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Mellow Yellow
Cresswell (1984) indi- cated that qualitative research “is
de�ned as an inquiry
process of understanding a social or human problem, based on
building a
holistic picture, formed with words, reporting detailed views of
informants, and
conducted in a natural setting” (
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Characteristics of Qualitative Research
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Characteristics of Qualitative Research
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i
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1. It is an inquiry that seeks to understand social or human
issues and
problems. Because interactions with other people give meaning
to things and
events and because meanings change as we interact with vari-
ous new
people, qualitative research deals extensively with human
interactions.
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2. It seeks to develop an encompassing or holistic por- trayal or
picture of the
problem or issue of interest. A
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t does not seek to reduce social situations or interactions to
basic parts,
elements, or values.
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the goal is to be able to put the reader of the research report
into the social
setting or situation that is the focus of the research.
Side Notes

PRINTED BY: [email protected]
Printing of Notes and Highlights is for personal, private use
only. Notes created by user are not part of publisher content.
No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted
without publisher's prior permission. Violators will be
prosecuted.
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forms its report with words as opposed to statistical processes.
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4. It uses the views of informants in the society as the ba- sis
for the report

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, qualitative researchers do not begin their research with a
preconceived, ex-
perimental hypothesis.
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They develop hypotheses and de�nitions, as the research is
ongoing.
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5. It is conducted in a natural setting.
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e researchers
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made a com- mitment to do extensive �eld research
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“must spend enough time in the �eld to feel certain they are
reporting what
they claim”
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Rather than ask about validity and reliability, qualitative
researchers are more
likely to be interested in the trustworthiness of their data.
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trustworthiness can be judged by the follow- ing criteria:
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: Selected Examples of Qualitative Research Methods
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Naturalistic Observation

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guidelines are (a) determine the focus of the study, (b) plan the
logistics, and
(c) then plan the trust worthiness of the study (
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3.2.2: Ethnographic Inquiry
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ethnographic inquiry when their goal is to learn about a culture
or some aspect
of a culture from the perspective of the members of that culture
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researcher typically uses participant observation. When using
naturalistic
observation, a researcher attempts to be as unobtrusive as
possible; however,
with participant observation the researcher becomes part of the
group being
studied.
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Participant observation is not limited to the study of human
behavior; it can
also be implemented in animal studies.
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In the ethnographic approach you would spend a long time
becoming
immersed in the “culture” of the popula- tion being studied.
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For example, you might wish to study an inner-city ghetto or a
teenage gang
using this method. As a researcher, you would become
immersed in this
culture for a long period of time and gather data through
participant
observation and interviewing.

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The observer as participant refers to a researcher who primarily
observes a
situation but also interacts with the others involved in the study.
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a
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The more immersed in a culture you become, the more you
stand to learn
about it, but at the same time, you stand to lose your objectivity
about a
culture as you become more immersed in it.
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3.2.4: Interview Studies
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Some researchers prefer to use one-on-one (individual)
interviews, whereas
other researchers prefer to conduct interviews in groups.
Likewise, there are
numerous ways, such as audio or video recording and written
notes, to record
an interview session. Moreover, an interview session may be
either struc-
tured or unstructured. Researchers using the structured
technique follow a
predetermined script, instrument, or protocol.
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3.2.5: Narrative Studies
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Researchers who use the narrative study strategy actively
gather and interpret
stories that individuals in their target group use to describe their
lives.
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For example, researchers may use life histories, biographies,
personal

experiences, or oral histories. While they are examining these
stories,
researchers may choose an individual’s particular speech
pattern; this variant
of the narrative study is called narrative analysis and may
involve the study “of
literature, diaries, or folk- lore”
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3.2.6: Case Studies
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intensively observe and record the behavior of one or sometimes
two partici-
pants over an extended period of time. Because there are no
guidelines for
conducting a case study, the procedures employed, behaviors
observed, and
reports produced may vary substantially.
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Frequently, case studies are used in clinical settings to help
formulate
hypotheses and ideas for further research.
Example Broca's .corpus callosum . Broca's aphasia results from
damage to a
part of the brain called Broca's area,

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Other case studies might involve the observation of a rare
animal in the wild
or at a zoological park, a speci�c type of mental patient in a
hospital, or a
gifted child at school.
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when using the case study method, the researcher should not
generalize
beyond the participant who was studied. Additionally, because
the researcher
manipulates no variables, use of the case study method

precludes
establishing cause-and-effect relations.
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understanding of the behavior of one individual may lead to
more general
predictions.
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3.2.7: Artifact Analysis
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artifact analysis typically involves the examination and analysis
of extant
artifacts. Text-based items such as books, magazines,
newspapers, Web sites,
and annual reports belong in this category. I
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“One example of artifact analysis is a study of radio station
listening prefer-
ences. Rather than conducting an obtrusive survey or interview
about favorite
radio stations, the researchers went to local auto dealers and
garages and
checked all cars that were being serviced to see what stations
the radios were
currently tuned to”
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3.2.8: Historiographies

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refers to the collection and analysis of information and data in
order to
reconstruct past events. Researchers refer to �rsthand oral and
written
accounts, diaries, photographs, and so forth as primary sources
for a historical
study. Material not written by the person being studied, such as
newspaper
and magazine articles, and textbooks, are secondary sources.
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3.2.9: Symbolic Interaction
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focus on the common symbols that give meaning to human
interaction within
a social group context. Such symbols might include religious
jew- elry and
icons, gang-related graf�ti, and merchandising and sports
logos. The symbolic
interaction method typically is a two-stage process. First,
researchers
determine the symbols used by the social group they are
studying. Then, they
determine the relations between and among these symbols (
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3.2.10: Grounded Theory
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the primary tools of discovery are interviews and observations.
Grounded
theory, however, goes beyond the descriptive and interpretive
goals of these
two approaches and is aimed at building theories
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The ultimate goal of this approach is to derive theories that are
grounded in
(based on) reality. A grounded theory is one that is uncovered,
developed, and
conditionally con�rmed through collecting and making sense of
data related

to the issue at hand. The hope is that such theories will lead to a
better
understanding of the phenomenon of interest and to ideas for
exerting some
control over the phenomenon.
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Although grounded theory is designed to be a precise and
rigorous process,
creativity is also an important part of that process. The
researcher needs to
ask innovative questions and come up with unique formula-
tions of the data
“to create new order out of the old”
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The grounded-theory approach is reminiscent of a detective’s
attempt to build
a theory about why certain types of crimes are commit- ted. For
example, by
interviewing a number of arsonists, you might be able to
develop a theory
about why arson takes place.
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knowing the research literature too well before using this
approach because
knowing the categories, clas- si�cations, and conclusions of
previous
researchers might constrain your creativity in �nding new
formulations.
Instead, nontechnical materials such as letters, diaries,
newspapers,
biographies, and videotapes are essential to grounded-theory
studies.
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the grounded-theory approach occurs in its use of coding, which
is analogous
to data analysis in quantitative approaches. T
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Open coding is much like the description goal of science.
During open coding,

the researcher labels and categorizes the phenomena being
studied. Axial
coding involves �nding links between categories and subcat-
egories from
open coding. The �nal step in the process, selective coding,
entails identifying
a core category and relating the subsidiary categories to this
core. From this
last type of coding, the grounded-theory researcher moves
toward developing
a model of process and a transactional system, which essentially
tells the
story of the outcome of the research. Process refers to a linking
of actions and
interactions that result in some outcome. A transactional sys-
tem is
grounded theory’s analytical method that allows an examination
of the
interactions of different events.
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The transactional system is depicted in a conditional matrix s
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In the conditional matrix, the factors that are most pertinent to
an event are
shown at the interior; the least important factors, on the
exterior.
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3.2.11: Participatory Action Research
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is a qualitative research approach “that assumes knowledge is
rooted in social
relations and most powerful when produced collaboratively
through action”
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Researchers typically conduct a PAR project in a community;
the goal of the
project usually is to evaluate and understand the impact of some
social
program on the community.
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For example
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evaluating the effects of taking high school and college courses
on the
attitudes and behaviors in inmates in a prison
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Beyond this general framework, the PAR approach can use one
or more
speci�c methods to gather information; Fine et al. used several
methods—
both qualitative and quantitative. Their qualitative methods
included
interviews, focus groups, surveys, and narra- tives. Their
quantitative method
was a statistical analysis of the effects of attending college
courses.
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Qualitatitve Research Methods 1. Because psychologists have a

large number
of diverse areas of research interest, they have developed a vari-
ety of
research methods. Several of these methods are
nonexperimental. 2.
Qualitative research has its roots in the work of so- ciologists
and
anthropologists. Researchers conduct this type of research in a
natural setting
and attempt to understand a social entity, such as a culture, or a
human
problem by developing a holistic narrative about the culture of
problem. Unlike
experimental projects, qualitative research does not record
numerical data and
report the results of statistical analyses. 3. Qualitative
researchers use
con�rmability, depend- ability, credibility, and transferability
to evaluate the
trustworthiness of a qualitative research report. 4. Naturalistic
observation
seeks answers to research questions by observing behavior in
the real world.
5. The goal of an ethnographic inquiry is to learn about a
culture or some
aspect of a culture from the perspective of the members of the
culture. To
conduct an ethnographic inquiry, the researcher becomes a
member of the
group being studied (i.e., participant observation). 6. A focus
group consists of
7 to 10 participants with shared experiences or similar
characteristics who
meet for 1 to 11⁄2 hours to discuss a topic of common interest
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7. Interviews, which can be structured or unstructured, can
serve as the
primary method of qualitative research. Reports produced by
unstructured
interviews may be more dif�cult to analyze and synthesize. 8.
Narrative studies
analyze stories that participants use to describe their lives. 9.
Case studies
involve the intensive observation of a single participant over
an extended
period of time. 10. Artifact analysis involves the examination of
artifacts, often
text-based, to learn about a target group. 11. Historiography
refers to the
collection and analysis of information and data in order to
reconstruct past
events. 12. Researchers using the symbolic interaction method
examine the
common symbols that give meaning to human interaction within
a social
group context. 13. Grounded theory is a qualitative research
approach that
attempts to develop theories of understanding based on data
from the real
world.
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GEN499 Week 5 Guidance

Introduction
Week Four was dedicated to critical thinking skills. We looked
at the definition of critical thinking, understanding what the
skills and process are, and how and why critical thinking skills
are important for everyone in their personal, professional, and
political lives. We noted that critical thinking skills are going to
become an increasingly important part of our lives due to the
rapid changes caused by the development of modern
technologies.
During Week Five, we will tie together everything that we have
covered thus far in class and put as much of our knowledge and
skills into the Capstone Discussion and the Final Research
Project. This week we will continue to focus on the principles
of general education and continue applying what we have
learned through the course on research techniques used when
finishing the Final Research Project.
Putting it all together: Learning, Thinking, Speaking
Knowing how to collect information from the Internet and
communicate in a networked world is critical. In order to find
our ways in the world, to make important decisions, to improve
job performance and career opportunities, and to participate in
our society as citizens to the best of our ability, we need to
know where to turn for the latest, most current, and best
information.
The popular, mass media are not a good source of information.
It may be one of the worst sources for information. Basing
decisions on the opinions of those who are ill-informed,
uneducated, or biased (socially, culturally, or politically) is not
a good idea. As educated, reasonable adults, we need to use the
best sources of information and apply the principles of logic
and critical thinking to the information from the best sources of
information.
Having researched and done some careful thinking, we must
also consider alternatives, and before reaching a decision, we

need to check ourselves for possible bias or for having reached
a foregone conclusion based on our personal perceptions of life,
the universe and everything.
https://cdnsecakmi.kaltura.com/p/1067292/thumbnail/entry_id/0
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Worldview (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.
Personal perception involves how we look at others and the
world around us. It is natural to perceive situations from our
own, possibly limited, viewpoints. However, in order to
function and be successful in a global society and/or economy,
overcoming perceptual barriers is difficult but essential if you
are to craft messages and communicate with others of different
cultures.
The sum total of your perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and
attitudes make up your worldview. When worldviews are too
different, then communication becomes difficult (if not
impossible). Although it may seem intuitively obvious to even
the most casual observer, different people from different
cultures have different worldviews. The average person in
Xinjiang has a very different worldview from yours. The
embattled Yazidi (in northern Iraq) have a very different
worldview from the people in their region. (That is the major
reason why they are being persecuted and executed in mass
numbers.)
If people come from different backgrounds or cultures or have
different life experiences, then their perceptions are likely to be
quite different from the perceptions of the people they are
communicating with. Differences can lead to serious
consequences. Being unable to appreciate differences can lead
to serious consequences. Being unable (or unwilling) to try to
communicate across, over, under, around, or through those
differences can lead to serious consequences.
Failing to understand and appreciate differences can lead to
very serious consequences. Thinking that everyone must be just
the same as we are shows a lack of respect for the possibility

that we just might be wrong (and may be wrong in some serious
ways, too). Being able to value difference and to learn from
those who are different increases the value, depth, and joy of
life.
To communicate effectively and efficiently, we have to be clear
and specific about what we say and write, how we communicate,
and what we communicate. Sometimes what we think we are
saying may not be what others think we are saying. Just as each
of us has our own, particular worldviews and our own,
particular understanding of things, others have their worldviews
and understanding and so listen through their filters. Thus, they
may hear what you are saying but hear it in a different way than
you intend. For that reason (and many more), we have to be sure
that we use language correctly, use words and terms correctly
and appropriately, speak at a common level, and check to make
sure that others understand what we have said. Getting feedback
is an important step in the communication process.
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POINTS TO PONDER
· How would you define your worldview?
· How has college changed your worldview?
· Why it is important to question your worldview?
References
Brown parcel isolated white [Image]. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.istockphoto.com/photo/brown-parcel-isolated-white-
gm529249699-53831622?st=9956bc8
Challenging limits: Greatest human achievements [Video file].
(2012). In Films on Demand. Retrieved from
http://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid
=56765

Epic fail red round grunge stamp on white [Image]. (n.d.).
Retrieved from http://www.istockphoto.com/vector/epic-fail-
red-round-grunge-stamp-on-white-gm489492540-74702791
7 steps to improving communication [Video file]. (2001). In
Films on Demand. Retrieved from
http://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid
=49882
Intr
oduction
at the definition of critical
thinking, understanding what the skills and process are, and
how and why critical thinking skills
are important for everyone in their personal, profession
al, and political lives. We noted that
critical thinking skills are going to become an increasingly
important part of our lives due to the
technologies.
During Week Five, we will tie together everything tha
t we have covered thus far in class and put
as much of our knowledge and skills into the Capstone
Discussion and the Final Research
of general education and continue
applying what we have learn
ed through the course on research techniques used when
finishing
the Final Research Project.

communicate in
a networked world is
critical. In order to find our ways in the world, to make
important decisions, to improve job
performance and career opportunities, and to participate in our
society as citizens to the best of
our ability, we need to know where to turn
for the latest, most current, and best information.
It may be one of the worst
sources for information. Basing decisions on the opinions of
those who are ill
-
informed,
uneducated, or biased (so
cially, culturally, or politically) is not a good idea. As educated,
reasonable adults, we need to use the best sources of
information and apply the principles of
logic and critical thinking to the information from the best
sources of information.
Having r
esearched and done some careful thinking, we must also
consider alternatives, and
before reaching a decision, we need to check ourselves for
possible bias or for having reached a
foregone conclusion based on our personal perceptions of life,
the universe a
nd everything.

Introduction
at the definition of critical
thinking, understanding what the skills and process are, and
how and why critical thinking skills
are important for everyone in their personal, professional, and
political lives. We noted that
critical thinking skills are going to become an increasingly
important part of our lives due to the
technologies.
During Week Five, we will tie together everything that we have
covered thus far in class and put
as much of our knowledge and skills into the Capstone
Discussion and the Final Research
of general education and continue
applying what we have learned through the course on research
techniques used when finishing
the Final Research Project.
communicate in a networked world is
critical. In order to find our ways in the world, to make
important decisions, to improve job
performance and career opportunities, and to participate in our
society as citizens to the best of
our ability, we need to know where to turn for the latest, most
current, and best information.
It may be one of the worst
sources for information. Basing decisions on the opinions of

those who are ill-informed,
uneducated, or biased (socially, culturally, or politically) is not
a good idea. As educated,
reasonable adults, we need to use the best sources of
information and apply the principles of
logic and critical thinking to the information from the best
sources of information.
Having researched and done some careful thinking, we must
also consider alternatives, and
before reaching a decision, we need to check ourselves for
possible bias or for having reached a
foregone conclusion based on our personal perceptions of life,
the universe and everything.
QUALITATIVE FIELD RESEARCH
Topics Appropriate for Field ResearchTopics that defy simply
quantification
Attitudes and behaviors best understood in their natural setting
Social processes are better understood over time in their natural
setting
Elements of Social Life Appropriate to Field
ResearchPracticesEpisodesEncountersRoles and Social
TypesSocial and Personal RelationshipsGroups and
CliquesOrganizationsSettlements and HabitatsSocial
WorldsSubcultures and Lifestyles

Special Considerations in Qualitative Field ResearchRoles of
the ObserverParticipant, Researcher, ObserverParticipant
observation – participating in what you are studying while you
are studying it Not all field researchers do this. You don’t have
to participate in order to observe.Reactivity – The problem that
the subjects of social research may react to the fact of being
studied, thus altering their behavior from what it would have
been normally.
Relations to SubjectsObjectivity – describes the researchers’
ability to draw conclusions based on facts rather than personal
feelings or beliefs.Emic perspective – adopting the point of
view of those being studied.Etic perspective – maintaining a
distance from what is being studied to enhance
objectivity.Reflexivity/awareness of bias – affects both
researchers and subjects; describes how your own
characteristics affect what you see/pay attention to and how you
interpret it.
Some Qualitative Field Research
ParadigmsNaturalismEthnomethodologyGrounded TheoryCase
StudiesInstitutional EthnographyParticipatory Action Research
Naturalism – An approach to field research based on the
assumption that an objective social reality exists and can be
observed and reported accurately.Ethnography – A report on
social life that focuses on detailed and accurate description

rather than explanation.
Ethnomethodology – An approach to the study of social life that
focuses on the discovery of implicit meanings.These are usually
unspoken assumptions and agreements.
Grounded Theory – an inductive approach to the study of social
life that attempts to generate a theory from the constant
comparing of unfolding observations.
Note that this differs significantly from traditional hypothesis
testing, in which theory generates hypotheses which are then
tested. Guidelines:Think conservativelyObtain multiple
viewpointsPeriodically step back and assess what you
knowMaintain an attitude of skepticismFollow the research
procedures
Case Studies – The in-depth examination of a single instance of
some social phenomenon.
Extended Case Method – A technique in which case study
observations are used to discover flaws in and to improve
existing social theories.
Institutional Ethnography – A research technique in which the
personal experiences of individuals are used to reveal power
relationships and other characteristics of the institution within
which they operate.

Participatory Action Research – An approach to social research
in which the people being studied are given control over the
purpose and procedures of the research.Emancipatory Research
– Research conducted for the purpose of benefiting
disadvantaged groups.
Conducting Qualitative Field ResearchPreparing for the FieldBe
familiar with relevant researchDiscuss your plans with others in
the areaIdentify and meet informants (when appropriate)First
impressions are importantEstablish rapport (an open and
trusting relationship)Ethical considerations
Qualitative Interview – Contrasted with survey interviewing,
the qualitative interview is based on a set of topics to be
discussed in depth rather than based on the use of standardized
questions.“Miner” or “Traveler” roles
Stages in Complete Interviewing Process
Thematizing
Designing
Interviewing
Transcribing
Analyzing
Verifying
Reporting
Focus Group – A group of subjects interviewed together,

prompting a discussion.Advantages: real-life data, flexible, high
degree of face validity, fast, inexpensiveDisadvantages: not
representative, little interviewer control, difficult analysis,
interviewer/moderator skills, difficult logistically
Recording ObservationsTake detailed notes, but balance with
observationsRewrite notes with observations soon after
observations with filled in detailsRecord empirical observations
and interpretationsRecord everythingAnticipate observations
Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Field
ResearchStrengths of Qualitative Field ResearchEffective for
studying subtle nuances in attitudes and behaviors and social
processes over timeFlexibilityInexpensive
Weaknesses of Qualitative Field Research No appropriate
statistical analysesEthical issues
ValidityGreater validity than survey and experimental
measurements
ReliabilityPotential problems with reliability

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