Ijmet 10 02_023

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International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology (IJMET)
Volume 10, Issue 02, February 2019, pp. 198-212, Article ID: IJMET_10_02_023
Available online at http://www.iaeme.com/ijmet/issues.asp?JType=IJMET&VType=10&IType=2
ISSN Print: 0976-6340 and ISSN Online: 0976-6359
© IAEME Publication Scopus Indexed
POTENTIAL OF COTTON SEED OIL AND RICE
BRAN OIL AS A RENEWABLE ENERGY
SOURCE IN INDIA
K.Sundar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Birla Institute of Technology and Science, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus.
R.Udayakumar
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Birla Institute of Technology and Science, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus.
ABSTRACT
The transportation, agricultural and power sector of India is largely dependent on
fossil fuels that decrease day by day. The government has to import large volumes of
fuel from foreign sources to meet the fuel demand for power production, causing a
negative impact on the country’s economy. Biodiesel can thus be a destined source to
future energy demands. Increasing the usage of biodiesel will also decrease the global
problem of environmental pollution, as fossil fuels are considered to be the major
source of harmful emissions. In a developing country like India this is not practically
feasible to divert the edible oil for production of Biodiesel as the edible oil demand for
human consumption is always higher than its domestic production. Under Indian
climatic conditions only few plant sources can be considered for biodiesel production
which produces non-edible oil in greater quantity and can be cultivated at large scale
on non-cropped marginal and wastelands. In this study the available potential of
cotton seed oil and rice bran oil biodiesel feed stocks, comparison of cost analysis are
discussed. Producing biodiesel from cotton seed oil and rice bran oil feed stocks is
greatly possible, cost-effectiveness and availability of biodiesel needs to be carried out
to help ensure that biodiesel will be able to fully replace fossil fuel and can thus assist
in future energy needs
Keywords: Biodiesel, cottonseed oil, rice bran oil, transesterification.
Cite this Article: K.Sundar and R.Udayakumar, Potential of Cotton Seed Oil And
Rice Bran Oil as a Renewable Energy Source an India, International Journal of
Mechanical Engineering and Technology, 10(2), 2019, pp. 198-212.
http://www.iaeme.com/IJMET/issues.asp?JType=IJMET&VType=10&IType=2

K.Sundar and R.Udayakumar
1. INTRODUCTION
The developing natural burdens and decreasing of fossil fuels have made renewable energy as
an important alternative energy source for the forthcoming generation [1]. For diesel engines
biodiesel is considered to be the promising alternative resources. Biodiesel is also described
as the mono-alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids which are extracted from vegetable oils or
animal fats and alcohol with or without a catalyst. It has its own features such as renewable,
biodegradable, environmentally friendly, non-toxic, portable, and readily available eco-
friendly fuel [2]. For the production of biodiesel there are various feed stocks. The
transportation sector plays a vital role in the economic development, whereas the usage of
energy has also increased by an average of 1.1 % per year [3]. For the transportation sector,
energy demand in Association of South East Asian Nations increases at a rate of 2.7% per
year [4]. The developing countries like India and China has led to an aggressive increase in
the usage of global energy consumption. Increase in the energy prices and its insecurity will
significantly led India to face energy shortages in the next few decades. In the world India is
one of the fastest growing economies and energy will be the greatest threat for socio-
economic development. The objectives of the economic growth mainly spotlight on the,
equity and human well-being. India’s energy security would remain unsafe until a substitute
for the petrol/diesel based fuels are developed based on the production of natural renewable
feed stocks. India is going to be strong in the development of energy infrastructure, which
leads a huge opportunity for lying ahead in the field of renewable energy. Green energy
revolution will not only help in saving money and sustain global economic development, but
also facilitate to deal with the disaster of climate change. By the year 2017 Ministry of new
and renewable Energy have been targets a 20% blending of biofuels such as bio-ethanol and
biodiesel with the fossil-derived mineral fuel [5, 13]. The major researchers drive attention
and mainly focused on biodiesel as a renewable energy resource as it is well known for its
immense potential that is considered to be a part of a sustainable energy mix in the near
future. Biodiesel has various features to be utilized as a successful as an alternative to diesel
fuel in compression ignition engines [6]. Resources such as edible and non-edible vegetable
oils, waste cooking oils, and animal fats are used to produce biodiesel [7].Vegetable oil is the
potential renewable resources that is available in India. Fuel from this oil reduces the
pollution than the diesel fuel [8].
In current situation, the first generation technologies: the global bio fuel market utilizes
this technology and it mainly depends on the agricultural food or feed crops for biodiesel
feedstock. Vegetable oil is the main component in the process of biodiesel production.
Vegetable oils are alternative, renewable and a potential source of energy content near to
diesel fuel Soybean and rapeseed are common biodiesel feedstock in USA and Europe. Like
other countries palm is being extensively used in South East Asia. The estimation on the
usage of the edible oil proves that, edible oils are used for biodiesel production will not be
sufficient for meeting fuel demand [9]. The usefulness of the conventional biodiesel depends
on the feedstock, transportation, the price of crude oil and other factors [10]. The cost for the
production of biodiesel depends on the 60%-75% of the raw material expenses. [11].
Depending the agricultural practices and geographical locations thee feed stock for biodiesel
can be different from one country to another. [12]. Production cost of biodiesel relies on the
selection of the best feedstock. Numerous non edible oils are used in production of biodiesel
such as neem, pongamia, jatropha, karanja, Cotton seed oil and Rice bran oil as well as animal
fats and waste cooking oil. In India the primary objective is to reduce the country’s
dependency on the imported crude oil to meet the energy demand by increasing its
productivity naturally. The rapid change in the climate condition has led India in promoting

Potential of Cotton Seed Oil And Rice Bran Oil as a Renewable Energy Source an India
the biofuels which leads to the environmental development and to generate employment
opportunities.
1.1. Research objective
During the past decade biodiesel has contributed the major alternative fuel that is to be
attracted by the world. The main drawback to commercialize the biodiesel is the high cost of
raw materials used for the production. Non edible seed and oil and its less cost, is the major
source of vegetable oil. From this background, the aim of this paper is to present the potential
of non-edible vegetable oils for biodiesel production that can replace the current dependence
on the edible oil resources worldwide. These aspects includes overview of Cotton seed oil and
Rice bran oils advantages, problems in exploitation, potential , cost analysis , annual
production , properties and technologies of biodiesel production from non-edible oils. The
price of the biodiesel is to be reduced by opting cotton seed oil and rice brain oil as the major
source.
2. NON-EDIBLE VEGETABLE OILS RESOURCES
Globally it is estimated that 84% of biodiesel production depends on the rapeseed oil, which
is considered to be the edible oil. Similarly other edible oils such as sun flower oil, palm oil
and soybean oil also contribute essentially [14]. Yet, to avoid the overwhelming situation and
to minimize food shortages, researches have driven their focus towards the production of
biodiesel from non-edible feed stocks. Non edible oil that is produced from the evergreen
trees can be cultivated in the land not suitable for the agriculture. Recently the demand of
biodiesel has been increased. In order to meet the demands, edible oils alone are not suitable
due to the reasons stated earlier. In this situation the only option is to consider the feed stocks
which are non-edible and produce oil in appreciable quantity. There are various potential feed
stocks available for production of biodiesel. The use of edible vegetable oils such as feed
stocks has been decreased as they will result in food scarcity, especially in the developing
countries and also leads to the other environmental problems by utilizing the agricultural land.
This problem leads to create a serious ecological imbalance as countries around the world
began cutting down forests for plantation purposes. Hence, use of these feed- stocks could
cause deforestation and damages to the wildlife. This major issues leads, non-edible vegetable
oils which are meant to be the second generation feed stocks have become more attractive for
production. These feed stocks are very auspicious for the sustainable production of biodiesel.
The low inputs on the marginal lands identifies a high biomass yielding perennial non-food
feed stocks and it recommended by the Government of India. To rehabilitate the waste lands
this feed stocks provides an excellent offer opportunity. The soil type and the oil yield are the
key factor to decide the suitability of a feedstock for biodiesel production. In the biodiesel
industry production cost reduces by yielding the crops higher oil.
Due to the presence of non-toxic components in the non-edible vegetable oils it is not
suitable for human food [2]. The problems of food verse fuel, environmental and economic
issues related to edible vegetable oil can overcome by the more usage of non-edible oils.
[15]. An large unproductive and lands that are located in poverty- stricken areas and in
degraded forests are moreover used in growing non-edible biodiesel crops. The non-edible
corps also can be cultivated in the field boundaries, uncultivated lands, and in public land
such as along railways, roads and irrigation canals. All of these advantages have a great
impact on the sustainability of biodiesel production. Many researchers have recommended
non-edible oils to be a sustainable alternative to edible oils for biodiesel production [17]. As
these crops do not compete with food, seed cake after oil expelling may be used as fertilizer
for soil enrichment [16]. Several potential tree borne oil seeds and non-edible crop source

have been identified as suitable feedstock for biodiesel. The use of non-edible oils for
biodiesel production solves the food-versus-fuel concern and other issues [15]. Biodiesel
development from non-edible oil can become a major poverty easing program for the rural
poor apart from providing energy security for the masses. The rural non-farm sector can be
upgrade by this development and help in the sustainable biodiesel production. The potential of
all these species can be exploited, depending on their techno economic viability for
production of biofuels. There are various sources of non-edible oils that are obtained from
different plants such as Jatropha curcas , Pongamia pinnata , castor, sea mango, rubber tree,
polanga, jojoba, mahua, Thevettia peruviana, cotton seed oil and rice bran oil etc. Compare to
the edible oil non edible oils are available in many parts of India and it is very low cost [18].
Various oil bearing more than 300 plant species in India reveals various species that are
unutilized and have the potential to be used as raw materials for biofuel production. In that 37
species were found to be suitable for biodiesel development as they could meet norms of
internationally accepted ASTM standards [16, 19].
In most of the Asian countries the country’s main agricultural product and new business
opportunities focus mainly on the bio fuel strategies. Form the policies of Association of
South East Asian Nations countries it can be easily comprehended that, they are mainly
depend on export rather than utilization in their own countries and less concern about
environment. All these countries pay heavy subsidies on petroleum transport fuel which are
imported. On the other hand, to commercialize self-produced bio-fuel they need to pay more
subsidies as bio-fuel price is still a bit higher [20]. Table 1 shows the promotion of biodiesel
feed stocks in various countries in the world. Table 2 shows the Non-edible vegetable oils
production countries.
Table 1 Promotion of biodiesel feed stocks in various countries in the world [21-23]
Countries Feedstock
India Jatropha
U.S.A Corn, and soybean oil
EU Rapeseed and sunflower,
Australia Palm oil and cotton seed
China Corn, Jatropha and Rice bran oil
Japan Rice bran oil
Canada Corn
Brazil Soybean and palm oil
Table 2 Non-edible vegetable oils production countries [24]
Oil crops Production/origin country
Cotton seed China, India
Jatropha China, India, Philippine, Thailand, Indonesia
Jojoba USA
Karanja South Asia
Linseed Canada, China, Russia
Mahua India
Neem South Asia

2.1. Benefits of non-edible oils
In the basic examination of various non-edible oil seed crops it has shown that its, growth,
feedstock, and adaptability are the major advantage. [2].
1. The flexibility on growing non-edible oil feed stocks in marginal land and non-
agricultural areas with low fertility.
2. Non edible crops can be cultivated in arid zones as well as in higher rainfall zones and
even on land with their soil cover.
3. This crops cultivation creates rural employment generation and they have huge
potentiality to restore degraded lands.
4. The existing agricultural resources are not been compete.
5. The Non-edible oil crops are not suitable for human food due to the presence of some
toxic components in the oils.
6. Compare to the first generation stocks they are more efficient and more
environmentally friendly.
7. This crops occupy less farmland and it lead to cultivation of mixture crops in the
same. Non-edible oil crops can be grown in poor and wastelands that are not suitable
for food crops.
8. During the conversion process the non-edible feedstock produce useful by-products,
The produced by products can be used in other chemical processes or burned for heat
and power generation.
9. Most of non-edible oils are highly pest and disease resistant.
10. The main advantages of non-edible oil are their liquid nature portability, ready
availability, renewability, higher heat content, lower sulfur content, lower aromatic
content and biodegradability.
11. Non-edible oil plants are well adapted to arid, semi-arid conditions and require low
fertility and moisture demand to grow [30].
12. The cultivation of oil crops, in general, not needed more labor-intensive and thus these
crops can be managed in labor scarce areas. Their cultivation is very economical and
remunerative, and thus, helps in improving the socio-economic status of the farmers.
2.2. Limitation in exploitation of non-edible oils
Non edible oil seed development is known as a alternative biodiesel feedstock in the
transportation sector. It is critical towards achieving higher self-reliance energy security. For
both economic and environmental benefits, this situation offers a challenge as well as an
opportunity to look for replacement of fossil fuels. Under the existing situation of non-edible
oils being of forest origin, the problems encountered are:
1. Improper marketing strategy, limited time of availability and non – availability of
quality planting material or seed.
2. Most of the non-edible oil cultivators have marginal land with little money to invest
on the various inputs. Non-edible oil seed crops are grown mostly under poor crop
management resulting in low yields.
3. Due to the poor economic condition of the farmers the full benefit of the improved
production technology cannot be availed by them for the non-edible oil crop
production.
4. Inadequate production and timely supply, storage and marketing of oilseeds are also
responsible for low output of oilseeds.

3. FOOD VS. FUEL
The deviation of farm land for biodiesel leads to the short fall in food grains in the world. The
main reason for the increase in price of the food security and food cost mainly relies on the
food crops, which utilizes more land and water. Oil crops are ineffective to provide higher
volume of biodiesel that to displace fossil fuel. The biodiesel extracted from the edible oil is
not cost effective. Approximately 70%-90% cost increases as the cost of raw materials
involved in the production increase which is the major drawback for commercializing the
biodiesel [25]. Therefore, biodiesel produced from edible vegetable oils is currently not
economically feasible. Non-edible oil plants are easily available in developing countries and
are very economical comparable to edible plant oils. Over the last few years the production of
biodiesel from different non-edible oilseed crops has been extensively examined. The more
usage of edible oils results to more significant problems such as starvation in developing
countries. Using edible oils to produce biodiesel raises major nutritional and ethical concerns.
In the year 2012 about 13% of global vegetable oil supplies were used for biodiesel
production. World annual petroleum consumption and vegetable oil production is about 4.018
and 0.107 billion tons, respectively [26]. In the long term there are concerns that biodiesel
feedstock may compete with food supply [27]. Compare to the edible plant oil with non-
edible oil plants, the edible oil is very significant, leads to food scarcity and also too
expensive to be used as the fuel at present economic situation. Biodiesel produced from non-
edible vegetable oil has good potential as an alternative diesel fuel. [28]. The waste lands are
used for growing non edible oil plants that are not suitable for food crops and the cost of
cultivation is much lower because these plants can still sustain reasonably high yield without
intensive care [29].
4. BIODIESEL
Biodiesel is a clean burning combustible and renewable fuel for compression ignition engines
[31This is because its primary components are domestic renewable resources such as
vegetable oil and animal fats consisting of long-chain alkyl esters. Vegetable oil methyl
esters, commonly referred to as ‘‘biodiesel,” are prominent candidates as alternative diesel
fuels [32]. Vegetable oils for making biodiesel due to its less polluting and renewable nature
as against the conventional diesel [33]. Biodiesel is technically competitive with or offer
technical advantages compared to conventional petroleum diesel fuel. The vegetable oils can
be converted to their methyl esters via transesterification process in the presence of catalyst.
Methyl, ethyl esters were prepared from vegetable oils through transesterification using
potassium and/or sodium alkoxides as catalysts. The viscosity of the oil is reduced by the
transesterification process. Initially, this process is potentially a less expensive way of
transforming the large, branched molecular structure of the bio-oils into smaller, straight-
chain molecules of the type required in regular diesel combustion engines. The biodiesel
produce low power and higher fuel consumption than diesel. Biodiesel has a good quality like
sulfur content, flash point, aromatic content and biodegradability than diesel [34]. The cost of
biodiesels varies depending on the base stock, geographic area, variability in crop production
from season to season, the price of the crude petroleum and other factors. Biodiesel has over
double the price of petroleum diesel [35]. Vegetable oils can be used as fuels for diesel
engines, but their viscosities are much higher than usual diesel fuel and require modifications
of the engines. If the biodiesel valorized efficiently at energy purpose, so would be benefit for
the environment and the local population, job creation, provision of modern energy carriers to
rural communities, avoid urban migration and reduction of CO2 and sulfur levels in the
atmosphere.

4.1. Method of biodiesel production from non-edible oils
The viscosity is the main barrier that prevents the use of direct vegetable oils in conventional
diesel engines [21]. To overcome this barrier there are many techniques, methods and
processes that have been used recently to produce biodiesel from various non-edible feed
stocks. These methods include pyrolysis, micro emulsification, dilution, and
transesterification. The following section will give a brief summary of these technologies.
4.1.1. Pyrolysis (Thermal cracking)
Pryolysis is defined as the transformation of one substance into another due to heat using a
catalyst. Pyrolysis is the thermal conversion of the organic matters in the absence of oxygen
and in presence of a catalyst. The paralyzed material can be vegetable oils, animal fats,
natural fatty acids or methyl esters of fatty acids. In pyrolysis, the high molecular materials
are heated to high temperatures, so their macromolecular structures are broken down into
smaller molecules and a wide range of hydrocarbons are formed [36]. The pyrolyzed
vegetable oils contain acceptable amounts of sulfur, water content, copper corrosion values
and sediments but unacceptable ash, carbon residual and pour point [11]. The pyrolysis
process can be divided into three subclasses which are conventional pyrolysis, fast pyrolysis
and flash pyrolysis depending on the operating conditions.
4.1.2. Micro-emulsification
Micro emulsions using solvents have been examined to resolve the difficulty of the high
viscosity, [37]. Micro emulsion can be made of vegetable oils with an ester and dispersant.
Micro-emulsification has been considered as a reliable approach to solve the problem of the
high viscosity of vegetable oils [38].
4.1.3. Dilution
Non-edible oil can be diluted with diesel to reduce the viscosity and improve the performance
of the engine. This method does not require any chemical process [39]. It has been reported
that substitution of 100% vegetable oil for diesel fuel is not practical. Therefore, blending of
20–25% vegetable oil to diesel has been considered to give good results for diesel engine
[40].
4.1.4. Transesterification (Alcoholysis)
Transesterification is the procedure of swapping the alkoxy group of an ester compound by
alcohol when the reaction is frequently catalyzed by an acid or base [37]. Transesterification
or alcoholysis is defined as the chemical reaction of alcohol with vegetable oils. In this
reaction, methanol and ethanol are the most commonly used alcohols because of their low
cost and availability. This reaction has been widely used to reduce the viscosity of vegetable
oil and conversion of the triglycerides into ester.
5. POTENTIAL OF VARIOUS BIODIESEL FEED STOCKS IN INDIA
India is inefficient, as the edible oil cultivation mainly depends upon the import of other
vegetable oils like palm oil to meet their domestic demand. Usage of non-edible oil from trees
and forest source do not relate with the food security. In India every year 1.2 million tons of
tree borne edible oil seeds are been produced [41]. In India biodiesel are mainly produced
from non-edible oil seeds of plants like Jatropha, Pongamia, Mahua, Neem, Cotton seed oil,
Rice bran oil etc. The major non edible oils are Jatropha and Pongamia [42]. Many research
works are being conducted on biodiesel production from Jatropha oil in countries like India,
Malaysia and Indonesia [43]. Cotton seed oil and Rice bran oil is not yet exploited. Non

edible crops are planted all over the world. The main resource for biodiesel production from
non-edible oils are Jatropha, cotton seed oil, rice bran oil, mahua seed oil [44]. Some of other
feed stocks that is used is fish oil, and used cooking oil to an very less extent. Therefore the
target needs to deviates to the non-edible oilseed plants available in India. Potential of non-
edible oil plants in India are shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Potential non edible oilseed plants in India [45]
Botanical name
Common
name
Potential
(metric tons/annum)
Oil (%)
Cyanobacteria Algae 157.4–629.8 20–40
Ricinus communis Castor 790,000 46–55
Gossypium hirsutum Cotton 851,000 18–25
Pongamia pinnata Karanja 2,00,000 30–40
Linum Usitatissimum L Linseed 150,000 35–45
Madhuca indica Mahua 5,20,000 35–40
Azadirachta indica Neem 5,00,000 35-45
Oryza sativa Rice bran 474,000 16–32
Cotton seed oil and rice bran oil has exposed a new road ahead that can be a promising
factor for sustainable feedstock for biodiesel production in the recent research and
development. The production of oil seeds, percentage oil recovery and their cost are given in
table 4 and table 5. Insecure supplies and subsequent cost increases of non-renewable fuels in
the market are serious issues and economic threat for developing countries like India.
Amongst the different non edible oil seed crops, Cotton and Rice plant is considered as the
sole source that can meet the growing demand of biodiesel in India. The cotton seed oil and
rice bran oil is studies in the current paper due to their high productivity.
Table 4 Production of Oil Seeds in 2002-2003 in the World and India [46]
Oilseed
World
Production
(Million
Tonnes)
World
Production
(Million
Tonnes)
Oil
Availability
(Million
Tonnes)
Recovery
(%)
Soya bean 123.2 4.3 0.63 17
Cottonseed 34.3 4.6 0.39 11
Groundnut 19.3 4.6 0.73 40
Sunflower 25.2 1.32 0.46 35
Rapeseed 34.7 4.3 1.37 33
Coconut 4.9 0.65 0.42 65
Rice bran NA NA 0.6 15

Table 5 Cost of Oil Seeds in 2002-2003 in India [46]
Oilseed
Oil Cost (Rupees
/ Quintal)
Soya bean 4300
Cottonseed 3200
Groundnut 6200
Sunflower 5360
Rapeseed 5167
Coconut 3035
Rice bran 2000
6. COTTON SEED OIL AND RICE BRAN OIL ARE EMERGING
FEEDSTOCK FOR BIODIESEL PRODUCTION
6.1. Cotton seed oil
Cotton seed oil is the vegetable oil extracted from the seeds of the cotton plant after the lint
has been removed. It contains high levels of saturated fat and pesticide residue as well, hence,
it is not considered as healthy for human consumption [47]. Cottonseed oil is non-edible oil,
so the food versus fuel conflict will not arise if this is used for biodiesel production [48].
Cottonseed is a by-product of cotton ginning, and 16–17% of its weight is cottonseed oil.
Around the world 70 countries cultivates cotton. Producing of cotton is a dual-purpose crop
for both seed and fiber, and this gives valuable primary products for agriculture. India has a
capacity to make enough vegetable oil to meet its non-edible oil demand and also for
biodiesel production. Though there are various vegetable oils are available, but not much
research work has been carried out on cotton seed oil. 3 million tonnes of cotton seed oil is
been produced in every year in India. Major states in India like Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka
cultivates cotton.and they are dominant producer for the cotton seed [49]. In India the most
important commercial crop is cotton. In India cotton is been cultivated in the temperature of
25-35 degree Celsius. Cotton is the major crop which will provides job to 6 million farmers
and 40-50 million people for cultivation and processing. The biodiesel produce from this crop
is to be economic so it result the researchers to cultivate in large scale [50]. The production of
oilseeds in the year 2011-12 is shown in the Table 6. From the table it is evident that, India
the second largest country to produce the cotton and cotton seed oil. China is the largest
producer of cotton with 6640.59 Metric Ton of cotton whereas India comes second with
5530.19 Metric ton of cotton.
Table 6 Annual Productions (Metric Ton) of Cotton and Cotton seed oil in the World in 2011-12 [51]
Country Cotton Cotton seed oil
China 6640.59 302.41
India 5530.19 250.38
United States 3941.68 115.39
Pakistan 3262.59 82.08
Brazil 1860.65 48.11
Australia 914.44 23.94
Uzbekistan 892.66 161.76

6.1.1. Botanical Features
The botanical name of cotton seed plant is G. hirsutum and Gossypium herbaceum. The
cotton seed has a similar arrangement of other vegetable oil seeds like sunflower seed and oil
is generated from the kernel, which is enclosed by a hard outer hull. Cotton seed oil has mild
taste and materializes clear with light golden color [52]. Cottonseed oil extracted from the
seeds of the cotton plant after the cotton lint has been removed [47]. Cotton trees are high
yield in regions with rain fall 850-1100 mm, low yield in the region with a rain fall less than
500 mm [51].
6.1.2. Fatty Acid Distribution
Cottonseed oil fatty acid composition is shown in the table 7. Its fatty acid profile generally
consists of 71% unsaturated fatty acids including 13% monounsaturated (oleic), 58%
polyunsaturated (linoleic).
Table 7 Fatty acid composition of Cotton seed oil [53]
Fatty acid Structure Cotton seed oil
Oleic 18:1 13
Linoleic 18:2 58
Linolenic 18:3 0
Degree of unsaturation (wt.%) 71
6.1.3. Properties of Cotton seed oil
The physical properties of the cotton seed oil such as Density, Viscosity, Calorific Value ,
Cetane Number and Flash point were studied are following; Table 8: Represent the following
properties of the Cotton Seed Oil.
Table 8 Properties of Cotton seed oil [54]
Properties Cotton seed oil
Density (kg/m³) @ 15° C 914
Viscosity (mm²/s) @ 40º C 3.36
Calorific Value (MJ/kg) 39.5
Cetane Number 41.8
Flash Pointº C 234
6.2. Rice bran oil
To increase the importance of biodiesel production, finding a cheap raw material is the utmost
importance. The oldest cereal grains and staple diet for two-third of the world’s population is
the Rice. It is the main staple crop and it grown in the vast agricultural land in India, Rice, as
the largest crop, has a potential by-product in the form of rice bran. Rice is the one of the
world’s most important food crops than half of the people in the world eat rice as the main
part of their diets. The annual rice bran production potential in India is to varies 8% of rice is
produced by milling process of paddy depending on variety of rice of degree of milling At
present, rice bran oil does not find any major application and hence even the natural
production of seeds itself remains underutilized [55]. The rice bran is typically a by- product
of the milling process which is unfit for human consumption. During the investigation the
significant properties of rice bran oil are been researched. Rice bran oil is a unutilized non
edible oil. A large quantity of rice is cultivated in countries like China and India, and very
little investigation has been done to utilize this oil as a replacement for fossil fuel. Rice bran is

used as cattle feed in China. Rice bran oil offers good potential as a low-cost feedstock and
alternative for biodiesel production in India and many other countries [46]. Rice bran is the
cuticle between the paddy husk and the rice grain and is obtained as a by-product in the
production of refined white rice from brown rice and is common in countries such as China
and India [57].
Due to the presence of lipids, protein, minerals and vitamins the bran are highly nutritious.
It is extracted from white rice bran by which the composition of rice bran varies with the rice
type, climatic conditions and rice processing methods [58]. 12% -25% of oil content in the
rice bran varies [59]. As the rice bran contains high Free Fatty Acid it is unsuitable for eating
purposes. Rice bran oil is an underutilized non-edible vegetable oil, which is available in large
quantities in rice cultivating countries, and very little research has been done to utilize this oil
as a replacement for mineral diesel [60]. Rice is the main cultivation in subtropical Southern
Asia, and it is a staple food for a large part of the world’s human population especially in
East, South, and South Eastern Asia, making it the most consumed cereal grain [56]. Rice
bran is a low value co-product of rice milling, which contains approximately 15%–23% oil.
The oil fraction of rice bran consists of both saturated (15.0% palmitic acid and 1.9% stearic
acid) and unsaturated fatty acids (42.5% oleic acid and 39.1% linoleic acid) [61]. The annual
productions of rice bran oil in the world are shown in table 9. By 2050, India is expected to
produce about 160 Mt of rice, which has the potential to yield 2.24 million tonnes of rice bran
oil. Even if 90% of this potential is realized, the country must be able to produce about 2 MT
of rice bran oil [63].
Table 9 Annual Productions (Metric Million Ton) of Rice, Rice Bran Oil in the World in 2005 [62]
Country Rice Rice Bran Rice Bran Oil
China 181 14.5 2.47
India 137 6.8 1.02
Indonesia 50 4 0.68
Bangladesh 38 3.0 0.51
Vietnam 32 2.6 0.44
Thailand 24 1.9 0.32
Myanmar 20 1.6 0.27
Philippines 13 1.0 0.17
Japan 11 0.9 0.15
Brazil 10 0.8 0.14
6.2.1. Botanical Features
Rice is belonging to the grass family. Rice refers to two species (oryza saliva and
oryzaglaberrima) of grass, native to tropical and subtropical south-eastern Asia and to Africa.
The rice plant is required warm and moisture to grow. The rice plant will grow 2-6 feet. Rice
is rich in genetic diversity, with thousands of varieties grown throughout the world.
6.2.2. Fatty Acid Distribution
Almost all vegetable oils contain saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. The structure of a fatty
acid can be expressed as (x:y), where x and y are the number of carbon atoms and double
bonds, respectively, in the molecule [64]. Oleic (18:1), linoleic (18:2), and linolenic (18:3)
acids are the most common unsaturated fatty acids. The rice bran oil fatty acid compositions
shown are in table 10. The fatty acid composition of rice bran oil is palmitic 15.0%, Oleic
acid 43.7%, Linoleic acid 35.1%, Linolenic acid 0.5%.

Table 10 Fatty acid composition of Rice bran oil [53, 65]
Fatty acid Structure Rice bran oil
Oleic 18:1 43.7
Linoleic 18:2 35.1
Linolenic 18:3 0.5
Degree of unsaturation (wt.%) 79.3
6.2.3. Properties of Rice bran oil
The physical properties of the rice seed oil such as Density, Viscosity, Calorific Value ,
Cetane Number and Flash point were studied are following; Table 11: Represent the
following properties of the Rice bran Oil.
Table 11 Properties of Rice bran oil [65]
Properties Rice bran oil
Density (kg/m³) @ 15° C 922
Viscosity (mm²/s) @ 40º C 43.52
Calorific Value (MJ/kg) 41.1
Cetane Number 50.1
Flash Pointº C 316
7. CONCLUSIONS
Food and the energy are the major crisis faced by the whole world. To increase the
production of oilseed crops the researchers have put forth many efforts recently in the world
to increase the production of oilseed crops. Currently, due to the cost effective the biodiesel is
very attractive. To overcome the land issues production of biodiesel from the non-edible oil
may plays a major role as it can be grown in waste land areas for high harvest. The
requirement for non-edible oil sources is expected to higher in future. The researched has
proves that feasibility, availability technical and commercial aspects of cotton seed oil and
rice bran oil in India and all over world. It influences great assurance to the rural areas of
India to meet the energy requirements. The convenient alternative for fossil fuel is Cotton
seed oil and rice bran oil biodiesel as it has high potential and less cost and economic in India.
In future it is recognized that cotton seed oil and rice bran oil biodiesel would be advanced as
a substitute source of energy. Moreover, India is subsidizing fossil fuels may need to re-
evaluate such as subsidies and tax in benefit of biodiesel production. For the production of
cotton seed oil and rice bran oil biodiesel the money from taxes are utilized improve the
production. It offers great opportunities for environment protection and rural economy
development by blending of biodiesel in diesel. There is need to promote the species on
marginal or wasteland and establish processing units of low to medium size, preferably run by
local entrepreneurs. Due to the Strict environmental regulations and emission norms have
resulted in improvement of fuel quality and introduction of clean fuels like biodiesel.
Identification and mass production of high yielding bio-fuel plants like cotton and rice plants
will result to successful production of unpolluted renewable fuels.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Authors would like to thank the Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani,
Dubai Campus for support to this project.

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