogen bond acceptor, making it less polar then the original
structure of Ritalin. The possible consequences of this change consist of both a

The Importance Of Creatine
Creatine is an organic molecule that is found in the human body as well as other vertebrate animal's
tissue ("Creatine"). It is considered an amino acid. Creatine is made naturally in the liver or can be
taken as a supplement ("Creatine"). Creatine has shown that when taken as a supplement it has many
benefits to the human body.
Structure and Properties: The formula for creatine is; C4H9N3O2 ("Creatine"). The structure is: By
looking at the structure of creatine and the bonds present, we can understand a lot of the properties.
The melting point of creatine is 255 degrees Celsius ("Creatine"). This is a relatively high boiling
point for a molecule. The high boiling point is due to the hydrogen bonds present between the
oxygen and hydrogen and the nitrogen and hydrogen. Hydrogen bonds are very strong and not easily
broken. Hydrogen bonds increase strength with numbers, this causes the melting point to be higher
in a molecule with more than one area where hydrogen bonding is present. Hydrogen bonding can
occur with the oxygen and the nitrogen in the molecule.
Shapes:
The shapes are determined by the bonds and the lone pairs on the atom. The bonds and lone pairs
cause the molecule to bend into different shapes dependent on the number of bonds and lone pairs.
They bend into a specific shape with different angle degrees.
Chirality:
Chirality refers to the "mirror image" of a molecule ("Chirality and Stereoisomers"). To identify a

Lab Report On Methylcyclohexene
Methylcyclohexene
Ashton Krstevski
Lab Partner: Micheal O'Daniel
Organic Chemistry 1 Laboratory, Indiana University Northwest, Gary, Indiana 46408
October 28, 2016
Abstract:
The purpose of this experiment was to practice the functional group transformation procedure. The
process of the experiment included the dehydration of 2–methylcyclohexanol in the presence of
phosphoric acid and heat. The products that were formed from the reaction were 1–
methylcyclohexene and 3–methylcyclohexene. The mass of the final product solution was 0.502g
with a percent yield of 18.7% and a boiling point range of 84.5–98.5oC.
Introduction:
A dehydration reaction involves the loss of water from the reactant. In a typical dehydration
reaction, an alcohol group ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
1.5mL of phosphoric acid including 3–4 boiling chips were also added to the 25mL flask. The short
path distillation apparatus was set up as shown in Figure 1. A heating mantle was used to heat up the
25mL flask. The solution was distilled to the receiving flask until a small amount of liquid remained
in the initial RBF flask. At this point the presence of thick grey smoke pulling over into the entire
apparatus was observed. The apparatus was then left to cool down. Through the use of pasture
pipette, the aqueous layer from the distilled solution was drawn out. Sodium carbonate was then
added to the remaining organic solution in order to check the pH and to verify the basicity of the
solution. The aqueous layer was again drawn out from the solution. Next, 0.5g of sodium sulfate
was added to the remaining organic layer and was swirled until the liquid appeared to be dry and
clear. The alkenes were transferred into a clean 10mL flaks using another clean pasture pipe. The
apparatus from the first distillation was rinsed off with

Functional Groups In 12 Angry Men
Gladding Guidelines for Group Strategies In the movie "12 Angry Men" the forming of group is for
12 men to decide the fate of young boy who is charged with murdering his father. The beginning
stages of forming a group involve nurturing your group to avoid chaos. Functional groups will go
through developmental stages while forming (Gladding, 2016). Forming A majority of the 12 men in
the group are higher class business men. The men were Caucasian and seemed America, except for
one. They are put in a room that is obviously extremely hot. The men had other priorities on their
mind were more interested getting the case over with so they can continue their schedule events. The
men entered a room and one man, a foreman, took charge. He is not a trained as a professional
counselor; therefore, he fails at the initial steps in forming a group but is trying to be active in
leading. There are multiple steps to forming a successful group. He did not form a clear guildlines
and rules for the group. Developing a rational is step one and your group leader need to exhibit a
clear ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This took a little bit longer for the group because they did not set clear expectations up front. The
more time the men spent together, they become less angry with one another and more verbal. They
begin hearing each other out and genuinely thinking about the evidence mentioned. This is also
called "we–ness", the feeling of belonging to a group or organization (Gladding, 2016). The one
gentleman who originally voted not guilty has now moved into the leadership role. This gentleman
was careful with his words when he spoke. He was trying to get the others to think "what if". The
group begins abiding by nonverbal guidelines, and they start creating some rules and expectations.
Toward the end of the show, they agreed to have a decision made by 7 o'clock. This is proving their
cohesiveness amongst the

Competency Inventory
Functional Competency Inventory and Design by Jai Cortes
I. Title of the Diagnostic Tool: Functional Competency Inventory and Design
II. Overview of the Diagnostic Tool
a. Definition
In a nutshell, functional competency inventory and design, is a tool which aims to measure the
competencies of functional groups of organizations, which are affected by their respective core
objectives. In 1973, McClelland supported "testing for competence, rather than intelligence." By
definition, competencies are "general descriptions of the abilities necessary to perform successfully
in areas specified. Competency profiles synthesize skills, knowledge, attributes and values, and
express performance requirements in behavioral terms. The review of ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Unlike Core Competency Inventory and Design, Functional Competency Inventory and Design
focuses on and measures the competency (knowledge, skills, personal attributes, and behavior) of
functional groups. "These groups are based on organization 's structure and are the formal groups on
organizational charts. These groups have their tasks and leaders chosen by higher management.
Functional groups usually have specific rules of operation and clearly defined superior–subordinate
relationships." For example, in the school setting, the Head Registrar is the designated leader of a
functional group of subordinates that includes a number of assistant registrars, liaison officer, and
secretaries.
What Functional Competency Inventory and Design does is that it measures the competency
required for each functional area, as like in the above mentioned example, the Registrar's office, and
checks whether the members of the group has the competency required for the functional area.
Another way of seeing functional groups would be to see that these functional groups are equivalent
to departments in companies. So Finance, Marketing, Operations, Research and Development, and
other departments of the corporation are all functional groups, whose competency can be measured
through this

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Warfarin
Warfarin, (Coumadin) is the most commonly prescribed oral anticoagulant for patients. It was
originally used for rat poisoning in mid 1900's. It was later discovered safe for humans to digest, to
reduce blood clots from forming in the blood or arteries. Vitamin K plays a major role for blood
clotting The drug inhibits the enzyme vitamin K epoxide reductase and interferes with blood
coagulation. Patients prescribed with this drug is advised to consume less food that are rich in
vitamin K because it reduces the effects of Warfarin. Warfarin,(Coumadin) has a chemical formula
of C19H15NaO4. The expanded structure formula for this drug is more detailed compared to the
skeletal structural formula. Every single atom and bond connected are shown in the formula. The
drug Warfarin,(Coumadin) has nineteen carbons attached with hydrogens, which are only attached if
the carbon does not have four bonds connected to it, four oxygens along with one derivative which
is Na. The molar mass, (which is the sum of the masses in grams of all the elements within the
compound) for this compound is 330.3g = 1 mole C19H15NaO4.
To prepare 50.0 mL of 5.30 x 10–2 M solution from Warfarin and water one needs exactly .875
grams (which is calculated by converting the 50.0mL to liters and multiplying the liters with the
molarity over one liter to cancel out the liters. Then the molarity from that answer gets multiplied to
the grams of the drug over one mole which gives the answer .875) of the drug on a

Multistep Synthesis Essay
Results:
Limiting Reactant: Eq 1 Limiting reactant = Benzoin
Theoretical yield of Benzil:
Eq 2
Theoretical Yield Benzil | 0.296 g | Mass of Crude Benzil | 0.188 g | Mass of Final Benzil | 0.127 g |
% Yield | 43% | % Recovery | 66% |
Table 1: Mass of crude/final Benzil, % yield, and % recovery
Percent Yield: % Yield = (Final product/Theoretical product) x 100 Eq 3 = (0.127 g/0.296 g) x 100 =
43% yield
Percent Recovery % Recovery = (Final product/Crude product) x 100 Eq 4 = (0.127 g/0.188 g) x
100 = 66% recovery
Theoretical Yield Benzilic Acid:
Eq 5
Theoretical Yield Benzilic Acid | 0.109 g | Final Benzilic Acid | 0.060g | ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The percent yield, calculated using the theoretical and final amount of benzil, was 43% (see Eq 3).
The percent recovery, calculated using the crude and final amount of benzil, was 66% (Eq 4). The
melting points of crude and final benzil were 82.5 – 85.6C and 94.2C respectively (Table 3). The
literature value for pure benzil is 95C and the final crystallized benzil temperature value is very
close to the literature value. This testifies the purity of the experimental benzil. The melting point
value of the crude was much lower and the range was much wider due to the impurities. For further
conformation of the purity of experimental benzil, the infrared spectroscopy was observed. . The
following functional groups were determined on the infrared spectroscopy according to their
corresponding wavenumbers: aromatic, sp2 C–H bonds, and C=O/carbonyl group (Table 4). Benzil
incorporates all of the above functional groups. The melting and infrared spectroscopy confirmed
that the final product created was Benzil.

In the following reaction, benzil was rearranged to from benzilic acid by reacting it with potassium
hydroxide in ethanol. 0.100 benzil was utilized and the theoretical yield of benzilic acid was 0.109
grams (see Eq 5). The final yield and weight of benzilic acid was 0.60 grams. The final yield and
theoretical yield were used to calculate the percent yield, 55% (similar to Eq 3). The melting point
of benzilic acid was 148.3C and the literature value for

The Dynacorp Case
Analysis of the Dynacorp Case through political lens Dynacorp is a worldwide information systems
and communications business. In 1990 the company started to have fewer earnings than in the past,
so the CEO tried to change the design of the company to run better. In this paper, I analyze this
organization though the political lenses to better understand how changing the structure can help
improve revenue and quality. As discussed in the book, the political lens sees the organization in
terms of conflicts of interests, power, and goals among individuals and groups within the
organization. The way to understand the dynamics of political conflict is to understand who has
power, from where that power comes, the basis of the power and how much ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The power of this function is somewhat limited by the fact that they are measured in terms of
efficiency and capacity utilization, and the function as a whole is treated as a cost center (Ancona et
al., 2009, p. M2, 29). The marketing function on the other hand also took on the role of the sales
function, divided into six regions in the US, and one international group focusing on sales and
divided by country. Customer intimacy drives marketing function operations, in particular with the
technical people in target organizations, with whom sales reps developed strong relationships.
Technical support was given strong emphasis too. The shift away from technical–led purchases in
firms to business–led purchases meant Dynacorp marketing had to adjust to improve relationships
with business people, taxing customer support and introducing a host of new challenges– greater
emphasis on marketing pitches, and the need to get new products out to the market with no major
malfunctions and bugs, among others. There was also an increased demand for systems integration
between Dynacorp's systems and the customer systems. The explicit interests of the

Humic Functional Groups
Humic substances are commonly described as heterogeneous compounds contain many functional
groups and they can be viewed as polyfunctional ligands. Oxygen–containing functional groups are
the most abundant and are ultimately the most important for binding metal ions (Logan et al., 1997).
The presences of functional group in organic compounds that have unshared pairs of electrons, and
that can form coordinate linkages with metal ions (Fig.3) are in the order of decreasing affinity of
organic groupings for metal ions as follows:
–O– > NH2 > –N=N– > –COO– > –O– > C=O
Enolate Amine Azo ring N Carboxylate Ether Carbonyl
The order stability of some divalent cations complexes with humic substances are as follows: Cu2+
> Ni2+ ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The capability of metal complexes to supply plant available micronutrients under different soil types
are related to stability and solubility of metal–HS complexes. So that, the increases in plant growth
under expermintal conditions caused by an improvement plant nutrients uptake (Garcia–Mina,
2004).
2.3.2. Interaction of metal ions with humic acids
The formation of covalent link between metal ions and the humic acid, formation of H– bonding, as
well as, electrostatic interface can promote the interaction between HA and metal ions. In the
micellar aggregates, the hydrophilic part of the molecule including carboxyl groups and phenolic
hydroxyl groups apprehends the aromatic structure. Complexation with the hydrophilic part of HA
acid have been formed as a consequence of the interaction with metal ions, also increasing the ratio
of aromatic structure (Dudare and Klavins, 2012). HS complexing capacity varies as a function of
pH. Two binding patterns are possibly present: at acid–neutral pH (carboxylates) and at alkaline pH
(carboxylate and phenolic groups). The binding patterns, binding strength, stability and solubility
depend on the complexed metal. Complex solubility depends on the concentration of free ionized
functional groups and the molecular weight (Garcia–Mina, 2006).
Erdogan et al. (2007) manifested that the differences in sorption ability of particular metal

Benzocaine And 9-Fluorenone Lab Report
In order to isolate benzoic acid, benzocaine and 9–fluorenone, each component needed to be
separated from one another. All three compounds began together in one culture tube, dissolved in
methylene chloride and formed into a homogenous mixture. In this culture tube, two milliliters of
aqueous three molar hydrochloric acid was added, which immediately formed two layers, the top
acidic aqueous layer was clear in color and contained benzocaine, and the bottom organic formed
was yellow and contained benzoic acid and 9–fluorenone. Benzocaine's amino group is protonated
by the aqueous layer hydronium. This protonation forms the conjugate acid of benzocaine,
benzocaine hydrochloride. Thus, the conjugate acid, benzocaine hydrochloride is a salt in which is
soluble in water and furthermore can be isolated from the organic mixture. When testing out the pH
levels in benzocaine, the pH test strip was dark blue in color, indicating a pH level of around 5 to 7.
When isolating benzoic acid, two milliliters of aqueous three molar sodium hydroxide was added,
which deprotonates the carboxylic group in benzoic acid, forming its conjugate base, sodium
benzoate. As with benzocaine hydrochloride, sodium benzoate is a water soluble ionic salt in the
aqueous layer that can then be separated from the bottom organic layer containing the 9–fluorenone.
The pH test strip was a vibrant red for benzoic acid, indicating a pH of 2. Now the 9–fluorenone is
left, deionized water is added to remove any excess

Synthesis Of Methyl Cinnamate
Introduction
The ester that was developed throughout the entire lab is known as methyl cinnamate. Methyl
cinnamate is an ester that is created when cinnamic acid is mixed with methanol and sulfuric acid
(see Scheme 1). Around the world, methyl cinnamate is found in a variety of plants and fruits such
as strawberry or cinnamon. The plant most used to collect higher concentrations of methyl
cinnamate is the Eucalyptus olida with a concentration of 98%. Due to the fact that the ester comes
from a cinnamic base, the ester contains a sweet strawberry aroma mixed in with a bit of cinnamon.
The sweet fruity smell of the ester is used heavily in the flavoring and the perfume industries (1).
This methyl cinnamate was an off–white solid color and consisted of fine, white particles that
clumped together in certain spots. Scheme 1. Synthesis of Methyl Cinnamate
Results and Discussion
A. Synthesis of Ester The synthesis of the ester had no conceivable procedural changes. The creation
of the ester could be deemed a success as the percent yield came out to a total of 42%. From a
mixture of 1.51 grams of cinnamic acid, 4.05 mL of methanol, and 20 mL of concentrated sulfuric
acid, a total of 0.68 grams of ester was produced. The 42% yield came from dividing the actual mass
of the ester (0.68 g) by the theoretical yield, which was calculated by the formula weight and the
amount of moles used. The produced ester, as mentioned above, was an off white color and had

Aromatic Substitution : Nitration Of Bromobenzene And...
CH 220C – Organic Chemistry Lab
Experiment 13: Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution: Nitration of Bromobenzene and Relative Rates
of Reaction
Rodan Devega
Introduction Electrophilic aromatic substitution (EAS) reactions involve the replacement of a
hydrogen atom bonded to an aromatic compound by an electrophile. The rate and direction of the
EAS reaction depends on the functional groups present on the aromatic compound. The purpose of
this experiment was to synthesize bromonitrobenzene by reacting bromobenzene with sulfuric acid
and nitric acid via EAS. Gas chromatography (GC) was performed on the product in order to
confirm its identity by comparing its observed retention time to the true retention time of
bromonitrobenzene. Additionally, the relative rates of reaction for several substituted aromatic
compounds were predicted and examined via reaction with molecular bromine. The rates were than
compared to gain insight on the affect of different substituents on rates of reactions concerning
aromatic compounds.
Data and Results
Table 1. Relative rates of various EAS reactions.
Compound
Elapsed Time (s)
Temperature (C)
Phenol
1.0
35
4–Bromophenol
4.0
35
Anisole
7.0
35
Acetanilide
> 60.0
35
Diphenyl Ether
>> 60.0

35
The order of EAS rates, from fastest to slowest, is as follows: phenol, 4–bromophenol, anisole,
acetanilide, and diphenyl ether.
Table 2. GC product analysis of bromonitrobenzene.
Peak Number
Time (min)
Area (uV*sec)
Height (uV)
Area (%)
1
0.482
599
862
0.14
2

Organic Chemistry : The Scientific Study Of Organic Chemistry
Organic chemistry is the scientific study of organic materials, those that contain carbon atoms.
Organic compounds are classified into families that are known as homologous series. The members
of each homologous series share some common features. A homologous series is composed of
compounds that have the same general formula (functioning group), usually the only differentiation
is the length of the carbon chain or number of monomers. The difference in the length of the carbon
chain can have an effect on many physical properties of the chemical, for example the boiling point.
Alcohols are organic compounds in which one or more hydroxyl (–OH) groups is bound to a carbon
atom. This group of compounds plays a key role in the world, ranging from alcoholic beverages to
medicine to being important compounds in organic chemistry. Boiling point is the point at which
liquids become heated to such an extent that its molecules begin to turn into a gas, this is due to the
addition of energy to the molecules. Molecular mass is a number that equals the sum of the
combined atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule.
This investigation looks to investigate the effects of C–C bonds, molecular mass, and symmetry on
the boiling point of homologous series. It could provide a preliminary first step for later studies in
this area by establishing a link between single C–C bonds and boiling points of hydrocarbons. The
homologous series analyzed in this investigation will be alcohols

Ester And The Fischer Esterification Of Esters
Esters are a specific type of functional group that can be derived from carboxylic acids. The –COOH
group found within a carboxylic acid is changed to form an ester, specifically the hydrogen
molecule, which is replaced by a hydrocarbon. Esters are present in many common things like
animal and vegetable fats and oils. Made up of long, complex esters, the physical differences
between fats and oils are in fact due to the different melting points of esters contained in each. For
example, if the melting point of a substance is said to be below room temperature, the product will
be a liquid and thus be classified as an oil. In contrast, if the melting point is said to be above room
temperature, the product will be a solid and thus be classified as a fat. Esters can also be found in
many perfumes or fragrances since they have a pleasant or fruity aroma. This unique smell is highly
dependent on the structure of the molecule, meaning that even the slightest change can alter its
scent. This is very important when considering how esters are formed. As stated previously, esters
are derived from carboxylic acids, and thus need to be obtained through special reactions, like the
Fischer Esterification reaction. Fischer esterification is the process of creating an ester from a
carboxylic acid by heating it with an alcohol, while in the presence of a strong acid being used as the
catalyst. This reaction needs to be monitored very closely to make sure the ester is formed correctly
in order

The Use Of Glycerol Residue
ABSTRACT: The use of glycerol residue, a palm oil waste from Oleochemical industries as a raw
material for the production of succinic acid with immobilized cell fermentation process was
investigated. In this work, the raw material, immobilized cells to produced succinic acid were
characterized by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry (FTIR) and Scanning Electron
Microscope instruments. Based on the results, the functional group appearing for treated and
commercial glycerol is the hydroxyl, aromatic methoxyl, alkenes, soap, carbonyl and alcohol group.
The hydroxyl group which is O–H appeared at a spectra value of 3394.2700 cm–1for the treated
glycerol and 3299.9600 cm–1 for the commercial group. Respectively. From the analysis of SEM
for bead, it was found that majority of pores fall within range and the shapes was ellipsoid and a
thick skin around strains was detectable, therefore indicating that immobilized cell prepared for
fermnatation process is an attractive source for succinic acid applications. . Key words: succinic
acid, immobilized cell, glycerol residue, characterization 1. INTRODUCTION Over the last decade,
succinic acid have been attracted a great deal of world attention with its excellent organic compound
and key compound in producing more than 30 commercially important product which lead to many
promising applications. (Agarwal et al., 2005). Succinic acid mostly produced by chemical
processes which is using liquefield petroleum gas or petroleum

Methylcyclohexane Lab Report
An alcohol, aldehyde, ketone, ester, and ether are examples of the functional group. One of the
functional group that tends not to think about is a plain old hydrogen. It is a functional group, but it
is normally ignored. It is drawn sometimes, but often time in the structure, it will be left out. There
is a reason for the fact that the Hydrogen is normally disregarded. That is because there are not
many chemistries can be done with Hydrogen which is not an extremely reactive functional group.
The hydrogen is generally mentioned in terms of proton and acid–base chemistry.
However, there actually is a reaction can be done with Hydrogen, a free radical substitution which is
performed with halogen. The general reaction is like R–H +X2  R–H +HX, ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The five different molecules are toluene, ethylbenzene, tertiary butyl benzene, cyclohexane, and
methylcyclohexane. The idea behind this experiment is there is a preconceived list of prediction
which is going to react with bromine fastest on down to the slowest. There are the different types of
hydrogen that are existed on these molecules and relative reactivity towards each other. There are
three different groups of hydrogen. First is an aromatic hydrogen which is included in toluene,
ethylbenzene, and tertiary butylbenzene. The definition of aromatic hydrogen is a hydrogen that is
attached to an aromatic ring. The second group is aliphatic which is included in ethylbenzene,
tertiary butylbenzene, cyclohexane, and methylcyclohexane. The definition of aliphatic hydrogen is
a hydrogen that is attached to the sp3 hybridized carbon. Moreover, that sp3 hybridized carbon is
attached to the sp3 hybridized carbon. Therefore, the aliphatic is sp3 hybridization all around. The
last group is what is known as benzylic which is included in toluene and ethylbenzene. Benzylic
hydrogen is a hydrogen attached to sp3 hybridized carbon and that carbon is attached to an aromatic
ring. Within the aliphatic, there are subcategories: primary (1°), secondary (2°), and tertiary (3°).
Primary aliphatic is in toluene, ethylbenzene, and methylcyclohexane. Secondary aliphatic is in
cyclohexane and methylcyclohexane. Tertiary aliphatic is in methylcyclohexane. Within the
benzylic, there are subcategories: primary (1°) and secondary (2°). Primary benzylic is in toluene,
and secondary benzylic is in ethylbenzene. Aromatic hydrogens are slightly less reactive or to about
the same reactive as aliphatic hydrogens. Both are less reactive than benzylic hydrogens. Primary
hydrogens are less reactive than secondary hydrogens. Secondary hydrogen is less reactive than
tertiary

Iodoform Test Lab Report
The identification and characterization of the structures of unknown substances are an important
part of Organic Chemistry. In this experiment a sample of an unknown aldehyde or ketone was
obtained. From this sample two solid derivatives were prepared. Their melting points were obtained
and compared to those listed in the Table of Aldehyde & Ketone Derivatives. From this the
unknown sample was identified. As additional aid a Benedict's test and Iodoform test were used.
These are functional group tests used for distinguishing between aldehydes, ketones and methyl
ketones. A Benedict's test tests positive for aliphatic aldehydes and negative for aromatic aldehydes
and ketones. An Iodoform test tests positive for methyl ketones and acetaldehyde ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
This was accomplished through functional group tests, preparation of two solid derivatives and
determining their melting points and making careful observations. The unknown sample was
determined to be cinnamaldehyde due to the odor it produced when the various tests were
performed. Even though the melting points obtained from the Dinitrophenylhydrazone and
Semicarbazone derivatives were not close to the melting points of cinnamaldehyde (255℃ and
215℃ respectively) the odor gave a clue to the unknown compound. The melting point differences
could have been due to human error handling the glassware and following the lab manual
instructions.
Synthesis/

How The Atoms Are Arranged Within A Molecule
Description
When we just look at the molecular formula, we don't know how the atoms are arranged within a
molecule. Different arrangements of atoms are possible in one formula and these are called
structural isomers, which we will focus on for this lesson.
!!!Structural Isomers
Did you love playing with building blocks when you were young? I remember taking the blocks
apart and putting them back together. Each time, I create different shapes and structures, all the
while, using the same set of blocks.
Let us think of atoms in a molecular formula as building blocks. __Molecular formulas__ tell us
how many atoms of each element there are in a molecule. Just like the building blocks, these atoms
can be bonded together in different ways. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
So, we can say that butane and isobutane are structural isomers.
!!!Types of Structural Isomers and Examples
Now that we know what structural isomers mean, let's discuss the different types of structural
isomers. These are chain isomers, functional group isomers and positional isomers.
!!Chain Isomers
__Chain isomers__ are a type of structural isomers that differ in terms of the branches in their
carbon chains. For chain isomers, we can imagine removing one carbon and its attachments in a
chain and sticking it together with another carbon within the chain.
For instance, for pentane, which has a molecular formula of C sub ''5'' H sub ''12'', has three different
chain isomers. In the illustration below, it shows that pentane and isopentane are chain isomers of
each other. The CH sub ''3'' group (circled in red) of pentane is switched with a hydrogen atom on
the carbon chain. Once this is done, it produces a chain isomer, isopentane.
Pentane and Isopentane Are Chain Isomers

Below, we can see another chain isomer of pentane, which is neopentane. Neopentane results from
switching the CH sub ''3'' on the left and the H atom (circled in red) with each other, and the other
CH sub ''3'' group on the right and the H atom (circled in blue). Pentane and Neopentane Are Chain
Isomers
By switching the hydrogen and CH sub''3'' groups on the pentane chain, we change the way the
atoms are

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