This document discusses various methods used in psychological observation and research, including testing, case studies, longitudinal and cross-sectional methods, naturalistic and laboratory observation, correlation, experimental design, and ethical issues. It provides examples of how experiments establish independent and dependent variables and how psychologists must consider ethical guidelines to protect participants.

1. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Section 3: Methods of Observation
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Chapter 2Chapter 2

2. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
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Chapter 2Chapter 2
METHODS OF OBSERVATION
 Testing Method – several types of tests
measure various elements of human behavior
such as abilities, interests, and personality
 Case-study Method – researchers conduct
in-depth investigations of individuals or small
groups
Section 3: Methods of Observation

3. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
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Chapter 2Chapter 2
 Longitudinal Method – a group of participants
are observed at intervals over an extended
period of time
 Cross-Sectional Method – researchers
compare the differences and similarities
among people in different age groups at a
given time
Section 3: Methods of Observation
METHODS OF OBSERVATION (continued)

4. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
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Chapter 2Chapter 2
 Naturalistic-Observation Method –
researchers observe the behavior of people or
animals in their natural habitats
 Laboratory-Observation Method –
participants are observed in a laboratory
setting
Section 3: Methods of Observation
METHODS OF OBSERVATION (continued)

5. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
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Chapter 2Chapter 2
CORRELATION
 Correlation measures how closely one thing is
related to another
Section 3: Methods of Observation

6. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Examples: Correlations
1. Positive Correlation= one variable increases
as the other variable increases
 As height goes up, weight goes up.
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Chapter 2Chapter 2

7. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Examples: Correlations
1. Negative Correlation= one variable increases
as the other variable decreases
 The older the car, the lower the price.
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Chapter 2Chapter 2

8. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Section 4 & 5:
The Experimental Method
&
Ethical Issues
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Chapter 2Chapter 2

9. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
1.Preliminary screening
of participants
3.Treatment phase 4. Post-treatment
phase
2.Random assignment
to conditions
Participants are
interviewed by
the researcher,
and their baseline
anxiety is
established.
Experimental
group
Receives
treatment
Reports on anxiety
Reports on anxietyControl group
Does not
receive the
treatment
Example: Testing for Anxiety

10. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
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Chapter 2Chapter 2
Question: What are the purposes and elements of
experiments?
PURPOSES AND ELEMENTS OF EXPERIMENTS
 Researchers conduct experiments to learn
about cause and effect.
 Elements of experiments include: independent
and dependent variables, experimental and
control groups, and the placebo effect.
Section 4: The Experimental Method

11. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
The Placebo Effect
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v_feOG94IAs
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Chapter 2Chapter 2

12. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Experiments
 Direct way to test a hypothesis about a
cause-effect relationship between factors
 Factors are called variables
 One variable is controlled by the
experimenter
 Ex, democratic vs. authoritarian classroom
 The other is observed and measured
 Ex, cooperative behavior among students

13. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
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Chapter 2Chapter 2

14. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Experimental Variables
 Independent variable
 the controlled factor in an experiment
 hypothesized to cause an effect on another
variable
 Dependent variable
 the measured facts
 hypothesized to be affected

15. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Experimental Variables
 Study predicting that pedestrians will walk
faster on hot days versus cold days.
 IV: temperature (hot vs. cold)
 DV: speed of pedestrian walking
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Chapter 2Chapter 2

16. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Try it on your own
Identify the Independent & Dependent Variables
 Are younger siblings treated better by their
parents than older siblings?
 IV: Sibling status (younger/older)
 DV: treatment by parents
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Chapter 2Chapter 2

17. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
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Psychologists also have certain rules and codes they
must follow in regards to the protection of the
public as well as the protection of their clients.

18. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
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Chapter 2Chapter 2
ETHICAL ISSUES AND RESEARCH
 Protect study participants from harm
 Maintain the scientific integrity of the study
 Promote the dignity of the individual
 Foster human welfare
 Confidentiality
 Informed Consent
Section 5: Ethical Issues

19. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Ethical Issues in
Psychological Research
 Right to privacy
 Animal rights
 Is there justification for discomfort or harm a
research procedure may produce?
 APA publishes ethical guidelinesAmerican Psychological Association (APA)

20. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Animal Rights Harlow Monkey Study
http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=OrNBEhzjg8I
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Chapter 2Chapter 2

21. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Ethical Issues  How far is too far?
 The Milgram Experiment
 Aim: Milgram (1963) was interested in researching
how far people would go in obeying an instruction if
it involved harming another person. Stanley Milgram
was interested in how easily ordinary people could be
influenced into committing atrocities for example,
Germans in WWII.
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8olVHKgIBXc
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Chapter 2Chapter 2

22. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Ethical Issues
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W147ybOdgpE