Bacterial Infection Report

Bacterial Infection Report
The CSF cell count results presented correlate with bacterial infection. The high presence of WBCs
indicates a possible infection while the high percentage of polymorphonuclear cells indicates a
possible bacterial infection. The gram stained CSF resulted in gram–negative coccobacilli,
sometimes found in pairs. A positive aerobic blood culture also yielded the same gram stain result.
The CSF and positive aerobic blood culture were both cultured on Blood Agar, Chocolate Agar, and
MacConkey Agar. Both yielded growth of large, smooth, round, opaque grey–yellow colonies on
Chocolate agar but no growth was found on the Blood agar or MacConkey. This suggested that the
organism was fastidious meaning they require specific growth factors. The colonies were both
catalase and oxidase positive. The organism was identified as H. influenzae using the API NH
identification system. The CBC also presented an abnormally elevated WBC count with a high
neutrophil count. 25% of the neutrophil count consisted of Bands indicating a left shift. This means
that the bone marrow is releasing a large amount of immature ... Show more content on
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They are facultative anaerobes that grow best between 35–37C with 5% CO2. It is a fastidious
species requiring hemin, or X factor, and NADV factor for growth. Both of these factors are
available on Chocolate agar but not Blood, therefore assisting in the identification process. The
isolates are catalase and oxidase positive. H. influenzae is a pathogen that typically colonizes the
nose and throat, and is spread via person to person contact or respiratory droplets. Severe infections,
such as this case, may result in meningitis and typically affects children. Vaccines are available but
no information regarding that for this patient was available. The patient was transported to a larger
healthcare facility that specialized in cancer care to treat the
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Respiratory Tract Infections Paper
Respiratory tract infections are classified into Upper Respiratory Tract Infections (URTIs) and
Lower Respiratory Tract Infections (LRTIs). URTIs are further classified into rhinitis, sinusitis,
pharyngitis, epiglottis, laryngitis and tracheitis. URTIs represent the most common acute illness
evaluated in the outpatient setting1. They may be caused by viruses or bacteria; mostly are viral
infections. In patients with uncomplicated URTIs (common cold), viruses characteristically cause an
infection that is mild, self–limited and of short duration1,2. In some cases however, the infections
will spread to the neighboring organs which then results in clinical complications3. The most
common viruses are rhinovirus, coronavirus and adenovirus while for bacteria are Streptococcus
pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae. Rhinovirus (rhin means "nose") and coronavirus are
usually linked to common cold2,3. Adenoviruses on the other hand, are a group of viruses that
usually infect the membrane linings of the respiratory tract and they are more often linked to infants
or children4. The typical ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is the oldest and still extensively used in many parts of the world today. Herbal medicines played
an important role in maintaining the human health for thousands of years, and have gained growing
popularity and extensive usage in the world over the last decades5. Using plants as medicine
provides remarkable advantages for treating many conditions5. Different parts of the plant provides
certain therapeutic effects therefore, it can be used to treat many different diseases. They are usually
sold as tablets, capsules, powders, teas, or even as dried plants6. Pharmaceutical drugs contain
specific active constituents, while herbal medicines contain relatively unprocessed mixtures of
phytochemical constituents and their holistic efficacy is usually produced by the unresolved
integrative effects between the constituents

Common Causes Of Bacterial Meningitis
The four most common causes of bacterial meningitis come from Streptococcus pneumoniae,
Neisseria meningitides, Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib), and Listeria monocytogenes.
S. pneumoniae has been the study of scientist for the past century striving for both clinical and basic
scientific discovery. In 1881 Louis Pasteur used the saliva of an infected child and injected it into
rabbits identifying slightly elongated diplococcic (Smith 2012). S. pneumoniae is a gram positive,
facultative anaerobe.
Pneumococcus is the commonest cause of bacterial meningitis in adults in much of the world. There
are more than 90 antigenically different serotypes of S pneumoniae as determined by the
polysaccharide capsule; the target for all currently licensed vaccines (Mcgill et al. 2016). N.
meningitides was identified in the spinal fluid of a patient in 1887 by Anton Weichselbaum; he
called the organism Diplococcus intracellularis (Yazdankhah 2004). Neisseria meningitides, an
aerobic gram negative diplococcus is an important cause of devastating acute bacterial meningitis
and sepsis that often leads to outcomes that include limb loss, renal failure, spastic quadriplegia,
cranial nerve palsies, hearing loss and death. The disease starts as a sporadic case in the presence of
favorable environment and host factors, which subsequently progresses into an outbreak and then an
epidemic (Gorthi et al. 2010). The organism has both an inner cytoplasm and an outer membrane,
separated by a cell wall.

Meningitis: Herpes Simplex Virus
Meningitis is the inflammation of the membranes (meninges) caused by viral or bacterial infection.
Symptoms of bacterial meningitis include high fever, nausea and vomiting, intense headache,
sensitivity to light and muscular rigidity. In severe cases the symptoms include delirium,
convulsions, and even death.
The two kinds of meningitis are:
Viral Meningitis which is often mild and usually clear up without treatment. Viral meningitis can be
caused by viruses like HIV, West Nile virus, herpes simplex virus, mumps and other similar viruses.
Bacterial Meningitis is a very serious illness and it needs to be taken care of immediately or it could
result in death. The bacteria that cause this condition are meningococci, pneumococci and
haemophilus

Epiglottis Case Studies
Epiglottitis is an inflammation of the epiglottis. The epiglottis is a flat cartilage that extends from
the base of the tongue back–ward and upward. This is the tissue that covers the trachea or wind–
pipe. It helps prevent food or any artifact that may enter. The tissue of the epiglottis can swell and
block the airway. If suspected, seek medical attention immediately. This mainly affects children by
the bacteria called Haemophilus influenzae type b. It is the most responsible for this type of
inflammation. Causes The epiglottis is a stiff, yet flexible tissue (called cartilage) at the back of the
tongue. It closes your windpipe (trachea) when swallowing food, therefore it does not enter your
airway. This helps prevent coughing or choking after swallowing. A bacterial infection is the most
common cause of epiglottitis. Bacteria can enter your body through inspiration and infect your
epiglottis. The most common strand of bacteria that causes this condition is Haemophilus influenzae
type b, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, signs may differ between children and adults. Children can develop epiglottitis within a
matter of hours. In adults it improves more slowly, usually over the course of days. Symptoms
common in children include: upper respiratory infection, fever with chills, lessened symptoms when
leaning forward or sitting upright, drooling, scratchy and sore throat, hoarse voice, restlessness, and
breathing through the mouth. Symptoms common in adults include: difficulty breathing, a raspy
voice, harsh, noisy breathing, severe sore throat, no cough present, and the inability to catch your
breath. Once the airway becomes blocked, an adult or child may exhibit bluish discoloration or
cyanosis on their skin from lack of oxygen. When untreated, the epiglottis can block the airway
completely. This is a severe condition and requires immediate medical attention. If you suspect
epiglottitis, contact your physician

Causes Of Infective Exacerbation Of COPD
a) The most likely bacterial causes of infective exacerbation of COPD are: Haemophilus influenzae,
Moraxella catarrhalis, Streptococcus pneumonia, Haemophilus parainfluenzae, Staphylococcus
aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, gram–negative Enterobacteriaceae, Klebsiella pneumonia and
Mycoplasma pneumoniae (S.Sethi, 2004; T. Kawamatawong et al, 2017; King et al, 2013). b)
Bronchodilators Bronchodilators can increase FEV1 (GOLD,2017). During an exacerbation of
COPD, long acting preparations should be switched to short acting preparations and inhalers should
be switched to nebulisers as they will produce greater bronchodilation (JOINT FORMULARY
COMMITTEE, 2017; Medicines.org.uk, 2015). Toxicity of bronchodilators is dose related so
patients on ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Patients taking oral glucocorticoids should be monitored for steroid myopathy which can contribute
to muscle weakness, decreased functionality, and respiratory failure in subjects with very severe
COPD (GOLD,2017). Antibiotics The presence of more purulent sputum requires antibiotic
treatment (JOINT FORMULARY COMMITTEE, 2017; NICE,2010). Antibiotics can reduce the
risk of treatment failure and reduce recovery time and duration of hospital stay (GOLD, 2017, pg
26). The following drug classes can be used for treatment: penicillins, macrolides or tetracycline but
the hospital's antimicrobial guidelines should be used to select the exact antibiotic to be used
(NICE,2010). When the sputum culture results return, the current regimen can be checked against
sensitivities for appropriateness (NICE,2010). Duration of therapy is usually 5–7 days (GOLD,
2017). Antibiotics should be monitored in terms of response, if response is poor to initial antibiotic
then it can be switched to a second line antibiotic. Oxygen therapy Mrs CB's oxygen saturation
levels should be measured on admission and then oxygen should be prescribed and given if
appropriate. Oxygen can be prescribed to keep oxygen saturation levels within the patient's target
range of 88–92% (JOINT FORMULARY COMMITTEE, 2017; NICE,2010; GOLD,2017). c) i)
Prophylactic antibiotics used in patients with COPD can reduce the number of days of illness during
an exacerbation of COPD (King et al, 2013). Prophylactic

Sickle Cell Anemia (SCA)
Essay 101: Sickle Cell Anemia Sickle cell anemia (SCA) is a widespread disorder of hemoglobin
synthesis, sometimes termed a hemoglobinopathy. As with other hemoglobinopathies, SCA is an
autosomal recessive disease, meaning a person must have two defective genes present for the full
blown disease to occur. People who carry a single sickle cell gene are said to have sickle cell trait.
The children of two carriers have a 25% chance of inheriting SCA.
Epidemiology
In the U.S., SCA occurs most often among African–Americans, approximately 10% of whom are
carriers of the sickle cell gene. This prevalence results in SCA in approximately 0.2% of live births
in the African–American population, or about 1 in 500. In parts of Africa, over 30% ... Show more
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One drug, hydroxyurea, appears to decrease expression of the mutant beta globin gene even as it
increases the expression of fetal hemoglobin genes, whose proteins can substitute for the
hemoglobin beta chain. Beyond hydroxyurea, other treatments for SCA are still in the preliminary
stage. One idea is to remove stem cells from the patient's bone marrow, insert healthy beta globin
genes, and then transplant these genetically engineered cells back into the patient. Bone marrow
transplants have met with occasional success; however, the procedure carries several major risks,
especially graft versus host disease (GVHD). Also, finding compatible bone marrow donors in the
African–American community is often

Bacterial Meningitis Research Paper
Bacterial Meningitis
Definition / Causes
Meningitis is inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord, caused by an
infection. Meningitis is most often caused by a viral infection. However, meningitis can also be
caused by bacterial infections, fungal infections, chemical reactions, drug allergies, some types of
cancer, and inflammatory diseases. Some of the following bacteria may cause meningitis:
Streptococcus pneumoniae, group B Streptococcus, Haemophilus influenzae, Neisseria
meningitides, and Listeria monocytogenes. As stated in its name, bacterial meningitis, requires a
bacterium for and individual to contract the disease. The bacteria are spread through respiratory and
throat excretions such as saliva. Saliva can be exchanged through kissing or coughing. ... Show
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Some of the symptoms are as follows: nausea, vomiting, photophobia (an abnormal sensitivity to or
intolerance of light), altered mental status (confusion), fever, headache, and stiff neck.
Diagnosis Samples of blood or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) are collected and sent to a laboratory for
testing. The specific cause of the meningitis infection is important to doctors and helps them treat it
accordingly. In the case of bacterial meningitis, the bacteria can be grown (cultured). Thus, the type
of bacteria causing the meningitis can be identified and treated with the appropriate antibiotics.
Treatment / Management
Depending on the severity of infection, bacterial meningitis may get better on its own. However, in
severe cases it may be treated with antibiotics and steroids. Supportive care includes oxygen therapy
and hospitalization. Early treatment is imperative to reduce the chances of

Herpes Encephalitis Case Study
A 55–year–old man is brought into the clinic complaining of a terrible headache for the last 24
hours. He also reports feeling feverish for the last 2 days, and says he has recently been having
trouble with his memory. His wife says she is very worried because he has "not been acting himself"
lately. She states that he provides most of the income for the family, and is concerned about what
would happen to them if he were no longer able to work. Fundoscopic exam shows papilledema.
The appropriate pharmacologic therapy was given. A CT scan of the head is performed to confirm
the diagnosis. Results show hemorrhagic necrosis of the temporal lobes.
Which of the following pharmacological treatments was most likely given to this patient?
A. Acyclovir ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Ampicillin is used to treat to Listeria monocytogenes meningitis. Within the age–group of this
patient, the disease is only contracted by immunocompromised individuals, and there will usually be
a history of ingestion of unpasteurized dairy products. Diagnosis is made by identifying motile
gram–positive bacilli in a cold enrichment culture of the CSF. Other CSF findings include markedly
elevated opening pressure (normal range being 70–180 mmH2O) up to 90,000 neutrophils/µL,
decreased glucose (below 40 mg/dL), and increased proteins (above 40 mg/dL). An aminoglycoside
may be added to the ampicillin treatment.
Choice "D" is not the best answer. Ceftriaxone is used to treat Haemophilus influenzae type B or
Streptococcus pneumoniae meningitis. Haemophilus influenzae type B is an agent of meningitis in
3–month–old to 3–year–old children who have not been vaccinated, such as ones from immigrant
families or religious backgrounds that object to vaccinations. Diagnosis of either of these agents is
done via a Quellung test, latex particle agglutination (LPA), or culture. Haemophilus grows on
chocolate agar (which provides factors X and V), and S. pneumoniae is alpha hemolytic and
inhibited by optochin on a blood agar

Symptoms And Treatment Of A Common Infectious Disease
Symptoms and Physical Findings Pneumonias can be classified by the type of agent that's causing
the infection, and distribution and location of the infection. This patient that specifically has
community acquired pneumonia (CAP) can be either bacterial or viral in nature, and described as
pneumonia that did not originate from a nursing home or hospital (Grossman & Porth, 2013). CAP
should be suspected if the patient presents with symptoms such as dyspnea, high fever, rigors,
tachycardia, pulmonary edema, and productive cough. The productive cough may produce yellow,
green, or even rust colored sputum. A change in metal status is a less common symptom and is seen
more with elderly patients. Symptoms are typically present for more than fourteen days (Buttaro,
Trybulski, Bailey, & Sandberg–Cook, 2013). Common Pathogens Community–acquired pneumonia
(CAP) is one of the most common infectious diseases and is an important cause of mortality and
morbidity all over the world. The most common bacterial pathogen that a cause of CAP is
Streptococcus pneumoniae (penicillin–sensitive and –resistant strains) and accounts for almost thirty
percent of CAP cases. Other pathogens include Haemophilus influenza, Moraxella catarrhalis,
Haemophilus influenzae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, and influenza A. In more than half of the cases
of CAP, the pathogen is never recognized (Thiem, Heppner, & Pientka, 2011). Plan of Treatment
The plan of treatment would be to treat the most recent diagnosis

Immunization Policy Essay
Support of Evidence and Effectiveness of Policy
Some of the evidence provided from literature does support the effectiveness of the policy based on
the criteria. The policy is considered effective if greater than the U.S. average of 68% of infants or
greater than 95% kindergarteners are fully immunized in Mississippi. According to the evidence
found, The vaccination compliance rate for kindergarteners in Mississippi was greater than 99.7%
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014). The second criterion of effectiveness is fewer
than two cases of measles, mumps, pertussis, varicella, and invasive Haemophilus influenzae (Hib)
are reported in Mississippi. The evidence from the Mississippi Department of Health supports this
criteria ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is a matter of opinion as to whether immunizations are more harmful to health because research is
still developing. However, an outbreak of these diseases would be a greater threat and more
devastating to the health of children in Mississippi.
Recommendations
After review of the current literature and criteria of effectiveness for the immunization policy, the
evidence supports that the policy only needs slight modification. The health of the children in the
state of Mississippi is safe guarded by the immunization regulations in place. The opinions and
critiques of a few argue that legal rights of guardians have been revoked with the policy in place;
however, it is the opinion of this paper that physicians and other pediatric providers adhere to the
standards of the Mississippi policy. The Mississippi Childhood Immunization Policy eliminates
unnecessary philosophical and religious exemptions.
One weakness determined in the review of effectiveness is that there is no published data regarding
the Mississippi healthcare provider's perspective of the policy. Ascertaining the opinions of
Mississippi providers would provide further support to the policy since there is such a high
compliance rate. However, this can only be inferred from the data. A second shortcoming of the
policy is that incidence of varicella is not currently tracked by the state. The varicella vaccination
has been shown to be effective, and the state of

Acute Otitis Media Research Paper
Acute otitis media: Is the blockage of the eustachian tube that connects middle ear to the nose by
fluid, mucus, and pus; causing pressure, pain, and fever accompanied by irritability (CDC, 2017).
Acute Otitis Media often resulting from bacterial or viral infection of the fluid in middle ear. The
most common bacterial pathogen that cause Acute otitis media is Streptococcus pneumoniae. But
other bacteria like Haemophilus influenzae and Moraxella Catarrhalis are also causing acute otitis
media. The most common virus that cause acute otitis media are: Rhino virus, Influenza virus,
adeno virus, and respiratory syncytial virus. (CDC,2017). According to carman, children are more
susceptible for acute otitis media because the shortness and horizontal positioning of their
Eustachian tube, limited response to antigens, and lack of previous exposure to common pathogens
or the immaturity of their immune system (Carman, 2016). ... Show more content on
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Children older than 3 years of age may have rhinorrhea or a runny nose, vomiting, and diarrhea. In
contrast, younger children often have nonspecific signs and symptoms that manifest as ear tugging,
irritability, nighttime awakening, and poor feeding. Key diagnostic criteria include ear pain that
interferes with activity or sleep, tympanic membrane erythema (redness), and middle ear effusion.
Perforation of the tympanic membrane may occur acutely, allowing purulent material from the
middle ear to drain into the external auditory canal. This may prevent spread of the infection into the
temporal bone or intracranial cavity. Healing of the tympanic membrane usually follows resolution
of the

Pneumonia Research Paper
Pneumonia
Courtney E. Lujan
Allied Health Institute
Occupational Safety, Laws & Ethics
Pneumonia is a form of acute respiratory infection that attacks the lungs. More specifically it
invades the small sacs called alveoli, which normally fill with air when healthy. When pneumonia is
introduced to the lungs the alveoli begin to accumulate fluid making the function of carrying oxygen
and breathing difficult somewhat painful.
Pneumonia can be caused for a number of reasons. Viruses, bacteria and fungi can be the culprit for
the initial cause but overall pneumonia is spread in a number of ways. Interesting enough
pneumonia is most commonly known as being in airborne pathogen but in fact it is both airborne
and blood–borne. It is especially transmittable through blood–borne pathogens during and shortly
after giving birth.
Pneumonia is one of the largest ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Most if not all children receive a series of Haemophilus Influenzae type B (Hib) vaccinations as
well as Pneumococcus, Measles and Pertussit also known as whooping cough.
Remember you and your families health is key, good nutrition and hygiene are very important as
well as maintaining our indoor pollution to the best of our abilities.
In most cases treatment for pneumonia is fairly simple and consist of an amoxicillin antibiotic
treatment. (adults: 500 mg orally 3 times a day or 875 mg orally twice a day may be administered
for 7 to 10 days and children: 40 to 50 mg/kg/day orally in divided doses every 8 hours)
In more severe cases hospitalization may be required. Some examples may be if the patient is two
months or younger, is elderly, has a persistent fever of 102 and higher or is expelling discolored
fluid or pus from the lungs.
Some of the great activities and programs being sponsored and supported by WHO regards to
pneumonia are:
GAVI the Vaccine Alliance, they are an international organization that helps increase access to
immunizations in poor

Heather Whitestone Research Paper
Heather Whitestone McCallum was born on February 24, 1973 in Dothan, Alabama ("Heather
Whitestone"). When Heather turned 18 months old, she captured a high fever from the virus,
Haemophilus Influenzae, which resulted in hospitalization. Whitestone was close to death, when the
doctors prescribed her two extremely powerful antibiotics. She returned home as a normal toddler
until her mother had an accident in the kitchen and realized something was wrong. Whitestone's
mother had dropped several pans while cooking, and Heather did not jump or move when the pans
hit the floor. Heather was taken to a children's hospital, where the doctors concluded that she had
lost her hearing from Haemophilus Influenzae, the powerful antibiotics, or a combination of both
("Heather Whitestone | Bio | Premiere Motivational Speakers Bureau."). At a young age,
Whitestone's parents trained her to read lips and speak using an educational arrangement titled,
"Acoupedics." Because she learned how to speak and read lips, she did not receive an interpreter
during her years in public school ("Heather Whitestone"). While growing up, Heather had a passion
for dance and attended ballet classes ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
I enjoyed learning about Heather's background, education, and career goals before and after her
reign as Miss America. Heather Whitestone inspired me because she reached out to several people
and motivated them to work hard and focus on their dreams. I can only imagine the amount of
people in both the hearing world and Deaf Community that looked up to Heather and praised her for
her successes. Even though Whitestone joined the hearing world later in life, I believe she used her
cochlear implant to associate herself with deaf and hearing individuals and create relationships and a
joint understanding with members of each

Meningitis Essay
In nineteenth century Geneva, a family came down with a strange disease– one that had never
previously been diagnosed. In a short time, many people in their town were infected and thirty–three
people were left dead. This strange disease was later determined to be meningitis. In 1806, the
United States saw its first outbreak of meningitis in Massachusetts. It was not until 1887, however,
that Professor Anton Weichselbaum was able to determine a cause of meningitis: a bacterium called
Neisseria meningitides. Penicillin was first used to combat meningitis in 1944, and in 1978, a
vaccine became available. The usage of vaccines was detrimental in the battle to gain control over
the spread of meningitis (7). Even with these vaccines, however, ... Show more content on
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Nesseria meningitides can be part of the normal flora of the upper part of the respiratory tract (19).
It is a pathenogenic, gram–negative aerobe, which resides primarily in mucous membranes. The
shape of the bacterium is diplococci (11). Nesseria meningitides is heterotrophic and reproduces by
way of binary fission (12).
Viral meningitis is more common, but not nearly as severe (8). It is hardly ever fatal and mostly
caused by enteroviruses. Other viruses can induce a person to contract viral meningitis. These
include: mumps, herpes, measles, and varicella–zoster. Even an infection from a mosquito bite
could potentially turn into a case of viral meningitis (4)! Fungal meningitis, which can also be
deadly, is mostly caused by Cryptococcus and Candida. The people affected with fungal meningitis
are mostly those who have an inadequate immune system (3). A person may not know he or she has
meningitis right away. Many symptoms are analogous to the flu. These symptoms include a stiff
neck, headache, fever, chills, nausea, light sensitivity, and possible changes in mental state (8). Even
after a person recovers from meningitis, they can still suffer from long–term effects such as brain
damage, kidney damage, loss of hearing, amputations, and scarring (6). To accurately diagnose
meningitis, a lumbar puncture, or spinal tap, is performed and tests are run on the cerebrospinal
fluid

Pathogens: The Five Types Of Meningitis
Meningitis is inflammation of the meninges of the brain and/or spinal cord. There are five types of
meningitis: bacterial, viral, fungal, parasitic, and non–infectious. Meningitis is more often seen in
children and acute bacterial meningitis can be fatal if not treated in the early stages. Five types of
pathogens – E. coli, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Haemophilus
influenza type b and group b streptococcus – have previously been reported as the top causes of
meningitis. From January 2012 through December 2015, 3mL samples of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
from 179 children (120 males, 59 females) ranging in age from three days old to 12 years old, with
acute bacterial meningitis, were tested and studied for antibiotic susceptibilities of CSF pathogens.
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
CSF was tested in all patients to determine the pathogen(s) responsible for onset. The most isolated
organism in children three days old to three months old was E. coli (51.3%), whereas in children
three months old to 12 years old, the most isolated organism was Streptococcus pneumoniae
(23.3%). "Susceptibility testing was performed using the disc diffusion method". "All culture plates
were incubated at 37 degrees Celsius for 24–48 hours in a 5% carbon dioxide environment and at
room temperature for bacterial organisms,

Otitis Externa
What are some common pathogens that cause HEENT infections? Do you recommend a limited or
an involved use of antibiotics in treatment of these diseases and other unconfirmed bacterial
illnesses and why?
Otitis externa is cellulites of the external auditory canal. The most common pathogens include,
Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Bullous myringitis is inflammation of the
tympanic membrane; common pathogen is Streptococcus pneumoniae. Acute otitis media in an
acute infection of the middle ear; most common pathogen includes S pneumoniae and H influenza
(35–45%). The third most pathogen is M catarrhalis (15–18) and the fourth most common pathogen
is Streptococcus pyogenes.
The most common pathogen of acute viral rhinitis is rhinovirus, other causes include, adenoviruses,
coronaviruses, enteroviruses, influenza and parainfluenza viruses, and respiratory syncytial virus.
The most common pathogen of rhinosinusitis is S pneumoniae, H influenzae (nontypeable), M
catarrhalis, and β–hemolytic streptococci. Common pathogen of viral pharyngitis includes, Epstein–
Barr virus, coxsackie A group of viruses and adenovirus. The most common bacterial pharyngitis is
group A streptococcal infection, other causes include Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydia
pneumoniae, groups C and G streptococci, and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The principles include using strident diagnostic criteria to determine likely cause of infection, weigh
Benefits Versus Harms of Antibiotics and implement Judicious Prescribing Strategies (American
Academy, 2013). Assessment findings that would warrant prescribing antibiotics include, symptoms
that is present for greater than 10 to fourteen days without improvement. Any duration with
symtoms such as periorbital swelling, sinus tenderness or severe headache (Hay, Levin, Deterding,
& Abzug,

Hib Or Haemophilus Influenzae?
Haemophilus influenza was first identified by Pfeiffer in 1892, who believed it was the cause of
influenza. He identified this during an epidemic. It was called the "influenza bacillus" Eventually;
the error of this diagnostic association was recognized. According to the government website on
diseases, the organism was given the genus name Haemophilus, meaning "blood–loving," and the
species name influenza in recognition of the historical association. Haemophilus Influenza type b is
commonly known as Hib." Hib is a bacterium that can cause severe infections, particularly in young
children. Despite its name, it is unrelated to the influenza virus" (MacNeil,Jessica) : Hib was found
in a group of patients during an influenza outbreak in 1892, ... Show more content on
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The treatment for the Haemophilus influenza disease is a dose of antibiotics for 10 days. Most cases
of invasive disease (when bacteria invade parts of the body that are normally free from germs)
require hospitalization. Even with antibiotic treatment, 3%–6% of all children with Hib meningitis
die from the

Harmophilus Influenzae
Effect of nontypeable Harmophilus influenzae protein E as an adjuvant on amount of Antibody
against PRP of Harmophilus influenzae type b (Hib) in BALB/c mice
Background: Haemophilus influenzae is a normal flora colonizing the mucosa of the upper
respiratory tract that can cause infections in the respiratory tract. Protein E (PE) is a highly
conserved 18 kDa surface lipoprotein which is found in both nontypeable H. influenzae (NTHi) and
typeable Haemophilus influenzae. Among typeable Haemophilus influenzae, H. influenzae type b
(Hib) has been recognized as the most virulent type, and it causes meningitis infection in children
younger than 2 years. The Hib capsular polysaccharide (Polyribosyl ribitolphosphate) (PRP), is used
as an important candidate in the Hib vaccines. The PRP in children under 2 years old is not
protective. Accordingly in this study, PE of NTHi, that is a major part of outer membrane, was
selected to be applied with PRP. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Methodology: PRP was produced by precipitation using ethanol and then it was treated with
cetavlon and hydroxylapatite. To produce recombinant PE (rPE), pe gene was cloned in pBAD–
gIIIA system and expressed in E.coli TOP10. After purification, rPE was complexed with PRP.
BALB/c mice groups and then they were immunized with rPE+PRP complex, PRP and rPE alone.
Antibody titer against antigens were evaluated in serum samples that were collected at days 0, 14
and 28 by ELISA method.
Results: IgM response against PRP was significantly raised at day14 and 28 (P<0.05). Also because
of better excitation of humoral immune responses compared with cellular immune responses by PE
(due to protein nature ), the groups containing PE created higher titers of IgG1 compared with
IgG2a. In fact, PE (like other protein antigens) could induce Th2

Restriction Enzyme Lab Report
Restriction enzymes, also known as restriction endonucleases, are found naturally in some bacterial
cells and are used in a restriction digest to produce smaller fragments of DNA by cutting the DNA.
The enzymes work by cutting sequences on the DNA that are four to eight base pairs long.
Restriction enzymes cut DNA on both strands and produce either blunt or sticky ends depending if
the enzyme cuts right in the middle of the sequence (blunt end) or if the enzyme cuts and produces
overhangs in the sequence (sticky end). The structure of a restriction enzyme includes subunits that
are identical to one another that form a dimer. They also sit properly on the DNA in order to change
the DNA and cut out the strand containing the sequence of interest. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The restriction enzyme is chosen based on the DNA sequence of interest. The type of buffer used in
a restriction digest depends on the restriction enzyme being used. It is important to keep all
components for the restriction digest in freezing temperatures until it is time to perform the
experiment. The restriction enzyme, plus glycerol to keep the enzyme from freezing, is stored at
freezing temperatures so that denaturing does not take place. Place all of the components in a tube
and use a pipette to ensure that the components are mixed together. Next, the tube is incubated for
an hour at 37o C, or the temperature specified for the restriction enzyme(s). In order to determine
where the enzyme(s) cut on the plasmid and how many times the enzyme(s) made a cut, gel
electrophoresis is employed. Restriction enzymes are important for many aspects of molecular
biology such as cloning and restriction mapping. The enzymes are also useful since there are a lot of
restriction enzymes that cut the DNA at different locations. The importance of different enzymes
cutting different sites makes it possible for scientists to carry out restriction mapping and ultimately
know the length of the DNA and locations where restriction enzymes cut on the

Haemophilus Influenzae Case Study Nursing
Introduction: Introducing Sophia, an 8–year–old girl whom has presented with her Mother, Jane, to
Princess Margaret Hospital for Children's emergency department, located in Perth, Western
Australia. The following case study will demonstrate critical thinking and problem solving skills
when dealing with a sick child. Considerations for family centred care and why evidence based
practice provides Sophia with the best possible outcome for her medical condition. To begin, Sophia
is given a provisional diagnosis of Meningitis Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib), also called
meningococcal disease (Meningococcal Australia, n.d.). Meningitis is a viral or bacterial infection
of the meninges, the membrane that lines the brain and spinal cord inside ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Upon presentation, Sophia would be triaged using the Australasian Triage Scale (ATS) pathway of
care as well as the organisations' clinical practice guidelines, an illness identification tool: The
Emergency Department (ED) Observation Escalation Score (EDOES); and The Children Early
Warning Tool (CEWT) to detect deterioration once she is admitted to the ward (Princess Margaret
Hospital (PMH), 2013). Our initial evaluation includes assessment of vital signs, assessment of the
cardio–pulmonary status including work of breathing, breath sounds, perfusion, and pulses for
circulatory assessment (Jevon, 2012, p. 193). Assessment of consciousness, using the paediatric
Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) (ANZCOR, 2016), Level of consciousness using Alert, Verbal, Pain,
Unresponsive scale (AVPU) (Jevon, 2012, p.194). Neurological observations, EDOES and CEWT
to determine deterioration (PMH, 2013). Sophia is unimmunised and presents with the following:
Respiratory: rate 11= bradypnea, no marked work of breathing, SpO2, 97% on room

Meningitis Risk Factors
Risk Factors
Everyone is at risk of getting bacterial meningitis as it is an infectious disease, especially babies,
due to their developing immune systems.35 Bacterial meningitis is more severe in children who also
have similar symptoms such as fevers, and feel fretful and often anorectic (loss of appetite).36
These symptoms occur because of the change in behaviour. Thus, more care would be needed to be
given the child with this disease as they cannot always take the same medications as adults,
especially in large doses.37 The risks of getting bacterial meningitis are dependent on the
seriousness of this infection; the more serious this infection is, the more likely it can cause negative
adverse effects on the individuals, especially death.38 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This is because the nerve cells of the brain are disrupted, and unable to get nutrients.68
Karen Crespo, a meningitis survivor who is still recovering from bacterial meningitis. Her story is
very inspirational as she never gave up and is still as confident as she was before.72 It all started
when Karen had flu and a headache. Karen lost four limbs, several teeth and one of her ears due to
bacterial meningitis. Despite these effects, she can walk and lives a relatively normal

Bacterial Meningitis Essay
There are three different types of meningitis; viral, fungal, and bacterial meningitis. Although not as
common as viral meningitis, bacterial meningitis is more likely to leave individuals with permanent
disabilities. In children, disabilities can range from deafness, hearing loss, and cerebral palsy? the
most common after effects. And in adults, septic shock, brain swelling, and hydrocephalus are most
likely to occur if the disease advances without treatment within a sufficient time period. The three
main bacteria responsible for bacterial meningitis are streptococcus pneumoniae, haemophilus
influenza type B (Hib), and neisseria meningitidis.
Hib meningitis is an infection caused by a bacteria called, Haemophilus influenza serotype ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the 1930s, infant mortality because of bacterial meningitis caused by Haemophilus influenza type
B was almost at one hundred percent. But with the onset of antibiotics in the 1960s, the mortality
rate was reduced to a mere range of five to ten percent. Thirty percent of survivors were often left
with defects such as deafness, blindness, seizures, and mental retardation(Mark A. Herbert, ed.
Derek W. Hood, ed. E. Richard Moxon, ed. Haemophilus influenza Protocols , 29?30). Anyone can
carry the bacterium. The bacteria are found dormant in the back of their nose and throat. Though
they are dormant in the carrier, the carrier can still pass them on to another person through ways
such as: kissing, coughing, sneezing, sharing a cup, utensil, lip gloss, or cigarette. In other words,
through the exchange of respiratory and throat secretions. Some of these ways of transmission are
the core reasons as to why this disease is more prevalent in children under five years of age
(Common Bacterial Hib).
Streptococcus pneumoniae is a gram positive bacterium that is a normal inhabitant of the human
respiratory tract. This bacterium is present in the nasopharyngeal region of five to ten percent of
healthy adults and twenty to forty percent of healthy children and causes no harm to the individuals
whatsoever. But it can attack the body by escaping the host?s defenses and phagocytic mechanisms
through choroid plexus seeding from bacterium or through direct extension

Paranasal Sinusitis
Sinusitis is an inflammation of the paranasal sinuses. The medical term is "rhinosinusitis", because
the disease affects the mucous membranes lining both the nose and the sinuses. The paranasal
sinuses are air–filled cavities in the bones of the face and skull, all of which communicate with the
nasal cavity through openings known as ostia. The largest are maxillary sinuses with the ostium
situated in the superior aspect of the medial wall. This opening enables the maxillary sinus being
both drained and ventilated, though the location of the ostium makes these functions difficult in
upright position (Waldron 2009). The mucosa of the sinuses is lined with a surface layer of cilia,
involved in, among others, transport of mucus and particulate

Ambulatory Tract Infection Paper
Upper respiratory tract infections (URTI), including acute otitis media (AOM) are the most common
cause of ambulatory physician visits and antimicrobial prescriptions in children1,2. The most
common bacterial causes of URTI are Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae,
though the majority of cases are caused by viral pathogens 3–10. Distinguishing between viral and
bacterial URTI can be difficult. Reports on quality of antimicrobial prescriptions have shown a 30–
50% of all out–patient prescriptions due to (upper) respiratory tract infections to be
inappropriate2,10,11. In Europe the quality of prescription is higher in the north of the continent,
including Iceland compared to in the south12. Conversely, many factors contribute to the overuse of
antimicrobials2,13–15, which in turn results to increase in antimicrobial resistance16,17.
Contributing factors cited by by physicians to cause over–prescription include uncertainty of
diagnosis, fear of disease complications, lack of perception of harmful effects of antimicrobials, not
perceiving their own prescription practices to be a problem, pressure by patients, limited time, fear
of damaging doctor–patient relationship in addition to language, cultural and educational
barriers2,13–15. Antimicrobials were long a mainstay treatment against AOM in fear of rare, but
dangerous complications, which have later been found to be unfounded, asnd ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Following the introduction, over 97% of each vaccine eligible birth–cohort received ≥2 doses of the
vaccine28. The aim of this study was to investigate the vaccine effectiveness of PHiD–CV10 against
all–cause outpatient antimicrobial prescriptions for children <3 years of age in

Essay On Student Immunization
In the state of Virginia vaccinations and immunizations are mandatory to attend a school. According
to the Code of Virginia, Health Histories and Immunizations the law § 22.1–271.2 states, A. no
student should be permitted into a school unless the student or student guardian succumbs proof of
immunizations to the admitting official unless the student is exempted from immunization of
subsection c or is classified as homeless. If a student does not have proof of immunization, the
school should notify the student or their guardian (i) that there is no documentary proof of
immunization for the student; (ii) that the student may not be admitted without proof unless the
student is exempted and applies to subsection C; (iii) that the student may be immunized and receive
certification by a licensed physician, licensed nurse practitioner or registered and (iv) how to contact
the local health department to get an understanding of where and when to get immunizations (§
22.1–271.2) Subdivision B of § 22.1–271.2 states that any student whose immunizations are
incomplete may be admitted if that student provides documentary proof at the time of ... Show more
(ii) The school has written certification from a licensed physician, licensed nurse, or local health
department that one or more of the required immunizations may be harmful to the student's health.
If a student is a homeless child and (a) does not have documentary proof of necessary
immunizations or has incomplete immunizations and (b) is not exempted from immunization
pursuant to part (i) or (ii) of this subsection, the school should immediately admit the student and
immediately refer the student to the local school division connection. (§

What Are the Social Determinants of Health
What are social determinants of health? How do social determinants of health contribute to the
development of illness?
What is a communicable disease chain?
Are there steps that a nurse can take to break a link within the communicable disease chain? Give a
specific example.
Readings within your text covering international/global health and the following websites will assist
you in answering these questions: 1. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Global
Health website: http://www.cdc.gov/cogh/index.htm 2. U.S. Department of Health & Human
Services (HHS) Global Health website: http://www.globalhealth.gov/index.html 3. Families USA –
Why Global Health Matters–Here and Abroad website: ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A communicable disease chain is the mechanism by which an infective agent or pathogen is
transmitted. The chain requires an infective agent, a source of infection, a mode of transmission and
a host. An example of an infective agent could be bacteria, a virus, fungus, protozoan or helminth.
The source of infective agents can be transmission from host to host, an infected human or animal,
insects, soil or livestock. The mode of transmission is how the infective agent is carried from host to
host. Transmission can be by air, ingestion or physical contact. To complete a life cycle or to
replicate, the infective agent requires a host.
Social determinants such as poverty or location can make a population susceptible to transmission
of diseases. In the earlier part of the twentieth century the rural American South was plagued with
hookworms. The worms, which live in the bowel, were passed by feces into poorly managed waste
systems. They were transmitted to the host, usually children through bare feet. In summer month's
poorer children were bare foot. The transmission was stopped not by putting shoes on the children
but by building better sanitary "privies" or outhouses (Dinsmore, 1912). By containing fecal matter
the hookworms were contained. In rural areas containment of fecal matter also controls typhoid
fever and amebic dysentery.
Nurses can break the communicable disease chain through education and action.
Many diseases, devastating

The Importance Of Vaccination
Throughout history, humans have suffered and died from various diseases. From 1346 to 1353, up to
200 million Europeans died from the bubonic plague (Staff 4). The death caused by this Black
Death, is nearly equivalent to today's population of Brazil at 209,288,278 people ("Countries in the
world by population" 1). However, since this atrocious pandemic in the Middle Ages, there has
never been such a detrimental outbreak due to an extreme improvement of quality of life. Those
who are still in close contact with the pathogens for the disease, such as researchers and Peace
Corps volunteers are now protected by the plague vaccine as advised by the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention ("Plague Vaccine" 3). Nevertheless, this vaccine, developed in 1890, is just
one of many vaccines that have improved human life. Vaccinations are beneficial because they have
saved lives, improved the quality of life, and will prevent future outbreaks of such diseases.
Vaccinations hold many appeals, the most prevalent being their historical success. Throughout the
pre vaccination era, various diseases ran rampant across the globe. England and Wales were no
exception to this detrimental time period. Between 1990 and 1992, there were 946 cases of
Haemophilus influenzae within the six small regions (Anderson, E. C., et al 1). This "pre
vaccination era" refers to a dark period of history, before vaccines were fabricated, in which death
from disease was common, especially in children.

Chronic Bronchitis Research Paper
Chronic bronchitis may be defined as a disease characterized by cough and sputum for at least 3
consecutive months in a year for more than 2 successive years. in this condition there is chronic
obstruction to the alveolar inflow of air either due to chronic bronchitis or bronchial asthma.
Causes –
Smoking: Smoking causes bronchoconstriction, sluggish ciliary movement, increases airway
resistance, hypertrophy of the mucous glands, increased number of goblet cells and hypersecretion
of mucus. Though smoking is said to be the most important cause, yet only 10%–15% of the
smokers develop COPD. Usually a cigarette smoking history of greater than 20 pack Years is
associated with the disease. (1 pack year is equivalent to smoking 20 cigarettes ... Show more
The main bacteria are H. influenzae and Strep. pneumoniae. This leads to severe inflammation of
the bronchial tree resulting in mucopurulent sputum, further airway obstruction and constitutional
reaction. H. influenzae may persist in the sputum and may cause fibrosis and scarring of the distant
alveoli or at times emphysema. Airway obstruction This is the most important functional
abnormality and is caused by numbers of factors, e.g., overproduction of mucus, inflammatory
swelling and oedema, spasm of smooth muscle, fibrosis, air trapping at bronchioles and
emphysema. In the earlier part of the disease intermittent and later on permanent obstruction
develops. With severe airway obstruction PEF and FEVI are diminished and the FEVI/FVC ratio
falls below –5 per cent. However, this does not correlate

Microorganism
1. Description of the Microorganism: Write a paragraph describing your organism. Please be sure to
include the type of organism (bacterial, viral, fungal, protozoa, helminth, etc), morphology (shape,
arrangement, colony morphology if applicable), description of structure (gram result, type of nucleic
acid or virion structure, spore type, etc if applicable) and also the type of microscope and/or stain
you would use to view the organism.
Haemophilus influenzae type B is a non–motile, encapsulated, gram negative coccobacillus shaped
bacterium with random arrangements. This means there is no presence of flagella or pili. Commonly
abbreviated as HIB or H. influenzae type b. The cell wall is composed of multiple wavy outer
membranes and a poor defined plasma membrane. The plasma membrane consists of and electron
transport membrane throughout. This bacterium prefers to grow in an aerobic environment while it
is also able to grow as a facultative anaerobe. Haemophilus means in order for this bacteria to
survive they need the requirement of blood. These bacteria cannot synthesize the cytochrome
system that is needed for respiration. Instead they are required hemin which is an X factor, and
nicotinamide–adenine–dinucleotide also known as NAD or the V factor for growth. Its genome is
vastly complex consisting of numerous base pairs of DNA and genes. The purpose of the DNA
bacterial chromosomes is for giving information, identifying all potential open reading frames, and
for the organization of the genome. The genome harvests the information that leads to influencing a
host. H. influenzae type b appears as large, round, smooth, convex, colorless or grey colonies on a
chocolate agar plate or CAP. Which is where this bacterium grows. CAP is used ... Show more
Epidemiology:
a. Draw and label diagram on how this organism is transmitted. Make sure you include the
reservoirs of infection, and vectors in involved in transmission, the type of transmission and the
portals of entry and

Bacterial Meningitis Research Paper
Throughout the world, there are about eight common infectious diseases. Among this group of eight,
is a disease called meningitis. Meningitis is an infectious disease that is caused when the protective
membranes of the brain and spinal cord otherwise known as the meninges become inflamed. This
inflammation is usually a result of an infection of the fluids that surround the brain and spinal cord
within the human body.
According to the Center of Disease Control, meningitis can develop in response to a number various
causes especially by both a virus and bacterial infection. Yet, it can also occur from certain drugs,
physical injuries and also various forms of cancer. Mayo Clinic Staff states that, "Acute bacterial
meningitis usually occurs when bacteria enter the bloodstream and migrate to the brain and spinal
cord. But it can also occur when bacteria directly invade the meninges, as a result of an ear or sinus
infection, or a skull fracture, or rarely, after some surgeries". There are also various strains of
bacterial meningitis, the most common include streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus),
neisseria meningitidis (meningococcus), haemophilus influenzae (haemophilus), and listeria
monocytogenes (listeria) (Meningitis Directory).
Bacterial meningitis is usually severe and can be deadly as well as contagious among ... Show more
This form of infection is caused by a group of viruses known as enteroviruses which is usually the
cause of many cases within the United States. During late summer and early fall, this type of
meningitis circulates as a result of coming in contact with herpes simplex virus, HIV, mumps, West
Nile virus and others that can also cause viral meningitis infections. Usually a person who has been
infected will experience a sudden onset of fever, headache, stiff neck, purple rash and seizures may
occur if the disease progresses (Health Education,

Los Angeles Earthquake Report
The latest research results are showing an increased probability for the Los Angeles area to be hit by
a magnitude of eight or higher earthquake. According to Oskin (2015), "Looking at individual
faults, the southern San Andreas Fault near Los Angeles poses the greatest risk over the next 30
years, the researchers said". This hypothetical scenario describes the possible result of a magnitude
of 8 or larger earthquake in the Los Angeles area. Additionally, this paper answers questions to the
sudden changes resident would have to deal with in their everyday life and the likelihood of
emerging communicable diseases in the area. Furthermore, I have included a short report for local
authorities to hep to prevent the situation getting worse.
Body ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As a result, life for tens of thousands of people changed forever. After the initial shake over one
thousand–people perished from collapsing buildings, freeway underpasses and power lines.
Unfortunately, this number have been doubled by the fires all over the city which fueled by broken
gas lines and years of extreme drought. As reality kicks in most of the resident struggle with
everyday life following the devastating effects of the quake. Water, gas, power lines are broken for
that reason large areas are without utilities. In the first days following the earthquake neighbors and
friends get together to help whenever help is needed. They are searching for survivals among the
rubbles of collapsed buildings, treating the injured and sharing the limited resources they left with.
As they realize that they won't able to get outside help for a while looting become the norm for
necessities like water, food and medicine. The local law enforcement unable to keep order as armed
groups of people roaming the city to collect resources for themselves. In the meanwhile, the air
become unbreathable outdoors for some due to the uncontrolled fires all over the city. Coupled with,
the

Write A Term Paper On Meningitis
Many people have heard about meningitis but they are not exactly sure what it is. According to the
Center for Disease Control, Meningitis is a disease caused by the inflammation of the protective
membranes covering the brain and spinal cord known as the meninges. The inflammation is usually
caused by an infection of the fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord. It is most common in
children although, it can attack people of all ages. In 1805, " Vieusseux first discovered
Meningococcal meningitis during an outbreak in Switzerland, though it wasn't until 1887 that the
causative agent was identified by Anton Weichselbaum" (Manchanda 2006). The name given to it
was Neisseria intracellularis due to the nature of the intracellular oval micrococci of the organism.
The disease was fatal in 70 percent of the cases before the 1920s. There are over 10 different
serotypes that cause infection. Common causes of meningitis vary by strain and age groups.
Causes/Symptoms/Transmission
Meningitis may develop in response to a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Rarely, these bacteria can invade the body and cause disease. Most people who 'carry' the bacteria
never become sick.
The symptoms of bacterial meningitis can appear quickly or over several days. Typically they
develop within 3–7 days after exposure.
Babies younger than 1 month old are at a higher risk for severe infections, like meningitis, than
older children. In newborns and infants, the classic meningitis symptoms of fever, headache, and
neck stiffness may be absent or difficult to notice. The infant may appear to be slow or inactive
(lack of alertness), irritable, vomiting or feeding poorly. In young infants, doctors may look for a
bulging fontanelle (soft spot on infant's head) or abnormal reflexes, which can also be signs of
meningitis. If you think your infant has any of these symptoms, call the doctor or clinic right away
Viral Meningitis
Common Symptoms in

The United Nations Children 's Fund ( Unicef ) And The...
Introduction In 2006, the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health
Organization (WHO) 1 published the report, Pneumonia: The forgotten killer of children which
identified pneumonia as one of the world's leading causes of childhood mortality accounting for one
in five under–five deaths. The fourth Millennium Development Goal (MDG) from the 2000 summit
is to reduce under–five mortality rate by two–thirds by 20151. With its significant contribution to
under–five mortality, reduction of the childhood pneumonia mortality is essential to achieving this
goal. Over the last two decades there has been significant progress in reduction of childhood
pneumonia deaths with 58% less deaths occurring globally in 20132. However, pneumonia still
accounts for about 19% of childhood under–five deaths and contributes significantly to morbidity
and disability among children globally. Majority of these pneumonia–related deaths occur in
developing countries and are concentrated in a few countries1,2. In 2013, over half of the under–
five pneumonia deaths occurred in 10 countries located in sub–Saharan Africa, South Asia and
South–east Asia1,2. Successful interventions for the reduction in childhood pneumonia mortality
include: protecting child health by ensuring adequate nutrition and hygiene, prevention of
pneumonia by immunization against causative pathogens, reducing indoor air pollution and
optimizing access to prompt treatment of pneumonia1–3. The World Health Organization

Essay on Bacterial Meningitis
The definition of meningitis is any inflammation of the meninges or membranes of the central
nervous system. This inflammation can be caused by any number of pathogens such as fungi,
viruses, and bacteria. Bacteria is most commonly associated with the disease even though causative
viruses can be more prevalent, but never discovered because the mildness of the symptoms. The
study of meningitis dates back to the 1960's when the causative organisms were discovered and
treatments were developed. Since then the mortality rate from bacterial meningitis has not changed
much despite the introduction of new antibiotics and treatments (Hussein 360). In the case of
bacterial meningitis no one casual organism causes all of the cases, but rather ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The bacteria make their way into the cerebrospinal fluid though a complex system of actions that is
aided by the weakened immune system. The immune system inside the cerebrospinal fluid is very
weak and depends on the rest of the body to keep out harmful pathogens. When the bacterium enters
the cerebrospinal fluid, it can reproduce easily and can cause many problems including infection of
the brain (Leib 530–540). Bacterial meningitis can be characterized by a number of symptoms, but
may differ in adults and children. Children have more occurrence of an upper respiratory infection
where as adults are noted to have a fever. In both children and adults, symptoms include: Nausea,
vomiting, headache, photophobia, neck and back pain, and a stiff neck. Petechiae, red spots on
appendages, are found on most adults and a key symptom that can identify meningitis. There can be
serious complications of the disease such as hearing loss, mental retardation, and death (Kaplan
580–583). Bacterial meningitis can be treated if diagnosed in time. Antibiotics are used in high
doses and can effectively eradicate the bacteria from the host. Cephlosporins and sulfa drugs can be
used to effectively treat most forms of causal organisms. The key to treatment is the promptness of
administration. If treatment is slowed permanent side effects could

Bacterial Meningitis : An Common Form Of Meningitis
Research Methodology
Bacterial Meningitis
1. Introduction
Bacterial meningitis is the most common form of meningitis. Approximately 80% of all meningitis
associated cases are bacterial, the disease is the critical reason for increasing morbidity rates in
young children under the age group of one year. In the last 20 years (1991–2010) close to one
million suspected meningitis cases were reported in the UK and in the US. [8] [5] The 'meninges' is
the name for the three membranes that envelope the brain and cord (the central nervous system).
Bacterial meningitis is caused by three different bacteria's: Haemophilus influenzae type b,
Neisseria meningitidis, and the Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteria. The bacteria spreads across the
spinal cord and optic nerves, within the bacteria it 's fluid contents, the cerebrospinal fluid. The
excessive manifestation of bacteria and their toxins within these areas, results in an inflammation of
the cranial or spinal structures. This inflammation will consequence in severe damage to the nervous
system and brain structures unless treated. Due to the nature of the meninges and the cerebrospinal
fluid, an infection of any area of the system can rapidly spread to the rest of the system In this
review I will discuss the epidemiology and pathogenesis of bacterial meningitis in young children
and its subsequent clinical diagnosis of effective vaccines.[2]
While a variety of organisms could cause childhood BM, the most frequently recognized

Haemophilus Influenzae Research Paper
Haemophilus influenzae, a pleomorphic Gram–negative bacillus found in the human upper
respiratory tract, has been associated invasive infections, such as bronchitis, otitis, pneumonia,
meningitis, septicemia, and epiglottitis(1). Isolates of H. influenzae can be subdivided into two
major forms, encapsulated and non–encapsulated that serotype b cause of meningitis, mainly in
children below 4 years of age(2). Nontypable H. influenzae (NTHi) usually considered a
commensal, is capable of produce infections of the upper and lower respiratory tracts, such as
sinusitis, bronchitis acute otitis media, as well as, more infrequently, severe invasive infections such
as pneumonia, bacteremia, and meningitis(3–5). Protein D (PD) is a highly conserved

The Pathogen Of Infectious Coryza Essay
Introduction
Avibacterium paragallinarum
Avibacterium paragallinarum, previously known as Haemophilus paragallinarum, is a pathogenic
bacteria that cause infectious coryza, an acute respiratory diseases that associate with substantial
losses in poultry industry worldwide (Blackall et al., 2005). Early descriptions believed the
pathogen of infectious coryza was Haemophilus gallinarum, which requires hemin and NADH as
compulsory growth factors. In 1960s, studies on bacteria isolates recovered from the infectious
coryza cases showed that the growth of all isolates were only NADH–dependent, leading to the
identification of the new species, Haemophilus paragallinarum (Blackall & Soriano, 2008). In recent
years, NADH–independent H. paragallinarum strains have been reported from South Africa, Mexico
and Peru (Blackall, 1999; Soriano–Vargas et al., 2013; Falconi–Agapito et al., 2015), revealing the
existence of geographic influence on bacteria distribution.
H. paragallinarum belongs to the Pasteurellaceae family. Like some of the pathogens for avian
diseases, it has only been identified with chicken host. With the host–specificity character, the
Avibacterium genus was established within Pasteurellaceae family in 2005, including Avibacterium
gallinarum, Avibacterium paragallinarum, Avibacterium avium and Avibacterium volantium. 16S
ribosomal RNA analysis revealed that at least 96.8% sequence similarity was identified within this
genus. This genus was also separable from all taxa

Nursing Home Acquired Pneumonia
A 64–year–old male is found unresponsive in a nursing home facility. He is quickly rushed to the
nearest emergency department and regains consciousness upon arrival. His past medical history is
significant for hypertension, diabetes mellitus type 2, and an ischemic stroke 5 months ago. The
patient was fairly healthy until 2 days ago, when he began coughing. The cough is productive, with
copious, greenish sputum. His temperature is 38.2ºC (100.8ºF), respiratory rate is 28 breaths/min,
and heart rate is 102 beats/min. On physical examination, he is frail and ill looking. Breath sounds
are diminished in the right superior lobe, with loud, coarse crackles present on auscultation. The
percussion notes are dull. Which organism is most likely to be responsible for his condition?
A. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Chlamydophila pneumoniae
B. Haemophilus influenzae
C. Klebsiella pneumoniae
D. Moraxella catarrhalis
E. Streptococcus pneumoniae
Answer
Choice "E" is the best answer. This patient lives in a nursing home, which makes nursing home–
acquired pneumonia (NHAP) the likely diagnosis. The condition described is a typical pneumonia,
of which Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common cause. Similar microorganisms cause
NHAP and community–acquired pneumonia (CAP), so they are diagnosed and treated the same
way.
Choice "A" is not the best answer. Chlamydophila pneumoniae causes atypical pneumonia and is an
uncommon pathogen for NHAP. Choice "B" is not the best answer. Haemophilus influenzae is a
common pathogen of both CAP and NHAP, but is not the most common cause.
Choice "C" is not the best answer. Klebsiella pneumoniae is a cause of bronchopneumonia
associated with intubation and respirators. Patients infected with K. pneumoniae produce profuse
bloody and gelatinous sputum.
Choice "D" is not the best answer. Moraxella catarrhalis is one of the common pathogens of both
CAP and NHAP, but is not the most common

Bacterial Infection Report

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