Methane Hydrate Formation

Methane Hydrate Formation
There are many challenges that aforementioned two extraction methods are facing, for example, the
permeability of the methane hydrate formation and the ratio between energy input and output.
Depending on the location, methane hydrate formation exists in various forms. A certain formation
can contain sand as host sediments with methane hydrate mixed within; similarly, the host sediment
can be made of rock, clay, silt, or a mixture of each. Depending on the composition of the host
sediment, the formation has different mechanical strength, porosity, permeability, degree of
saturation and other parameter. Depending on the location, the permeability of the formation can
vary for several degrees of magnitude. [15] When hot water, steam, or CO2 is ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
As shown previously, methane hydrate contains 1 mole of methane for every 5.75 mole of water,
corresponding to 13.4% methane by mass, in ideal situation. In reality, this number might be lower.
Therefore, the actual energy housed within a methane hydrate formation is likely to be much lower
than that of a conventional gas, coal, or oil formation with the same volume. Combining with the
reality that a methane hydrate formation can exist with very low methane hydrate saturation (~5%),
the energy housed within such formation will be even lower. Therefore, when extracting a methane
hydrate formation, the maximum energy input for extraction is of consideration, since if the required
input energy is larger than the theoretical output energy, the whole process will become
commercially unfavorable. There is not enough statistical data to show the net energy output while
using thermal injection method or CO2 injection method. But both of these methods are energy
intensive. For thermal injection method, a constant stream of steam or hot water need to be produced
and injected into the formation. While the constant production of steam or hot water is already
energy intensive, the heat dissipation during injection is also considerable, since the formations are
typically hundreds of meters underneath the seafloor or hundreds of meters deep in the permafrost.
For CO2 injection method, the CO2
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Climate Warming And Climate Change Essay
It is well known that politics and religion are two topics to never to be discussed with someone one
does not know well. In today's society, it feels as if this list of topics that are socially deemed
inappropriate to discuss seems to be growing, with climate change now being a conservation to
avoid. This aversion to discussing climate change appears to stem from the fact that the issue tends
to polarize opinions, in which people fall into one of two groups: climate change skeptics and
climate change believers. This paper seeks to address and analyze the ways in which climate
skeptics speak about and understand climate change as well as how climate scientists understand
climate change phenomena. More specifically, this paper focuses on how climate skeptics
comprehend the relationships between grasslands, livestock, methane and nutrient cycling and how
these interconnected concepts do not lead to the type of climate change that "green urbanities /green
politicians/green activists/green elite" predict. The paper will conclude with an evaluation of the two
differing positions between climate skeptics and climate scientists, in which I will determine which
argument I find to be the most accurate. According to Viv Forbes and Albrecht Glatzle, an earth
scientist/farmer and agronomist respectively, in their article "The Battle for our Grasslands and
Livestock", there are many positive impacts that grasslands, grazers, and livestock provide for
humans and the environment. Moreover,

Global Warming And Its Effects
Global Warming
The earth is getting warmer, animals and their habitats are declining, human health is at risk and the
cause of all this terror is Global Warming. Global warming will cause many parts of the world to
change. In the next 50 years climate change could be the cause of more than a million terrestrial
species becoming extinct. Sea levels will raise which means more flooding and is not good for the
plants. With too much water the plants will die and herbivores will lose their food source as well as
their habitats. As a result the food chain will be broken and survival for any creature is slim to none.
In conclusion, Global Warming is an important issue, but before we can devise any solutions we
must first understand the causes. This paper will focus on the causes of global warming and argue
that excessive carbon dioxide emissions is the predominate cause. This paper will start of briefly
discussing the history of Global Warming (GW) by explaining how greenhouse gases contribute to
GW through the greenhouse effect and how production of these gases has increased along with rise
in global temperatures. Next, it will explain the causes of global warming including carbon dioxide,
methane, and nitrus oxide (fertilizer) emissions. The strengths and the weaknesses of each cause will
be looked at; prompting the conclusion that inflated carbon dioxide emissions are the essential
driver. The final segment of the paper will conclude and explain policy

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Biogas
Due to scarcity of petroleum and coal it threatens supply of fuel throughout the world also problem
of their combustion lads to research in different corners to get access the new sources of energy, like
renewable energy resources. Solar energy, wind energy, different thermal and hydro sources of
energy, biogas are all renewable energy resources. But, biogas is distinct from other renewable
energies because of its characteristics of using, controlling and collecting organic wastes and at the
same time producing fertilizer and water for use in agricultural irrigation. Biogas does not have any
geographical limitations nor does it require advanced technology for producing energy, also it is
very simple to use and apply. Deforestation is a very ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Selma A. Iqbal has made up on the anaerobic digestion of kitchen waste to produced biogas and also
told that using of biomass fuel in our country to problem solving technique of energy oriented then
to reduce the deforestation in higher level and important of environmental issue like that greenhouse
gas emission[10]. Md. ForhadLune Al Imam told digestion time & volume of gas production (%) in
cow dung is 20–30 days & 46.03% [6]. Zihan Yong has made up on due to anaerobic co–digestion
process in which of Food Waste &straw this is to give in methane production reach at 0.392m3/kg–
vs. And increased by percentage of gas in 39% to 149%.Total amount of gas production in 1 liter
capacity at which rate of 58 m3/kg–vs & 67.6 m3/kg–vs. [13] P.VenkateshwaraRao has made study
on the bio gas is one of the most efficient and effective options among the various other alternative
sources of renewable energy currently available. It is produced through anaerobic digestion
processes where the microorganism converts complex organic matter into a mixture of methane and
carbon

The Problem Of Methane Gas
Methane gas may be the answer to two major needs of the modern world: a process of disposing
waste that protects the environment, and the world's growing need for clean energy sources.
However, many times the solution to a problem can cause more issues to arise than are solved. One
example of this could be seen in waste disposal until methane became more prevalent and
revolutionized the way we look at rubbish. What was once an unsightly and wasteful disposal
process has now become a source of clean energy. No longer do landfills have to vent toxic gases
into the earth's atmosphere thanks to scientist's ability to convert methane gas in to power. This
paper explores the ways in which the methane produced by trash can make landfills more
environmentally friendly and provide clean energy to the world.
The Waste Problem
As industry has evolved, the creation and disposal of waste has become a significant issue. People
generate waste simply by going through their everyday activities, and almost anything from food,
clothes, and textbooks can eventually become waste. With the world rapidly moving towards
urbanization and the population growing at an exponential rate, it is understandable that the amount
of waste being generated daily is on the rise (Hoornweg, 2012). The shear amount of waste being
generated makes it difficult to dispose of without any severe environmental consequences. Last year
an estimated 1.4 billion tons of municipal solid waste was generated, an amount that

Rumen Microbiome Essay
Diversity based on rumen microbiome
Yak is lower methane producer than cattle, in spite of the fact that both the animals are fed similar
diets and there are only small variations between the microbiomes of both the animals. Lower
methane and hydrogen yields in yak vs cattle are 0.26 vs 0.33 mmol methane/g dry matter intake
and 0.28 vs 0.86 mmol/d hydrogen generation have been reported. Hydrogen recovery from cattle
was significantly higher than that from yak (Mi et al., 2017). There were a few higher abundant
bacteria in the yak species, which would produce less hydrogen, in comparison to that in cattle.
However, in the abundance of methanogens, there was no difference between the two animal
species. It is therefore, hypothesized that ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Therefore, these compounds have been used as medicine in traditional system of medicare in India,
Pakistan, China, Srilanka, Japan and other Asian and African countries These are also used for
preservation of foods and as spices in kitchen in many parts of the world since time immemorial.
More than 200,000 defined structures of plant secondary compounds have been identified. These
PSM can generally be classified into three major groups: saponins, tannins and essential oils (EO)
(Kamra et al., 2008).
Plant secondary metabolites might inhibit methane emission by the following modes:
They might directly inhibit methanogens as these compounds have anti–microbial activities against
different microbial groups, but unfortunately the methanogens donot have any correlation with the
methane emitted by the animals.
The plant secondary metabolites might have anti–protozoal activity, which might indirectly result in
reduced numbers of methanogens. As the ciliate protozoa and methanogens have an ecto–symbiotic
relationship, the latter might lose their symbiotic partners and hydrogen supply due to killing of
ciliates by the plant secondary metabolites and therefore, might result in reduced production of
methane (Santra et al., 1994).
As the plant secondary metabolites have anti–microbial activity, which might reduce the numbers of
bacteria and fungi

Methane Production Inside Cattle: A Case Study
Jeff Arnold Methane Production Inside Cattle 4
Methane Production inside Cattle
Looking at the variety of gases that are now trapped inside our atmosphere one always seems to
point at the largest one Carbon Dioxide (CO2). With the United States being the largest producers of
beef in the world and knowing that through enteric fermentation methane (CH4) is produced, I
wanted to truly understand how methane is produce at such a large scale. As humans we need to
truly understand how our actions and ways of life are impacting our surrounding environments.
Domesticated ruminants are responsible for the production of 86 million metric tonnes (Tg) of
methane per year, alone beef cattle contribute 55.9 Tg and dairy cows 18.9 Tg per year (Hook, S. ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(1996). Methanogens. Retrieved April 30, 2017, from http://faculty.college–
prep.org/~bernie/sciproject/project/Kingdoms/Bacteria3/methanogens.htm
N. (2014, March 21). Retrieved April 30, 2017, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=3NG5foxD2HI
Hook, S. E., Wright, A. D. G., & McBride, B. W. (2010). Methanogens: methane producers of the
rumen and mitigation strategies. Archaea, 2010.
B. (2016, October 06). Methanogenesis – Boundless Open Textbook. Retrieved April 30, 2017, from
https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/textbooks/boundless–microbiology–textbook/microbial–
metabolism–5/anaerobic–respiration–49/methanogenesis–316–7648/
Jones, M. (2014, February). Ways to Reduce Methane Production in Cattle. Retrieved April 30,
2017, from

Natural Gases And Its Effects On The World Essay
The world has seen a drastic reduction in carbon dioxide emissions, the benefits of the transition
from burning coals to using natural gases. The consequences however, are seemingly becoming
more damaging than experts thought. Natural gases are primarily composed of methane gas (CH4),
gases which are 35 times the potency of carbon dioxide and traps much more heat radiation. The
United States alone is responsible for 30% to 60% of global growth in human–caused methane
emissions in the past 14 years (Magill 2016). During the process of extraction and transportation of
natural gases, is where the problem resides. Methane leakage occurs from processing plants and
storage facilities becoming a major concern for the environment. The big question is, how much
methane actually escapes into the atmosphere and what are the challenges humans face trying to
prevent further leakages.
One of the biggest challenge is to identify the impact and damage that fugitive methane has and will
do to the world. In a recent incident that happened at Aliso Canyon, California, there was a gas
leakage that took place over a four month period that was only plugged. The incident is estimated to
have "spewed enough methane into the atmosphere to equal the greenhouse gases emitted by more
than 440,000 cars in a year" (Magill 2016, 1). However, the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) estimates that more than six million metric tons of methane are have leaked in 2011.
Meaning, the combination of

Articles on Cows and Methane Gas
Article Summary of articles on Cows and Methane Gas Summary: Imagine a cow polluting our
atmosphere all the time? It is a very real possibility. According to the article, "Methane emissions
from cattle", cows produce anywhere from 250 to 500 liters of Methane per day. Although they
aren't currently polluting as much as cars, that doesn't mean they won't eventually. Many might think
that cows emit more methane gas from flatulence (or farting) but they actually emit more from
belching. (1) This problem is an important issue around the world. In 2003 New Zealand even tried
to put a tax on cow flatulence. In New Zealand cows and other livestock produce 34% of their
greenhouse gasses. It is said that by 2030, the percentage of gas created by cows could be up by
60%. A cow is a type of animal called a ruminant. Ruminants eat their food and throw it up as cud.
After they have thrown it up as cud they eat it again. Cows have four stomachs that they use for
digestion and they digest similarly to humans. The stomach of a cow is filled with bacteria that helps
them digest foods. Those bacteria also create massive amounts of methane. (1) Scientists are
searching hard to find a way to stop or reduce the gases cows give out. The Carbon Farming
Initiative even offers farmers money and other incentives if they feed their cattle a certain way. They
want cows to be eating more tannins or oil. Tannins help lower the amount of methane significantly.
Cows have an easier time with fiber

Atmospheric Methane
Immense abundance of methane(CH4) from the ocean floor can affect climate globally. The
atmospheric methane concentration has gone up by about 150% since 1750. Wide–ranging methane
seeps that were identified along the Atlantic Margin contributes to an excellent experiment for this
global climate and methane relation. With the operation of multibeam water–column backscatter
info, it becomes possible to analyze 94,000 km^2 of the ocean floor to classify hundreds of gas
plumes up to 1,700m depth on the Atlantic passive margin. Skarke et al, suggests that tens of
thousands of seeps can be identified. Methane seepage was not expected since the Atlantic Margin is
tectonically idle and not related to any natural resource reservoirs. The evaluation of the backscatter
information between the George Bank and Cape Hatteras showed more than 500 unknown
anomalies in the water column. These water column inconsistencies can be related to gas plumes
which can be followed well above the sea floor until veered of by currents. High concentrations of
methane were discovered in the upper slope offshore New Jersey ,Hudson Canyon, and in the outer
shelf of Virginia. Concentrated methane exists in sediments with low ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This can cause extensive dissociation of the southern Atlantic margin gas hydrates. Warm core rings
created by the warm waters of the gulf stream can get stuck on the continental slope of New Jersey.
Other factors include the NAO ( North Atlantic Oscillation) which causes warm waters of the
atlantic to take of the cold, which increases the bottom water temperature at shallower depths than
usual. This could provide an explanation to the decadal occurrence of the upper slope emission on
the New England

Low Methane Production
The methane production rates of this experiment present similar results with the previous
experiment with Ni. Methane produced was depending on the substrate used. Methanol, which is
slowly consumed in the cultures, results in a steady increase in methane production (Figure 12). On
the contrary, acetate, that was consumed rapidly, made a quick increase in methane production on
early days of incubation (Figure 13). Also, on cultures using H2, there was also a lag phase before
methane was produced significantly (Figure 14. A).
However, total methane produced in this experiment was lower than the in the previous experiment.
Maximum methane production on cultures were only 5.5, 20, and 16 mmol/medium on methanol,
acetate, and H2 respectively. The initial concentrations of the substrates were similar with the
previous experiment. Negative control also gave similar methane production with previous
experiment (Figure 14. B). Uptake of Co by other microorganisms other than methanogens is
possible to happen in the cultures, decreasing the available Co for methanogens. On the other hand,
if the presence of Co can favor the growth of other groups of microorganism, competition for
common substrates can be also affected. It was also possible that the cultures require Co instead of
Ni for their metabolism. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When methanol was used as a substrate, methane was produced faster than the control at all
concentration tested. Concentration of CoCl2 at 10 µM gave maximum methane production (max.
71% increase). On the contrary, at 10 µM of CoCl2 in cultures that utilize acetate gave lower
methane production than control. The highest methane production in the cultures using acetate
reached when 5 µM of CoCl2 was added (max. 16% increase). Finally, Co addition had no effect on
methane production if H2 was used as a

The Purification Of Methane
Texas LNG, a company that focuses on liquidizing natural gas, has proposed to build a facility in the
port of Brownsville. While the masses might see it as an economical opportunity or a chance for
Brownsville to put itself in the map, environmentalists are against the construction of such facility.
Past ideas of such innovative and beneficial gains have had disastrous results, which destroy the
environment. Consequently, the construction of such facility reeks of air pollution, untrustworthy
practices, and the potential to ruin the entire Rio Grande Valley. Purification of methane is
straightforward and manageable when it is in a liquid state, which purifies to be 98% methane,
compared to past purification methods that only go up to 95%.

Carbon Dioxide Methane And Nitrous Oxide Saltes From A...
Koster, E., Koster, K., Berninger, F., Aaltonen, H., Zhou, X., & Pumpanen, J. (2017). Carbon
dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide fluxes from a fire chronosequence in subarctic boreal forests of
canada. Science of the Total Environment, 601, 895–905. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.246
In the article "Carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide fluxes from a fire chronosequence in
subarctic boreal forests of canada," the authors studied the effects of forest fires in Northwestern
Canada. Koster et al. focused on the effects that forest fires had over time, on three greenhouse
gases. There were three main hypotheses in the research paper: The increases of carbon dioxide,
methane and nitrous oxide will change as a consequence of fire and the ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The biomass and density of trees surrounding each plot were also recorded. A static chamber method
was used to measure the fluxes of the three GHG. The method was carried out using a closed
cylindrical chamber equipped with a small fan, and gas concentrations were measured with an
infrared, non–dispersive scope. There were other more detailed, accurate methods used as well to be
more accurate with exact numbers for the concentrations of each gas. The concentrations of each gas
were compared between each location and results are as follows: As the thickness of the active layer
increased, all three greenhouse gas emissions increased. Carbon dioxide fluxes increased with time
since the last fire, with the 1969 fire area having the highest CO2 emissions, and the 2012 fire area
having the lowest CO2 emissions. Methane fluxes had a significant increase in the 1990 fire area,
and a lower influx in all other fire areas. Nitrous oxide had a high influx in every fire area except for
the 1990 area, where the fluxes were significantly lower. Addressed in the discussion, the authors
write about how their results indicate that areas affected by fire will take approximately 50 years to
fully recover to their pre–fire conditions. As well, areas with a recent fire had much lower soil
moisture than areas with a long time since last

Essay on Global Warming
Global Warming
Our planet's atmosphere traps energy just like a greenhouse. Energy from the Sun can enter the
Earth's atmosphere, but not all of it can easily find its way out again.
What blocks the Sun's energy from escaping from the Earth? Unlike a greenhouse, the Earth does
not have a layer of glass over it! Instead, molecules in our atmosphere called greenhouse gasses
absorb the heat. Greenhouse gasses include water vapor, methane, ozone, nitrous oxide, and carbon
dioxide. There may not be much of some of these gasses in our atmosphere, but they can have a big
impact. Each greenhouse gas molecule is made of three or more atoms that are bonded loosely
together. These molecules are able to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
About 30 gases produced by human activity have been identified as contributing to the greenhouse
effect. These are sometimes called greenhouse gases. The main ones are carbon dioxide, methane,
CFCs and nitrous oxide. Sunlight reaches the Earth's surface, is reflected off it, and is prevented
from escaping from the atmosphere by this layer of gases, which acts like glass in a greenhouse.
Up to a point, the greenhouse effect is a natural process, and naturally occuring carbon dioxide is not
dangerous. Without greenhouse gases, the average temperature of the Earth would be –19C , in other
words, too cold for us to live. However, the concentration of the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
has changed dramatically: since the 18th century, carbon dioxide has increased by 30%.
There is disagreement among scientists about the seriousness of global warming. Most scientists
agree that the global temperature is rising. They do not agree on more specific elements of the issue:
How much will it warm up? What will happen if it does warm up? How far are humans responsible?
What should we do to stop it?
Scientists believe that if we go on producing gases at the rate we do now, it is likely that the Earth's
average temperature will rise by about 0.3 degrees C every ten years. This

Biogas is a clean environment friendly fuel. Raw biogas...
Biogas is a clean environment friendly fuel. Raw biogas contains about 55–65% methane (CH4),
30–45% carbon dioxide (CO2), traces of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and fractions of water vapours.
A typical composition of biogas can be seen on the following table:
Table 1: Biogas typical composition
Component Formula Concentration (% by vol.)
Methane CH4 55–70
Carbon dioxide CO2 30–45
Nitrogen N2 0–5
Oxygen O2 <1
Hydrocarbons CnH2n+2 <1
Hydrogen sulfide H2S 0–0.5
Ammonia NH3 0–0.05
Water (vapour) H2O 1–5
Siloxanes CnH2n+1SiO 0–50 mg/m3
The main compound in the Biogas mixture is Methane (CH4), which is responsible for the
combustibility of the biogas. Methane burns according to the following exothermic combustion
equation:
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O + ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Water is also undesirable in biogas stream to the engines since it is responsible for the corrosion
effects. It also reacts with carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid which is corrosive. Hence water too
along with hydrogen sulphide must be removed during pre–treatment.
Siloxanes are silica compounds which are derive from the anaerobic digestion of materials such as
household waste and municipal wastewater. Siloxanes presence in biogas is extremely undesirable,
since they react with oxygen at high temperatures and form silica dioxide (SiO2), which gets
deposited in the engine and other equipment thus causing serious damages on them. site on data
http://www.biogas–renewable–energy.info/biogas_composition.html
http://www.biomassenergy.gr/en/articles/technology/biogas/102–biogas–typical–components
Factors Affecting the Biogas Generation
Temperature and Pressure
Fermentation Temperature will greatly affect biogas production. Methane can be produced within a
fairly wide range of temperature. Methane forming anaerobic bacteria works best in the temperature
between 29°C to 41°C or between 49°C to 60°C and pressure of about 1.1 to 1.2 bars absolute. The
temperature between 32°C–35°C are most efficient for stable and continuous production of

methane. Biogas produced outside this range will have a higher percentage of carbon dioxide and
other gases. The production of biogas is fastest during summer and it decreases at lower temperature
during winter. At 20°C the rate

The Heat Is On The Greenhouse Effect And The Earth 's Future
Article #1:
Owen, Oliver S. "The heat is on; the greenhouse effect and the earth 's future." The
Futurist Sept.–Oct. 1989: 34+. Academic OneFile. Web. 30 Nov. 2015.
Summary: Oliver S. Owen who is a professor of biology at the University of Wisconsin wrote an
article on the impact of global warming and how the greenhouse gasses effect the warming of the
globe. This article mainly focuses on the greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide and how it is produced and
can be eliminated from society.
Carbon dioxide is released when organic material is broken down whether it is from burning or if it
is from decay. The main ways carbon is released is from the burning of fossil fuels and the burning
of tropical forests in the use of new farmland and grazing land for cattle. "By itself, fossilfuel
consumption is responsible for the annual release of 5 billion metric tons of carbon into the air"
fossil fuels produce the most carbon dioxide that pollutes our atmosphere by far. The main reason
we need to worry about the carbon dioxide increase is because Owen predicts this increase "will
hike up the global "thermostat" about 4 [degrees] C (7 [degrees] F)." Many well–respected scientists
also disagree with these findings because most of the information is not considered "hard
information" and does not take all variables into consideration. The increase of Carbon dioxide will
not have a negative impact on everyone on earth, people who live near the poles will have increased
growing seasons in some

Methane And Climate Change
Methane, a greenhouse gas made of carbon and hydrogen, is twenty times more effective than
carbon dioxide at trapping heat into the atmosphere, according to the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), thus making too much methane in the atmosphere contributes greatly to climate
change. In 2000, the rate of methane in the atmosphere had little or no growth, but in 2007 the rate
started to raise again. This was the focus of a study done by climate scientists from the Karlsruhe
Institute of Technology (KIT) in Karlsruhe, Germany and from the National Institute of Water and
Atmospheric Research in Lauder, New Zealand.
Ten years ago in North America, there was a major oil and natural gas production boom which is
thought to be the cause of this,

Permafrost
Imagine a beautiful, snow white, artic climate full of polar bears, narwhals, reindeer, artic foxes,
walruses, snow owls, orca/killer whales and maybe even a herd or two of moose. Now picture a
toxic, poisonous gas, slowly seeping from the earth into the habitats these creatures call home. This
narrative is not some new Hollywood blockbuster ready to shatter summer records; this is the reality
of artic and sub–arctic climates around the globe. Permafrost regions of the arctic naturally release
methane from the sea, ice and soils. However, exacerbation by global warming has caused methane
to be released at a greater rate than previous decades/centuries. In 2013 it was estimated that 17
million tonnes of methane was released by land based arctic permafrost, a fourfold increase from
2006 estimates. The EPA estimates 620 million tonnes were released in 2013 causing the permafrost
to be responsible for a small 2.7%. Another whopping 60% of CH4 emissions comes from human
activities which include industry, agriculture and waste management activities. This leaves us with
several questions. How can we reduce methane emissions? How can we capture 620 million tonnes
and use it for good? What are the benefits of this? One thing that most reasonable people should be
able to agree upon is that 620 million tonnes of methane released into the atmosphere ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
For industry/commercial businesses, they should update their equipment/machines they used to
produce and or store as well as transport oil and gas. This will substantially diminish many of the
leaks that contribute to methane emissions. Methane released by coal mines can/should also be
captured and used for energy. This eliminates methane from releasing into the atmosphere, which
would further contribute to global warming and the greenhouse effect. In the agricultural side,
methane emissions can be reduced and/or captured by changing manure

Methane Hydrates And Its Effects On The Environment Essay
Methane hydrates, also known as Methane clathrates, are rapidly becoming a topic of interest to
many looking for alternative energy sources that would ease our reliance on fossil fuels while
scientists are working on innovative new ways to extract the energy with minimal damage to the
climate. These natural gas deposits resting under ocean sediment appear very alluring to
governments and other entities looking for more energy independence. Nations look at energy
independence favorably as a way to stay geopolitically independent and perhaps gain an upper hand
in trade with nations that still rely on imported energy. The total amount of carbon located in gas
hydrates in the ocean exceeds the amount of all the oil, gas, and coal currently being refined in total
(Nersesian 2007).
Country Coal Gas Oil Gas Hydrate Potential
U.S 237,295 Mt 9.86 tcm 26.5 bbl 157.8 tcf
Russia 157,010 Mt 48.7 tcm 4.7 bbl 220 tcf
China 114,500 Mt 4.463 tcm 25.58 bbl 85.4 tcf
Australia 76,400 Mt 4.3 tcm 25 bbl 221.1 tcf
India 56,100 Mt 4.232 tcm 5.675 bbl 134 tcf
Total 641,305 Mt 71.555 tcm 87.455 bbl 818.3 tcf
http://www.worldenergy.org/wp–content/uploads/2013/10/WER_2013_1_coal.pdf,
www.eia.gov/emeu/international/oilreserves.html, www.eia.gov/emeu/international/gasreserves.htm
Although this may seem appealing scientists are still working on the extraction. These gas hydrates
also pose another danger–one of their main components, methane, is a greenhouse gas and
harvesting the energy from these

Methane Hydrates. Everyone Who Does Not Live Under A Rock
Methane Hydrates
Everyone who does not live under a rock enjoys their heating and energy supply that charges their
computers and keeps them toasty in the winter. Nearly one hundred percent of the time, an
individual using such resources will neglect to take note of where they come from. Many a time this
energy comes from natural gas (methane hydrates), which have special properties like all chemicals
that can make them bad for the environment, and lead to consequences for the future. Since America
industrialized, most of our energy reserves comes from nonrenewable, carbon–based resources.
Currently, The United States uses approximately 26.6 trillion cubic feet of natural gas (How). The
main component of natural gas is of course methane ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, if you do get the methane out into a usable form, a person could use it to heat their house
by combusting methane. When methane undergoes a reaction with oxygen (burning), the covalent
bonds around the central carbon atom break, transforming into heat energy. In the process though
carbon also bonds with oxygen gas creating carbon dioxide (CO2). The leftover hydrogen atoms
then bond with more oxygen and form more water. This of course results in a gaseous form of
carbon dioxide and water. In the end the process is termed exothermic due to it releasing heat into
the surrounding area. The products of this reaction will go to completion as shown below.
As the products leak out and are stuck in the atmosphere, the heat energy that water takes with it is
transferred to the carbon dioxide due to the second law of thermodynamics, which states Entropy
always increases (Tro). Due to this the atmosphere increases in temperature due to the heat capacity
of the carbon dioxide. This is how global warming works. However, the heat taken in by water is
quickly lost from the atmosphere due to rainfall. On the side of the carbon dioxide not so much. The
water cycle that everyone learned in grade school can take a couple days or more. Sadly enough, the
carbon cycle can take one hundred to two hundred million years to complete. Carbon dioxide
created from methane can also be absorbed by water. When

The Effects Of Methane Emissions On The Urban Region Of...
Analysis of Methane Emissions from Natural Gas Infrastructure and Use in the Urban Region of
Boston, Massachusetts
Abstract
Methane is a natural gas and as such is a large component of greenhouse gases. Consequently,
methane emissions in the atmosphere contribute greatly to not only an increase in ozone
concentrations but subsequently a rise in global temperature. Therefore, it is critical that accurate
measurements of methane loss to the ozone layer be measured in order to develop effective
programs with the primary aim of lowering natural gas emissions. This study suggests that current
methods of measuring methane emissions may be inaccurate. The results revealed that the annual
natural gas emissions in the Boston region totalled 2.7 ± 0.6% (worth approximately 90 million
dollars) which conflicts with the Massachusetts Greenhouse Gas Inventory estimate of 1.1% natural
gas emission rate in the region. This suggests that urban regions such as Boston may be seriously
underestimating their methane emission rate as outlined by various authority departments. This
research is significant as many other studies have not encompassed the downstream components
(such as distribution) of methane emissions, as the main focus is presently on production. This
shows that distribution may be a much larger influencing factor than previously anticipated.
Explanation
Methane (CH4) is one of the simplest forms of hydrocarbons and is found in abundance worldwide
through the form of natural gas

Save the planet by cutting down on meat?
In his article, Johnson (2008) satirically expresses opposition to the former UN climate chief
suggestion that the whole of human race should shun meat and consider converting vegetarianism,
so as to, save earth from climate change. In response to this, Johnson argues that, he is simply not
converting to vegetarianism just because the former UN climate chief had asked the whole of the
human race to avoid meat. UN–FAO figures propose that, meat production puts more Green House
Gases (GHG's herein after) than the general global transport network. As reported by BBC (2008)
meat production cycle accounts for 18% of the GHG emissions. In contrast, transport makes up just
13% of the world's greenhouse gas footprint. Moreover, cows turn out ... Show more content on
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A further rise of 57% in worldwide meat demand by 2020 has also been projected, mostly in Sub–
Saharan Africa as well as Southeast Asia. This supports Johnson's argument that Cows are not the
problem; its people eating the cows that are the problem.
According to Foley et al. (2005, p.570) the advent of contemporary agriculture as well as forestry
has been one of the major events in human history. Whether by stepping up practices on existing
forests, pastures, croplands or by clearing natural ecosystems; human land use practices are radically
changing the earth's climate as well as exploiting an even larger share of the earth's environment in
the process. In support of this, Bonan (1997, p.449) suggested that the earth's surface is persistently
modified by continued natural as well as human activities.
What's more, Tilman et al. (2001,p.281) postulates that the next 50 years are expected to be the
period of swift agricultural growth, demand for food by the constantly growing worldwide
population will be a key driver of climate change. If past dependencies of the global impacts of
agriculture on human utilization continue, 10 billion hectares of natural ecosystems will be
transformed to agricultural land by 2050. Additionally, Burney (2010, p.1) suggests that it's the
substantial GHG emissions from agricultural production combined to land use changes

What Is Hydraulic Fracking?
Introduction
This report describes the basic principles of hydraulic fracturing pumps, and the instrumentation
related to operate the process safely and successfully. Throughout the report, it will discuss different
types of pumps used, the control systems needed for ease of operation. Also, the hydraulic fracturing
process will be discussed.
The purpose of the report is to develop a full understanding of the devices and safety procedures in
use on a Hydraulic Fracturing site. Without these in place there is potential for damage to
equipment, the environment or to personal health. Years ago Hydraulic Fracturing sites did not have
the safety features used today, which created a much more harsh environment to work in.
Hydraulic fracturing ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is either flared on site. Flaring is the process where unwanted gasses are pumped up a stack and
burned creating other, less harmful gas. Cold venting is the alternative to flaring: it is where the gas
is vented to the atmosphere, depending on location and surroundings. In an area where houses are
nearby methane is normally burned off in a flare to produce a less poisonous gas, rather than venting
pure methane. When methane is released from the flow–back and flaring is not an option, it is
vented into the atmosphere. The methane is vented at a very high pressure in order to be lighter than
air; this allows the air to dilute the methane to below an explosive concentration. Methane has an
explosive limit of 5.0 percent by volume therefore without diluting it while venting an explosion
would occur. Venting of methane on a hydraulic fracturing site is not visible by the human eye,
although it does produce some noise. One of the radioactive constituents in flow–back water is
radium, a naturally occurring material. The Environmental Protection Agency has a set limit for
radium in drinking water and the amount found in samples taken from flow–back have exceeded
these limits by several hundreds. (Geochemical Evaluation of Flow–back Brine, n.d.). Throughout
the past fifty plus years researchers and environmentalists have determined the harmful effects of
chemicals produced in industry. Therefore, with

Methane Faults
Tectonic plates, giant masses of land that are moving constantly, create faults, where tectonic plates
meet. Scientists have discovered something new and extraordinary at these faults. They found that
the chemical compound , methane, a greenhouse gas, is being released through these faults called
brittle faults. Methane is moving to less shallow parts of the earth's crust or into the oceans
themselves. Although methane is known to be bad for the environment, scientists found out that they
can precisely date fault lines by examining the methane in the area. A special study called The
Nature Communications in Norway has precisely dated a fault line to 200 million years ago. By
using this method of dating, scientists could end up precisely dating

Methane Gas as an Alternative Source of Energy
The shortage of energy is already one of crucial issues in some areas and it is spreading steadily
across the globe. In addition, the vast majority of the consuming energy comes from nonrenewable
fossil fuels, such as oil, natural gas, and coal, which threaten the damage of environment that can
lead to the global warming. Therefore, it is required to find new renewable source of energy, which
can entirely ensure sustainable system and provide the population with environmentally friendly,
financially available and productive energy (Turner 1999). The methane gas (CH½) is the biogas
that is abundant in nature; it is also produced anaerobically by recycling the materials as wood
wastes, agricultural crops, municipal solid wastes, and wastes from food processing and aquatic
plants and most effectively by concentrated animal wastes (Bingemer and et al. 1987). The biogas is
widely adopted in many fields, such as heat and electricity production in industry, chemicals and
proteins emitter, manufacturing the vehicle fuel. In addition, the methane has a significant role in
agriculture; it is indispensable substance that can supply rural areas simultaneously with heat and
electricity (Holm–Nielsen and et al. 2009). This paper suggests the methane gas as an alternative
solution and evaluates the most proper area for opportunely utilizing it.
2. The properties of methane gas as a source of fuel.
2.1. The comparison of methane gas waste with coal. In order to prove that the

Methane Research Paper
Methane
1. Methane was first discovered by Alessandro Volta in 1778 while on summer vacation at Lake
Maggiore in Italy. He noticed large bubbles of gas coming to the surface from the stirred up
sediment of the lake, when he poked the muddy bottom of the water with a stick. He collected them
for further experimentation and discovered it was inflammable. He called it inflammable air from
marshlands [1].
Methane is created naturally near the Earth's surface by microorganisms by the process of
methanogenesis. It is produced in wetlands by the anaerobic bacterial decomposition of vegetable
matter under water. Other natural sources of methane include termites (as a result of their digestive
processes) [2], volcanoes, vents in the ocean floor, and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Stability: Chemically, methane is very stable and remains unaffected when treated with acids
(H2SO4, HNO3) and reagents like Potassium permanganate, Potassium dichromate. ii. Combustion:
Methane burns in excess of air or oxygen with a pale–blue nonluminous flame to give carbon
dioxide and water. As combustion reaction is highly exothermic (it gives out heat), methane is an
excellent source of fuel.
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
If the oxygen supply is restricted then the combustion methane undergoes incomplete (or partial)
combustion producing highly poisonous, carbon monoxide (CO) gas.
2CH4 + 3O2 → 2CO+ 4H2O iii. Substitution reactions: In a substitution reaction, one atom is
swapped with another atom. These are very useful reactions in the chemical industry because they
allow chemists to change one compound into something more useful, building up designer
molecules like drugs. Methane reacts with chlorine (or bromine) in the presence of sunlight or a
halogen–carrier to give haloalkene, in which one or more H–atoms are replaced by equal number of
halogen atoms.
CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl
CH3Cl + Cl2 → CH2Cl2 + HCl (dichloro methane)
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 → CHCl3 + HCl (chloroform)
CHCl3 + Cl2 → CCl4 + HCl (carbon tetra

Hydrate Research Paper
There is a never ending search for an effective source of energy that is both efficient and the safest
option to use. Scientists located in japan may have found a solution to this dilemma as they were
recently able to locate methane clathrate, more commonly known as fire ice. Despite the name
existing as an oxymoron, many believe this hydrate could prove to be the savior for the earth's fuel
problems. However, given current research this supposedly useful source of natural gas could prove
even more detrimental towards the environment than carbon dioxide. What must first be noted is
that methane clathrate is a solid hydrate compound. A hydrate is typically a crystalline compound in
which water molecules are chemically bound to another element. ... Show more content on
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Increase in temperature or a drop in pressure would cause it to dissociate rapidly, causing the ice to
melt allowing the release gas, which would cause problems not only towards global warming, but
also their solid existence makes them a source of support. With the release of gas the support would
be lost and cause landslides that would severely damage the production equipment and existing
pipelines. Not only that, but melting a single cubic meter block of this ice would release 160 cubic
meters of harmful methane, which is much worse than carbon dioxide ("Methane Hydrate", 2014).
Any form of retrieval technology used must be careful to capture all the gas, especially those found
in the Arctic, because if that reserve is lost, it would continually discharge gas for an unknown
amount of time, and as noted before any release of gas proves to be extremely detrimental (Niiler,
2013). However , not all hope is lost the dissociation of hydrates is endothermic, it uses, rather than
releases, so when the gas is produced the sediments would begin to cool, allowing for the slowing or
stopping of the dissociation which keeps the idea of using this as a very real

Methane Pollutions : Causes And Effects Of The Environment
Many scientists and researchers have become worried about the health of our Earth. With increasing
climate temperatures that can be noticed world–wide, scientists have been searching for a cause. It is
widely believed that greenhouse gases are responsible.These gases: water vapor, carbon dioxide, and
methane, to name few, become trapped in the atmosphere and work to absorb and emit radiation,
resulting in a rise in temperature. The most suspected causes: agriculture and livestock. It has been
said that agriculture is the biggest contributing factor of methane emissions within the United States.
Many people believe that the reduction of/ riddance of meat from the population's diet will supply
the change needed to save the Earth, however, this couldn't be farther from the truth. Humans should
continue to produce animal products, but become more mindful of the changes that are continually
made to the Earth and the impact it has on other species. How can we influence change? Changing
our methane emissions will not change the emissions of other countries. Yes, the United States
produces more pollution than any other country, but strictly speaking about methane emissions,
developing countries' livestock related greenhouse gas emissions account for seventy five percent of
the global emissions from cattle and other ruminants (Walsh). This means that if the US completely
cut out its meat productions, methane emissions would drop by less than twenty five percent. When
the US begins

Why The Coalbed Methane
More countries in the world extract the methane from coal beds and today it is established in a
number of countries throughout the world, including the USA, Australia, China, India and Canada.
The advantage of the coal is almost pure carbon and its reservoir character is fundamentally
different to conventional gas plays.
The Coalbed methane refers to methane that is produced in association with coal, and CBM reserves
are located wherever large deposits of coal are found. CBM is formed through organic
decomposition, and it adheres to the many surfaces of the coal until it is released through natural or
man–made processes. This "unconventional" energy resource has both similar and unique challenges
to those in conventional oil and gas production.

Methane Hydrate: The Main Cause Of Global Warming
Global warming is the common term used to describe a gradual increase in the average temperature
of the Earth's atmosphere and its oceans, generally attributed to the greenhouse effect caused by
increased levels of carbon dioxide, and other pollutants, (Oxford Dictionaries, 2015). This is a
change that is strongly believed to be permanently changing the Earth's climate and therefore,
becoming a serious threat for the planet. The majority of climate scientists agree the main cause of
the recent temperature increase is primarily due to the significant human expansion of the
"greenhouse effect" –warming that results when the atmosphere traps heat radiating from Earth
toward space. Certain gases in the atmosphere block heat from escaping, (IPCC, 2007). However,
some scientists are beginning to argue that the biggest threat to global warming is not only from the
behaviours of humans but also significantly due to methane clathrates also known as methane
hydrates. A methane hydrate is a solid clathrate compound in which a large amount of methane is
trapped within a crystal structure of water, forming a solid like ice. (U.S. Geological Survey, 2009).
Methane hydrates were previously thought to only occur only in the Solar System, where
temperatures are much colder, however, significant deposits of methane hydrates have been found
under Earth's ocean floors, (Hoffmann, 2006). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Therefore, this essay will explore the hidden threat of methane hydrates as a significant contribution
to future global warming by examining in depth the structure of methane hydrates and why this is
crucial to the specific factors that determine the stability of methane hydrates and what
environmental changes are necessary to destabilise this as well as their past and future threats to
global

A Carbon Based Fuels And Uses Essay
Part A Carbon Based Fuels and Uses A carbon based fuel is any type of fuel thats energy is derived
from the burning of carbon or the oxidation of it. There are two main types of carbon based fuels,
Fossil fuels such as coal and Natural gas or Bio Fuels e.g Bioethanol. Bio fuels are procured from
recent–growth of organic matter, the matter is harvested from crops or the cutting down of fast
growing trees and proceed into biofuels. Fossil fuels are from a prehistoric basis which the organic
matter has been subject to high pressure under the ground which has compressed it and turned the
matter into Coal and cried oil which can be later turned into petrols and propane via the process of
fractional distillation.
Coal;
Physical Properties
Colour; Coal is a non toxic solid found naturally in ground. It has black colour because of the
carbon in it. Coal is mainly a mix of carbon, water, some hydrogen, and oxygen. There are many
different kinds of coal. As well as the Hydrogen and Oxygen in coal, it contains some small amounts
of nitrogen, sulphur, and some other minerals. These are called impurities, the quality of the coal is
determined by the % of carbon in the coal the lower percentage means there are more impurities in
the coal.
Combustion Reactions/Chemical Properties
C + O2 → CO2 + Energy
Complete combustion usually occurs with CO2 as a byproduct for every 1kg coal burnt 3700g aprox
of CO2 gas produced. When burning, N2 and S2 gas are also produced because of the

Banana Peel as a Potential Methane Gas
Introduction To recycle is the new trend in our society now a–days. Even foods are being
transformed into a new object so that it wouldn't just go to waste. A large amount of our population
in the present time is experiencing the effects of poverty as well in shortage. A group of researchers,
observed this common problem in the society. The researchers wanted to unveil an experiment that
was long forgotten by the society. The study is about methane gas that was produced by using a raw
product, Banana peels. The researchers discussed this experiment because the researchers observed
that many people are complaining to the government about the price hike of the gasses. The
researcher's objective is to strengthen this study and to give the ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
One example is the use of banana peelings, commonly referred to as banachakol (banana charcoal),
to make charcoal briquettes. The following program features an interview with a woman from a
group of community workers known as Bakyala Tweyune ("Women in self–help"), who describes
the advantages of banachakol, and the production process for the briquettes." 2005 October, Package
76, Script 5, Radio Scripts: An alternative fuel source: Make charcoal briquettes from banana peels
http://www.farmradio.org/english/radio–scripts/76–5script_en.asp
"Genetic engineering has already enriched our produce aisles with such wonders as the seedless
watermelon and herbicide–resistant soybeans. Now, according to a study published this month in
Nature Biotechnology , a team of plant geneticists at the University of California at Berkeley has
come up with an alternative to organic produce: more banana peels."
Lamb Robert, 2009 April1. Goodbye Organic Produce, Hello Banana Peels
http://blogs.howstuffworks.com/2009/04/01/goodbye–organic–produce–hello–banana–peels/ "SRI
researchers have shown that in a single step, they can take pulverized coal –– or anything else that
contains carbon, including human waste or banana peels, for example –– and directly transform the
fuel 's chemical energy into electricity by electrochemically oxidizing the carbon.The byproduct is
carbon dioxide –– but it is emitted in such a pure form, Dubois said, that it 's easy

A Experiment On The Methane Rocket Essay
The practical which I have chosen will be the methane rocket. In order to test this experiment I must
have the correct equipment and follow the method correctly. The equipment and chemicals for this
will be:  Goggles for eye protection  Ear defenders  A rubber bung for the bottle to fit in.  A
soft drink bottle capacity between 300cm3 and 500cm3 (Coca–Cola 0.5L bottle).  A measuring
cylinder.  Rubber tubing for the gas tap to fit into.  Gases (such as oxygen and methane, these
are the reagents for the experiment).  School text book  Protective gloves  A wooden splint 
Matches/lighter The method for this experiment is as follows: 1. First fill the plastic bottle with
water then pour the water into a measuring cylinder in order to calculate its volume. 2. Then pour
1/3 of the bottle's volume of water back into the bottle and mark out the level of it with a pen. (It's
important to only use the bottle once in the experiment as it can be weakened by the explosion and
can be dangerous if used again). 3. Then fill the bottle completely and invert in a washing up bowl
of water. 4. Place one end of the rubber tube that's connected to the gas tap which is placed under the
neck of the bottle and fill the bottle up to the level you marked out with Methane from the gas tap.
Then start to fill the bottle up with oxygen. The bottle should contain a 2:1 ratio mixture of oxygen
and methane by the volume. 5. Stop the bottle with the rubber bung and place it on the launch–pad

Methane Emissions In The Obama Administration
Officials in the Obama administration are nearly ready to unveil their unprecedented regulation of
the oil and gas industries by ordering the reduction of methane emissions in the United States by 40
to 45 percent within the next ten years. Such a drastic alteration would significantly change how
natural gas is produced and consumed and transform the entire electric industry in the country,
potentially shifting its reliance on fossil fuels to renewable sources of energy. Though methane
constitutes only nine percent of emissions, far less than carbon dioxide, it has over twenty times the
effect toward global warming as carbon dioxide has and is therefore important to regulate. Also, the
Obama administration has initiated reductions in emission

Cause And Effect Of Climate Change
Causes and Effects of Climate Change Climate change is one of the most underrated and
controversial, yet serious environmental issues in today's time. Despite what some may believe,
there has been a vast amount of scientific evidence to support that climate change is occurring and
human activity is the main source of it. Many factors (both anthropogenic and natural) contribute to
climate change. However, the main cause is anthropogenic; greenhouse gas emissions. Three
common practices that release greenhouse gases include the combustion of fossil fuels used in cars,
methane released from landfills, and deforestation.
Out of the abundance of greenhouse gases that can contribute to climate change, the highest amount
comes from carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide emissions result from the burning of fossil fuels often
used in cars. This contributes to the greenhouse effect which leads to the warming of the Earth. The
Earth Science Communications Team states, "A stronger greenhouse effect will warm the oceans
and partially melt glaciers and other ice, increasing sea level." As the ocean's temperatures start to
increase, populations of organisms that inhabit them will begin to decrease. Increased sea levels can
lead to serious problems as well, such as destroyed homes and businesses, ruined crops and
vegetation, contaminated water, and the deaths of people and animals. However, there are certain
cases where carbon dioxide emissions can be beneficial. They can cause plants to grow

Air Pollution and Acid Rain
Air pollution is the release of carbon dioxide, methane, and many other chemicals that can affect
breathing quality. Smog is a common visible form of this. Smog is a fog combined with harmful
chemicals. An especially harmful chemical is sulfur dioxide. It is commonly associated with acid
rain, as are many chemicals similar to it.
Acid rain is the deposited material of the atmosphere such as sulfuric and nitric acid. The acid rain
usually contains higher amounts of these chemicals therefore making it dangerous. Acid rain can
ruin life in forests, lakes and many other places because of these acids, because they can not be
respirated. Some of these can come from natural sources such as volcanoes or vegetation, but is
commonly created by humans in examples such as emissions from fossil fuels, and therefore
releasing emissions commonly of sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides. In the United States, most of
the emissions that can lead to acid rain are from electrical power plants which burn coal or other
fossil fuels. These emissions can be blown hundreds of miles into the air and across the country and
when it comes down, it comes down as acid rain.
The vast majority of air pollution is caused by humans. Manufacturing, building, and driving
releases gases which cause trouble breathing. Many manufacturers haven't done anything about it.
The exhaust from factories is filled with chemicals and many things bad for the air. Many oxides are
included in the exhaust, including carbon,

Methane Vaccination
Vaccination as a Strategy for Ruminal Methane Mitigation
Abstract
As global warming becomes an imminent issue, more importance is being placed on the role of
methane in this process. Methane (CH4) is produced in the rumen of livestock such as cattle by a
variety of methane producing archaea (methanogens), with Methanobrevibacter being a prevailing
genus and thus frequent target in vaccine development. While agricultural methane reduction
strategies have largely focused on altering livestock diet, the successful vaccination of animals
against Lactobacillus spp. and Streptococcus bovis has provided inspiration in the development of
an anti–methanogen vaccine for use in ruminants (Shu et. al., 1999). This paper will explore the
potential for methanogen vaccination through the evaluation of two promising vaccine studies
against Methanobrevibacter ruminantium.
Introduction
Benefits of reducing methane While carbon dioxide continues to be the leading contributor to global
warming, methane is estimated to be at least 25 times more potent than carbon dioxide (CO2), and
its emissions have been increasing at roughly 6 parts per billion per year since 2006 (Nisbet et. al.,
2014). Livestock produces 80 million tons of CH4 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
al., 2010). Groups of sheep were vaccinated with whole cells of M. ruminantium M1, cell wall
fraction, cytoplasmic fraction, or cell wall derived proteins. The vaccine composed of whole cells
contained 108 cells, while each protein vaccine contained 0.1 mg protein. Each sheep was then
subsequently injected in the neck with an antigenic preparation and an adjuvant. Both serum and
saliva were collected prior to vaccination, as well as 2 weeks after re–vaccination in newborn and 9–
11 month old lambs. ELISA was then used to measure antibodies present in the sera and

A Global Warning About Global Warming
James Winning
Professor Hoverman
SOCY 100
26 September 2014
A Global Warning About Global Warming
Global Warning did not really matter to me until the summer of 2014. Before then global warning
was just this thing that you would hear on the news or read in the newspaper. This idea did not have
much meaning to be because it did not impact my everyday life. One day I began to hear about a
Twitter message going viral. The message was from a climatologist named Jason Box and it read, "
If even a small fraction of Arctic sea floor carbon is released to the atmosphere, we're f'd." It is
alarming to hear a scientist drop the f bomb. If Jason Box was going for shock factor, it worked
because after reading that I thought, maybe this is more serious then we are taking it for. I began
researching global warming and the data and the numbers and the consequences are horrifying. I
began to ask myself why? Why is this being overlooked? This is happening and it feels like we are
doing nothing about it. Why? Why is this important? We live on this planet Earth and while it may
be that us as individuals will come and go there will be parts of use that remain. One of these parts is
call a Carbon Footprint. A Carbon Footprint is "the amount of greenhouse gases and specifically
carbon dioxide emitted by something during a given period."(Merriam–Webster). You can think of a
Carbon Footprint like a diet. You can tell people that dieting is healthy and tell them all the benefits
of dieting but

Humans Are Responsible For Global Warming
Son T. Chau
Professor Hansen
ENGWR 302
November 1, 2016
First Draft
Humans are Responsible for Global Warming
On November 8th, American citizens will go to the polls and vote for the next president of the
United States. During the presidential campaign, both candidates, Hillary Clinton and Donald
Trump, have their own different points of view on environmental issues. Hillary Clinton affirms her
commitment to the fight against climate change. She supports the Paris Agreement, which is an
agreement among many nations to respond to the threat of global warming and to reverse the worst
effects of climate change. Donald Trump, by contrast, does not believe that the shift in the climate is
a manmade disaster. He claims that global warming just is a hoax and current global warming is just
a part of a natural cycle that is naturally occurring. Donald Trump, then, promises to dismantle the
agreement if he becomes the U.S. President. It is important to note that many people and scientists
share this same belief with Trump, protesting that global warming is a natural phenomenon. The
debate between Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump raises an important issue. Are people primary
responsible for global warming? Global warming is due to many reasons; specifically, human
activities are the major factors causing the planet to get gradually warmer over time.
Human activities are raising the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. In today 's
world, energy is very important because

Methane Hydrate Formation

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