Glioma Essay

Glioma Essay
Gliomas are broad category of brain tumors arising from glial cells. They are the most common
primary malignant neoplasms of the central nervous system. They are classified into low–grade
(WHO grades I and II) and high–grade (WHO grade III and IV) tumors. Almost 80% of gliomas are
astrocytic tumors including Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). Diagnosis of glioma includes a CT
scan/MRI scan and biopsy. These tumors are highly resistant to current treatment modalities
including surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, corticosteroids, antiangiogenic therapy, and
experimental approaches such as gene transfer, their prognosis is dismal.Malignant gliomas results
from a multistep process which involves genetic alterations arised from innate and environmental ...
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The functions of telomeres includes protection of chromosomes from degradation and end to end
fusions, maintains the stability of chromosomes, acts as a mitotic clock to understand the replicative
history of a cell.Telomerase is a ribonucleoprotein DNA polymerase that helps in maintaining the
telomeres by adding TTAGGG repeats at the ends of chromosomes (Greider and Blackburn,1989).
Telomerase consists of two main subunits: telomerase RNA (hTR) and catalytic component human
telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT). The enzymatic activity is usually absent in somatic cells
but remains active in germ line cells,embryonic stem cells and tumor cells. Almost 80 to 90% of
human cancers are characterized by the presence of telomerase activity.Studies on glioma shown
that more than 50% of tumors have telomerase activity and its detection rate increases with the
grades of malignancy (Tchirkov et al 2003). Therefore knockdown of hTERT expression may help
in the development of novel therapeutic strategies. In the present study we evaluate the effect of
siRNA to downregulate hTERT in LN18 cells and also investigated the effect on apoptosis and cell
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Essay On Regulating Breathing Within The Brainstem
In recent years, substantial progress has been made toward understanding the mechanisms
regulating breathing within the brainstem. Improved tools for vector design combined with
molecular biology enable selective gene expression regulation to monitor and/or control over time
cellular activity of targeted respiratory groups. These features are particularly important for studying
respiratory centers in the brainstem since most nuclei are composed of heterogeneous populations of
neurons, dynamically interacting with each other to generate and synchronize the respiratory drive.
Indeed, several neuronal subtypes have been identified in the preBötzinger complex, the core of the
neural circuit generating respiratory rhythm, which can be ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Using adeno–associated virus 2 for channelrhodopsin expression in specific preBötzinger neuronal
subtypes in transgenic mice, it was demonstrated that pre–inspiratory preBötzinger neurons
expressing developing brain homeobox 1 are primarily rhythmogenic. On the other hand, inspiratory
preBötzinger neurons expressing developing brain homeobox 1 and somatostatin are playing a role
in patterning the activity of rhythmogenic preBötzinger neurons and ultimately the respiratory motor
output (Cui et al., 2016). Overexpression of enhanced green fluorescent protein driven by adeno–
associated virus 2 with the somatostatin promoter in preBötzinger neurons revealed that these
neurons project to several areas involved in the control of breathing, including contralateral
preBötzinger, Bötzinger complex, ventral respiratory group, retrotrapezoid nucleus, parahypoglossal
nucleus/nucleus of the solitary tract, parabrachial/Kölliker–Fuse nuclei and periqueductal gray (Tan
et al., 2010). These projections support the modulatory role of somatostatin–expressing
preBötzinger neurons on respiratory activity. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that inhibitory
glycinergic preBötzinger neurons exert significant contribution

Essay On Retinal Development
Specific Aims
Gene regulation plays important roles in retinal development and function. So far, studies on gene
regulation in the retina mostly focus on the transcription level, although post–transcriptional
mechanisms may also be critical. Little is now how post–transcriptional regulation of gene
expression is involved in the development and maintenance of the neural retina and retinal diseases.
In this project, we will address this issue by studying two related RNA–binding proteins, ZFP36l1
and ZFP36l2, two members of the TTP RNA binding protein family. This family of proteins are
highly conserved through evolution and are involved in diverse biological processes thought
regulating the stability of target mRNA species. Our preliminary ... Show more content on
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We will also analyze the genetic pathways modulated by Zfp36l1and Zfp36l2, through RNA–seq
expression profiling and proteomics analysis, and the molecular mechanism through which the two
proteins impact the relevant pathways.
Aim 1. To study the roles Zfp36l1 and Zfp36l2 play in retinal development. Making use the floxed
Zfp36l1 and Zfp36l2 alleles (Zfp36l1f and Zfp36l1f), we have generated single and double retina–
specific knockout embryos by crossing them with the Six3–Cre. The mutant retinas, particularly the
DKO ones, displayed increased differentiation and decreased proliferation. We will confirm these
results by crossing with another retina–specific Cre line, Chx10–Cre. We will further characterize
the defects in the different aspects of retinal development, including cell differentiation, cell
proliferation, and apoptosis, in these knock–out embryos at different stages. We will also examine
how the Notch pathway, which plays essential roles in balancing proliferation and differentiation in
retinal development, is affected in the mutant retinas by in situ hybridization and in vitro luciferase
reporter assays.
Aim 3. To investigate the mechanisms by which Zfp36l1 and Zfp36l2 function retinal development.
To understand the genetic mechanisms underlying the function of Zfp36l1 and Zfp36l2 in retina
development, we will perform RNA–seq analysis to identify the

What Are The Pros And Cons Of Encapsulated Cell T & T
CHAPTER 4 CELL ENCAPSULATION, STEM CELL THERAPY AND SCLERAL PLUG
THERAPY 4.1 CELL ENCAPSULATION
Encapsulated cell technology (ECT) is the therapeutic strategy for controlled,continuous,and long
term administration of proteins drugs in the eye.In a phase 1 trial,human ciliary neurotrophic factor
(CNTF) was delivered by retinal pigmented epithelial (RPE) cells transfected with the human CNTF
gene and sequestered within capsules that were surgically implanted into the vitreous of the eye.The
semipermeable outer membrane of the encapsulated cell implant allowed CNTF to reach the retina
and ,at the same time,sequestered the cells from the immune system.The trial indicated that CNTF
was safe for the human retina ,even one with severely compromised photoreceptors [91].
Advantages:
Long–lasting and continuous expression of the given protein (avoiding repeated injections) without
genetic alteration of the host tissues
Delivery directly to the target site (limiting toxicity)
Easy retrieval of the implant when desired (making the treatment reversible)
Improve patient compliance ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They are able to survive throughout the lifetime of the organism, while maintaining their number,
producing populations of daughter cells (transit amplifying cells) that can proceed down unique
pathways of differentiation. Stem cells may be obtained from embryonic tissues, umbilical cord
blood, and some differentiated adult tissues. Although the potential for stem cell–based therapies for
a variety of human diseases is promising, numerous problems remain to be overcome, such as
methods for obtaining, transplanting, inducing differentiation, developing function, and eliminating
immune reactions [92]. Stem cells have great potential value in treating eye diseases characterized
by irreversible loss of cells, such as glaucoma and photoreceptor

Exosomes As A Whole Has Gained Momentum Through The Area...
The interest and research invested into the area of exosome biogenesis and the topic of exosomes as
a whole has gained momentum in the last decade (Urbanelli, L. et al. 2013). Their discovery in
1983, detailed in two papers published in JCB (Harding et al) and in Cell (Pan and Johnstone),
showed that the nomenclature had been prescribed wrongly to a broad range of membrane vesicles
that bud directly from the plasma membrane (Clifford V. Harding. et al. 2013). When in fact the
term 'exosome' more accurately describes small vesicles, ranging from 30–100nm in diameter
(Urbanelli, L. et al. 2013), that originate via a different mechanism of budding than apoptotic bodies
and microvesicles, (Yu, S. et al. 2015).
Exosome function was initially ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Whilst exosomes have been retrieved in many body fluids, for example; blood, urine, saliva and
cerebrospinal fluid (Urbanelli, L. et al. 2013). They are recently thought to be present in all
biological fluids.
Exosome Biogenesis
Exosomes are exceptional from other types of vesicles based on a number of factors; including their
size (relatively small in comparison), morphology, cargo composition and most distinctly, their
endosomal origin (Théry C. 2002). Familiar types of vesicles such as microvesicles are formed at
the cell surface, budding directly from the plasma membrane (Alenquer, M. et al. 2015). Exosome
biogenesis follows an alternative method that begins in the early endosome (Huotari, J and
Helemius, A. 2011), whereby the ultimate result is the formation of intraluminal vesicles (IVL's)
inside the lumen of the endosome, this aggregate body is known as the multivesicular body (MVB)
or the multivesicular endosome (MVE).
Initially the early endosomal membrane, tube–like in shape (Beach, A. et al, 2014), buds inwards via
intraluminal invagination (Lopez–Verrilli, M and Court, F. 2013), randomly engulfing sections of
the cytosol contents such as the peripheral and transmembrane proteins. This formation of the IVL's
noticeably augments as the endosomes mature (Huotari, J and Helemius, A. 2011) and after
transformation the late endosome is more spherical in shape (Beach, A. et al. 2014). It is known

Isoc Essay
3D cultures of iPSC–derived neural cells: An alternative form of a 'brain on a chip' is achieved
through combinations of brain cells combined to produce a simplistic 3D model comprising
neurons, glia, and if possible, a blood brain barrier (BBB, discussed in more detail later) [12, 14, 15,
31]. Such models can obviously be formed using animal cells as well as human, but as mentioned
above, the development of human iPSC–derived neurons and glia from patients and controls is
driving the use of these highly valuable cell–types in 3D modeling. The development of more
complex 3D models that combine several cell types has been boosted by major advances in
microfluidic engineering, producing platforms that allow the integration of small numbers ... Show
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The 3D environment and the extracellular matrix: One of the key reasons for why a 3D environment
promotes neural cell growth and function more closely resembling that seen in vivo is due to a much
richer extracellular matrix (ECM). The brain ECM is a 'hydrogel' of hyaluronic acid with lamins,
fibronectin, collagens, vitronectin, tenacins, and proteoglycans [15]. These structures provide key
cell binding domains, and bioactive motifs that coordinate cell–cell interactions, and signaling from
growth factors [12, 15]. Altered signaling patterns leads to changes in gene and thus protein
expression and subsequently cell behaviour. The ECM is also critical for interaction between glial
cells and neurons and this process is dependent not only on astrocyte–neuron interaction but also
microglia–neuron interaction and microglia–astrocyte–neuron interactions [15, 35, 39]. In vivo, this
occurs in a 3D manner with cells interacting with many other cells, but this is impaired in 2D
cultures. A 3D matrix also controls movement of oxygen, nutrient transfer and removal of wastes in
a manner that occurs similar to the brain rather than the batch media of 2D cultures that bath cells in
high concentrations of compounds and allow rapid diffusion of waste [34, 40]. Formation of the
microenvironmental conditions optimal for neural cell function depends on a 3D matrix and its
interacting proteins and

Gliomedin
Within a neuron, neurofascin is bound ankyrin G, which is bound to Na+ channels. Somehow, the
binding of neurofascin (expressed by axon) to gliomedin (expressed by the Schwann cell) is
involved in the formation of nodes of Ranvier. Gliomedin is only expressed when the Schwann cell
is in physical contact with the axon. Therefore, for the formation of nodes of Ranvier, three things
must occur. First, the Schwann cell must make physical contact with the axon. Then, it must express
gliomedin. Finally, gliomedin must form a complex with neurofascin (expressed by the axon). This
was determined through a set of experiments. To determine if sodium channel clustering depended
on glial cells, hippocampal cells were cultured in the absence of glial cells. This experiment showed
that, in the absence of glial cells, Na+ channels were found along the entire length of the axon. They
were not concentrated in clusters. Then, another experiment was conducted to determine if the node
of Ranvier formation was contact dependent. In this experiment, the dorsal root ganglia were bathed
in the extracellular fluid of Schwann cells. Again, nodes of Ranvier did not form. This showed that
the node of Ranvier formation mechanism was contact dependent. Another experiment was done to
determine if node of Ranvier formation depended on molecular signaling between the Schwann cells
and the axon. In this experiment, Schwann cells on a myelinated axon were killed. The nodes of
Ranvier disappeared. This showed that molecular signaling played a role in node of Ranvier
formation. Eventually, an experiment found that ankyrin G was concentrated at nodes of Ranvier. To
determine what proteins interacted with ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Node of Ranvier formation requires the simultaneous expression of neurofascin and gliomedin. The
expression of gliomedin is induced by contact between the Schwann cell and the

FUBP1
FUBP1, also known as Far Upstream Element Binding Protein 1, is a tumor suppressor gene located
on the reverse strand of chromosome 1. The exact location of this gene is chr1:78,413,591–
78,444,777. FUBP1 is a protein–encoded gene. This protein functions as an ATP–dependent DNA
helicase. It regulates MYC expression by binding to a single–stranded far–upstream element
upstream of the MYC promoter. It binds to multiple DNA elements. It may act as both an activator
and repressor of transcription. [1] FUBP1 is a transcriptional regulator and fulfills an important
function in the precise control of c–MYC transcription. The c–MYC protein is a transcription factor,
which regulates the transcription of many different target genes that play in proliferation, ... Show
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The diseases associated with FUBP1 include oligodendrogliomas, astrocytomas, and
oligoastrocytomas. Oligodendrogliomas are primary glial brain tumors and can be either low–grade
(grade II) or high–grade (grade III). [2] Since oligodendrogliomas have a slow growth rate, they are
often present for years before they are diagnosed. Nevertheless, the most common symptoms
include: seizures, headaches, and personality changes. Altogether, the symptoms vary by location
and size of the tumor. About 66 to 78 % of people with grade II oligodendroglioma survive for about
5 years after diagnoses, while 30 to 38 % of people with grade III will survive for about 5 years after
they are diagnosed. [3] Astrocytoma is another type of brain cancer that stats in the cerebrum, which
is the largest part of the brain, but can also appear in the cerebellum, which is the back of the brain.
It is more common in men than in women. Like oligodendrogliomas, the most common symptoms
of astrocytomas include: headaches, seizure, changes in behavior and memory loss. [4] Prognosis of
astrocytomas depends on the type of astrocytoma. Altogether, a low–grade astrocytoma (LGA) has
an 83 % 10–year overall survival, while the overall survival rate of a high–grade astrocytoma
(HGA) range between 15–20%. In both oligodendrogliomas and astrocytomas, the FUBP1 locus is
mutated which leads to the inactivation of

3d Printing And Its Effects On The World Of Tissue...
3D Printing On the forefront of tissue scaffold fabrication is 3D printing. 3D printers have a
multitude of advantages over traditional scaffold fabrication methods. High print precision allows
fibers to be deposited into 3D structures with finely tunable dimensions, 3D printers also have the
ability to incorporate multiple materials into the same structure through multiple extrusion heads.
Jakus et al. used a 3D extrusion based printer to create a graphene and polylactide–co–glycolide
scaffold and showed it could create a 3D graphene structure (3DG) with features as small as 100 um
and as large as 10cm offering a large range of applications. They also showed that 3DG supports
human mesenchymal stem cell (hMSC) adhesion, viability, proliferation, and neurogenic
differentiation with significant upregulation of glial and neuronal genes [9]. The ease in fabrication
and the ability to precisely modify structure with 3D printers allows for opportunities in a wide
range of tissue engineering applications. Incorporating growth factors and other bioactive molecules
into a CP It is often desirable to modify the material properties of a polymer to better optimize it for
different applications. Critical properties that affect the possible applications of the polymer include
conductivity, porosity, hydrophobicity, degradability. There are four main processes to incorporate
chemical and biological molecules into a polymer. The simplest method is adsorption, following the

Glial Cells In The Nervous System
What is a glial cell? Glial cell border neurons and provide support for insulation between them.
Glial cells are the most abundant cell types in the central nervous system. Types of glial cells
include oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, ependymal cells, and satellite cells. The glial cells lie between
the nerve cells and encircle the blood vessels. There are at least as many glial cells as there are nerve
cells in the brain. Twenty years ago many scientists believed, glial cells were considered minor
players in the nervous system; even though they outnumber neurons. Glial was thought to work as
passive support cells. Glial cells carried nutrients to and removing wastes from the neurons. While
the latter carried out the critical nervous system functions

Stress Affects the Health of Physiologically and...
Stress is any condition that seriously affects the balance of the organism physiologically and
psychologically. Stress activates the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) releasing glucocorticoid
hormones that produce generalized effects on different body systems including the nervous system
(McEwen, 2008).
In rats, acute restraint is an unavoidable stress situation that results in autonomic (Alves et al., 2010)
and behavioral alternations including impaired exploratory activity in an open field, increased
immobility in a forced swimming test and reduced exploration of the open arms of an elevated plus
maze (EPM) 24 h after the stress session (Padovan and Guimaraes, 2000).
The hippocampus is a medial temporal lobe structure that is necessary for the formation of
declarative memory in humans and spatial memory in rodents. A stress–induced suppression of long
term potentiation (LTP) induction was reported in 1987 by Thompson and colleagues. Subsequent
studies showed that stress–induced LTP impairment lasts for at least 48 hours in rats and 24 hours in
mice (Kim and Diamond, 2002).
Microglial activation occurs in response to stressful insults, such as acute water–immersed restraint
stress (Sugama et al., 2007), cold stress (Sugama et al., 2011), repeated stress (Tynan et al., 2010),
and prenatal stress (Diz–Chaves et al., 2012). Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) is one of a
family of intermediate filament proteins that serve largely cytoarchitectural functions. GFAP

Benefits Of Gene Therapy For Parkinson's Disease
Gene therapy for Parkinson's disease (PD) is an alternative to current pharmacologic and surgical
treatments; the former are limited by motor and non–motor complication, and both by lack of
neuroprotection. Gene therapy offers a means to dominate two very different but equally significant,
long–term obstacles for treating human diseases. The first, involving gene replacement, attempts to
correct a specific genetic defect linked to a major component of the disease by expressing
unmutated gene. In reality, the number of patient whose neurodegenerative disease is linked to a
single genetic mutation is quite small, so the impact of this application of gene therapy to neurology
is limited. Another goal of gene therapy is to transfer therapeutic proteins to a targeted area of the
central nervous system (CNS), not ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The age–old problem with the use of proteins to treat neurodegenerative diseases is that they are
large, partially polar and often labile entities that, when injected, can aggregate, misfolded and
tolerated other changes that render them biologically ineffective or worse. Moreover more
problematic for CNS indications, they do not readily cross the blood–brain barrier and, when
injected directly into the brain, do not spread significantly from the point of injection, thus reducing
their exposure to the targeted tissue, which greatly decreases their therapeutic effect, finally, when
protein delivery is mistargeted, significant side effects can occur (17–20). Gene therapy (gene
transfer) refers to the use of a modified viral vector to introduce genetic information to site specific
host cells to induce targeted, long–term,

Make Brain Like Cells Chapter 9
Yolanda JeanBaptiste
BSC2010 Monday & Wednesday 2PM–3:13 PM
Final Paper
Cells The two articles I chose was Neurogenic potential of dental pulp stem cells isolated from
murine incisors by Kylie M Ellis, David C O'Carroll, Martin D Lewis, Grigori Y Rychkov and
Simon A Koblar. The second article is Tooth–Derived Stem Cells Make Brain–Like Cells by Lisa
Winter. I chose those article because they relate to our class in chapter 9 we discuss Cell Cycle. We
learned about Cell division is an integral part of the cell cycle , the life of a cell from formation to its
own division. The cell cycle consists of Mitotic phase, including mitosis and cytokinesis Interphases
including cell ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
We also learned about mitosis is divided into five phases prophase, prometaphase, metaphase,
anaphase and telophase. There are many diffrence between the two articles.
First, the journal scholarly article gives great detailed information and detailed reports of the
original research that was done. For the popular article its commentary from the original article or
research is by someone that was not doing the original research. For the journal article the author's
professional degrees are given all of the credentials are shown the journal article atomatically hsown
the institutional affiliation. The popular article are often writers or jornalist. The audience these
articles are for are different for the journal article the audience is researchers, scholars and students.
For the popular article audience is just the general public. Both articles has different language the
Journal article has big words big terminology you have to a spedcialist

Glial Cells Essay
Glial cells are the most numerous cells in the brain, outnumbering neurons nearly 3:1, although
smaller and some lacking axonal and dendritic projections. Once thought to play a subpar role to
neurons, glial cells are now recognized as responsible for much greater functions. There are many
types of glial cells, including: oligodendrocytes, microglia, and astrocytes. Oligodendrocytes form
the myelin sheath in the CNS, by wrapping themselves around the axons of neurons. Their PNS
counterpart, Schwann cells, are also considered glial cells. This sheath insulates the axon and
increases the speed of transmission, analogous to the coating on electrical wires. Microglia are
considered to be "immune system–like"; removing viruses, fungi, and other wastes that are present.
Astrocytes, however, are considered to be the most prominent. Their functions span throughout the
brain, including, but not limited to: the synchronization of axonal transmission via G–protein–
coupled receptors, blood flow regulation via the dilation of blood vessels, and the performance of
reactive gliosis in conjunction with microglia. Both astrocytes and oligodendrocytes develop from
neuroepithelial cells. Other types of glial cells include Radial glia, which direct immature neuron
migration during development.
Astrocytes have been shown to communicate amongst themselves, as well as participate in
bidirectional communication with neurons via the 'Tripartite synapse '. Ca2+–dependent glutamate
release also

A Short Note On Na K Cl Cotransporter
Introduction
The Na–K–Cl cotransporter is a group of ubiquitous membrane transport proteins. This secretory
cotransporter maintains electroneutrality by transporting ions with the stoichiometry of 1Na+: 1K+:
2Cl–. Two different gene isoforms of the Na–K–Cl cotransporter have been found. Both varieties of
the symporter act to regulate and maintain cell volume and intracellular Cl– concentrations.
However, the two different isoforms of NKCC vary structurally as although NKCC2 is around 60%
homologous to NKCC1, it is lacking exon 21 (Delpire et al., 1994). The loss of this exon leads to
the differential sorting of the two isoforms therefore they are targeted to different membrane
domains (Carmosino et al., 2008). The first isoform, NKCC1, is a major component in mediating
Cl– influx in the basolateral membrane. Contrastingly, NKCC2 is selectively expressed in the apical
membrane of cell such as in thick ascending limb of Henle and primarily involved in NaCl
reabsorption (Darman and Forbush, 2002).
In humans, the Na+–K+–2Cl– cotransporter is encoded by the SLC12A2 gene. These proteins have
the same predicted structure with a large, hydrophobic region containing 12 transmembrane α–
helices surrounded by the hydrophilic N– and C– terminal cytoplasmic regions. The
transmembrane–spanning domains function to allow ion transport and the N– and C– terminal
regions are responsible for regulation. There is also a large, extracellular, glycosylated loop located
between helices 7 and 8

Explain The Major Processes That Occur During The Prenatal...
The five major processes that occur during the prenatal and postnatal periods of human
development– Proliferation, Migration, Differentiation, Myelination and Synaptogensis. Each stage
relies on the properly assembly of neuronal connections to assure a fully functioning organism.
Proliferation is the initial stage, activated during unification period of sperm and egg. This is where
new cells begin to divide, first forming brain cells. These brain cell originate from stem cells, which
can be specialized into nearly any cell in the human body. Once the proliferation process is
underway, which research suggests is less than first after conception, the cells divide uncontrollably.
At over two hundred thousand cells per minute, they do not stop ... Show more content on
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This stage is the differentiation period. Here, the cells are assigned unique characteristics of
structural, biochemical and physiological properties– all before the birth. Even the glial cells now
become specialized and develop into astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. These cells are extremely
important in the next stage of myelination. Myelination is the stage of neuronal development that is
initiated postnatally. After the baby is born the newly specialized glia cells begin constructing the
fatty sheath around the axon, need for the speed and effectiveness of the neural transmission
between all the neurons in the brain. Oligodendrocytes are responsible for the myelin produced in
the central nervous system. It commences first around the spinal, ascending from the hindbrain
structures to the forebrain. This process continues gradually for decades, until the brain is fully
developed. Synaptogenesis is the final stage of neural development. Neurons in this stage must
establish the necessary connections for proper functioning. Connections made early, that are
frequently called upon are likely to remain strong the the reminder of a child's life while weaker
connections die when they are not made or

Why Might Having More Folding Have Been Important To...
Question 1: Researchers found that Einstein's brain had a higher ratio of glial cells to neurons than
other brains. What are glial cells, and why might having more glial cells be important?
Answer 1: Glial cells are cells that surround neurons and provide support for and insulation between
them. Glial cells are also the most abundant cells in the central nervous system. Types of glial cells
include oligodendrocytes, which have processes that form the myelin sheaths around CNS nerve
fibers, astrocytes the most abundant CNS neuroglia, ependymal cells that line cerebrospinal fluid
cavities, microglia cells that are the defensive cells in the CNS, schwann cells and satellite cells,
which form myelin sheaths around CNS never fibers.
Why might ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
So there is a strong correlation between glial cells and intelligence. Its no surprise that Einstein
being extremely intelligent had a higher amount of glial cells in his brain than the average human.
Question 2: Researchers have noted that Einstein's brain had more complex folding than other
comparison brains. What are the ridges and grooves in the brain called, and why might having more
folding have been important to Einstein's intelligence?
Answers 2: The ridges in the brain are called gyri and the grooves are call sulci.
why might having more folding have been important to Einstein's intelligence?
Many scientist believe that more folding can create extra surface area for mental processes, allowing
more connections between brain cells. With more connections between brain cells a person like
Einstein would be able to make cognitive connections that would otherwise be impossible. This
extra folding may have allowed Einstein to come up with his incredible theories like the General
Theory of Relativity.
Question 3: Researchers discovered that Einstein's corpus callous was different than in other brains.
What is the corpus callosum, and what is its function? Again, why might this have been important to
Einstein's

The Role of P2X Receptors in Nociception
Introduction
Nociception is the sensation of pain which is normally a warning signal to brain in respond to a
potential hazard. Generally noxious stimulations are detected by specialised high–threshold sensory
neurons, which are refer to nociceptors. The signals are then transferred to an electrical potential and
conducted to the brain via spinal cord. However sometimes abnormal nociception can lead to a
moderate to severe pain although a noxious stimulus is missing. This kind of pain are usually trigger
by nerve injury, while the pain sensation remains after the tissue had been healed. Although the
prevalence of neuropathic pain is not significant, about 7% to 8% of the European population is
affected, and about 5% are suffering severe pain (Torrance et al., 2006; Bouhassira et al., 2008).
Normally the neuropathic pain is induced by injury of somatosensory nerves, and the pain remains
after the tissue being healed. It can bring abnormal nociception while noxious stimuli are missing,
which called dysesthesia. Beside, pain can be triggered by non–painful stimuli, which is called
allodynia). Many research has linked the neuropathic pain to neuronal damages where endogenous
ATP being released. Therefore purinergic receptors that can respond to ATP are involved. In this
essay, after a brief introduction of P2X receptors, the role of microglial P2X4 and P2X7 in
neuropathic pain will be discussed.
Purinergic receptor can be divided into two families based on their different

Kir Channels In Multi-Cellular Organisms
In multi–cellular organisms, cells are characterized by energetically favorable gradient moving
potassium from the intracellular to the extracellular environment. Inwardly rectifying potassium–
selective (Kir), channels encoded by the KCNJ gene family are constitutively active and favor the
influx of potassium more readily than its efflux from the cells, thereby maintaining potassium
homeostasis. Kir channels are also known as IRK or KCNJ channels. Fifteen mammalian KCNJ
gene products have been described which result in seven distinct Kir channels (Hibino et al., 2010;
Sharman et al., 2011). These channels are located within the plasma membrane of most cell types,
where they regulate membrane potential and potassium homeostasis (Table 1)
Kir channels contribute to functions such as the repolarization of cardiac action potentials, trans–
epithelial transport, and the maintenance of the voltage gradient across the cell membrane. These
functions are achieved by regulating the opening and closing (i.e., gating) of Kir channels (Hibino et
al., 2010). For this reason, genetic alterations in Kir channels underlie many of the hereditary ion
channel diseases known as channelopathies, and which affect the function of multiple organ systems
(Abraham et al., 1999; Neusch et al., 2003). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Nearly a decade later, Kir4.1 was cloned from rat brain and in situ hybridization localized this
channel exclusively to glial cells throughout the CNS (Sergouniotis et al., 2011). A series of
subsequent investigations utilizing genetic and pharmacological manipulations confirmed Kir4.1 as
the principal astrocytic inwardly rectifying potassium channel and provided useful insights into the
function of Kir4.1 in normal astrocyte physiology. More recently, Kir4.1 has been linked to a diverse
set of CNS disorders and

Do Glial Cells Make You Clever?
Do Glial Cells Make You Clever? – Review Abstract Neuroscience research has largely dismissed
glia as support cells with little input in higher function, however recent papers have concluded that
astrocytes and oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) contribution to synaptic transmission,
plasticity and long–term potentiation. Han, et al, 2013 proved that human astrocytes, when
transplanted into mice, significantly enhanced learning behaviour, spatial learning, memory and
discrimination; Han, et al, 2012 showed that activation of cannabinoid receptors on astroglia had a
negative effect on spatial working memory (SWM) leading to long–term depression (LTD) of
synaptic transmission in the hippocampus in response to exogenous cannabinoids, ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Role of Glial Cells in Synaptic Plasticity Wang, et al, said that synaptic plasticity (the ability to
strengthen or weaken synapses over time) was heavily influenced by astrocytes because of their role
in glutamate production and uptake; specifically, LTP and LTD. The course and distribution of
glutamate in and around the synapse is important for the coordination of intracellular messaging
which directly affects synaptic strength. According to the multipartite synapse concept; glutamate
regulation is dictated by astrocytes which can also release D–serine (glutamate co–agonist) to
enhance NMDA receptor activity causing excitatory transmission which encourages synaptic
plasticity (Panatier et al., 2006.) High K+ extracellular fluid (ECF) concentrations also encourage
synaptic plasticity because it initiates glutamate release, this is also mediated by astrocytes since
they buffer ECF K+ composition. Han et al., 2013 hypothesised that "human astrocytes might
enhance synaptic plasticity and learning relative to their munic counterparts" so they grafted OPCs
and astrocytes into

Spinal Cord Injury Analysis
In the United States, there are approximately 17,000 new cases of spinal cord injuries every year and
it is estimated that as of the year 2016 approximately 282,000 people in the United States have an
injury to the spinal cord to some degree (NSCISC 2016). The diagnosis of a spinal cord injury
includes any damage to the spinal cord, including the nerves associated with it. This kind of injury
causes permanent damage to the body by a decrease in strength, sensation, and body functions
(Shroff et al. 2017). Spinal cord injuries are particularly hard to treat because each injury is different
and the cells associated with the spinal cord are hard to target and treat. In most cases, no
improvement functionally is made and the symptoms are permanent. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The central nervous system is responsible for controlling involuntary actions such as respiratory
rhythm and blinking as well as voluntary actions such as muscular movements like walking. The
central nervous system is composed of neurons that send and receive chemical messages through the
transmittance of neurotransmitters. The spinal cord connects the brain to the body and when the
spinal cord is damaged it loses its function to communicate messages from the brain throughout the
body. Depending on the location and severity of the injury different symptoms and pathologies
occur. There are different ways in which the spinal cord can be injured. It is protected by the spinal
column, which is also called the backbone or spine. The spinal column is composed of a chain of
bones called vertebrae, which are interconnected by flexible ligaments and spinal discs. However, if
the spinal cord in injured and it starts to swell it starts to create pressure because the spinal column
is surrounding it. Fractured bones of the spinal column or herniated discs can also cause damage to
the spinal cord. The most common type of injury to the spinal cord is spinal cord compression when
it is compressed due to a force on the spinal column. All of these different types of injuries lead to
cell degeneration and death of the different types of cells in the spinal cord (Badner et al.

Socm Study Guide Essay
Chapter 1 ELO's Describe the basic functions of living organisms. A. Responsiveness – organisms
respond to changes in their immediate environment (long term changes is adaptability) B. Growth –
over a lifetime, organisms grow larger through an increase in size or number of cells. Differentiation
is when cells have specialized functions C. Reproduction – Organisms reproduce, creating
subsequent generations of similar organisms D. Movement – Organisms are capable of movement a.
Internal – moving food, blood, or other materials internally b. External – moving through
environment E. Metabolism – Organisms rely on complex chemical reactions to provide the energy
for responsiveness, growth, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
To survive every living organism must maintain homeostasis. Describe how positive (+) and
negative (–) feedback are involved in homeostatic regulation * Negative feedback provides longterm
regulatory control that results in relatively stable internal conditions * Positive feedback is important
in driving a potentially dangerous or stressful process to completion. * Negative feedback opposes
stimuli, positive feedback reinforces stimuli Use anatomical terms to describe body sections, body
regions, and relative positions. Body regions– – Cephalon (head) – axillia (armpit) – Cervicis (neck)
– Brachium (arm) – Thoracis (chest) – Ante Brachium (forearm) – Abdomen – Manus (hand) –
Pelvis – Thigh – Loin (lower back) – leg (anterior) – Buttock – Calf – Pubis (anterior pelvis) – Pes
(foot) – Groin Body sections– Transverse plane – cuts the body parallel to the ground as the person
is standing. Positions are referred to as superior (top) or inferior (bottom). Frontal plane – or coronal
plane, cuts the body length wise and is dividing it into a anterior (front) and posterior (back) section.
Sagittal Plane – also cuts the body length wise, but divides it into a right and left half A cut the
produces an equal left and right half is a midsagittal section *

My Academic Goals And Research Interests
My academic goals and research interests have developed significantly over the course of my
undergraduate studies at Susquehanna University. When I first arrived at Susquehanna I was a
biology major and had dreams of medical school. However, by the end of freshman year, I began to
develop an interest in neuroscience. Declaring a major in neuroscience allowed me to explore the
components of biology I loved, while incorporating psychology and chemistry.
My research interests developed from my exposure to the various areas of neuroscience through my
internships, research experiences and courses. I am currently working on a research project, with the
goal of gaining a more thorough understanding of the genes involved in lateral glial cell
differentiation in the central nervous system of Drosophila. I conduct genetic crosses to obtain the
desired genomes and collect embryos for immunostaining. I examine the expression of a conceptual
gene, cg31235, which is solely expressed in longitudinal glial cells, in the presence of the genes
Pointed P1 (PntP1) and Reversed Polarity (Repo). Subsequently, I will then use immunostaining to
examine the expression of PntP1 and Repo in order to determine whether they regulate the genes
involved in the in the development and function of longitudinal glia. Last fall, I presented my
research proposal, which was followed by a presentation at the Society of Developmental Biology
this spring. These experiences have strengthened my desire to explore

Alzheimer 's Disease ( Ad )
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a disorder that is characterized by degeneration of the hippocampal and
cortical neurons of the brain – causing memory impairment and a decline in cognitive abilities. The
current study by Ghoneim et al.1 focuses on the role of three proteins in the pathogenesis of
Alzheimer's. Brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signaling is important for development and
maintenance of normal neuronal circuits in the brain. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) is
expressed by astrocytes in the central nervous system in response to neuron damage. Ki–67 is a
protein that is responsible for detecting cell proliferation. Ghoneim et al. designed their study to
explore the effects of caffeine intake on the expression of these proteins in rats induced with AD.
Caffeine is hypothesized to have a protective effect against AD for a multitude of reasons. It is
believed that caffeine has the potential to reduce amyloid beta accumulation because it is associated
with reduced oxidative stress. It could also reduce the effects of the inflammatory response which is
a well–known trademark of AD. Lastly, caffeine has been identified to have a role in maintaining the
blood–brain barrier.
Previously, it has been suggested that drinking 3–5 cups of coffee per day during midlife is
associated with a 65% decreased risk of dementia/Alzheimer's in the elderly. Other studies have
reported that caffeine inhibits the production of amyloid beta in the brain and reverses cognitive

Glial Cell Lab Report
"Stay Down! Stay Down! Nice little mouse," Doctor Goldman said wearily as he stumbled to the
floor. "NO! NO!," he shouted and then it went silent. The whole experiment started off to show how
human glial cell transplants could help cure diseases like alzheimer's and multiple sclerosis.Glial
cells make up over eighty percent of the brain cells with neurons making up the roughly other
twenty percent. The glial cells are responsible for guarding and protecting the neurons. The hope
was that because the human glial cells are able to insulate neurons better that the signals that the
mouse sends to the rest of the body would be more clear and allow the mouse to perform tasks with
a better success rate. That would also show that if you donated glial ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Then when his noon weigh in came around he weighed 1.78958145lbs, that caught us off guard
because he should be staying about the same but then we thought he may have just ate more after his
surgery. So now its one o'clock and this is the time when our shift ends. So we leave the room
knowing that the next group would be there shortly, they would be in charge of putting Dexter
trough all of the

Tissue Engineering Research
By living in a broken world, people become subjected to devastation and times of hopelessness.
Some encounter this through job struggles or family disputes. Others encounter it while waiting at
death's door, waiting for an organ transplant. On January 8, 2014, 120,990 people were waiting for
an organ transplant, wondering if they will be added to the 3,381 people who died last year waiting
for a new kidney or wondering if they will become one of the 26,000 people in the United States
who die each year from end–stage liver disease (Kaihara and Vacanti; National Kidney Foundation).
Every 20 minutes, a person is added to the kidney waitlist and each day, 14 people die while waiting
for a kidney transplant (National Kidney Foundation). These numbers cannot be ignored because
blindness only results in loss of life.
Currently, alternatives, such as mechanical devices and artificial prostheses, don't repair tissue or
organ functions because they are not intended for integrating host tissues, and if these alternatives
are used for long–term implantation, the recipient could suffer from an inflammatory response
(Chapekar). For illnesses such as end–stage liver disease, the only successful treatment is through
transplant, and the odds of receiving a new liver is improbable (Kaihara and Vacanti). Another
treatment must be discovered. In 1988, a NSF sponsored meeting defined a new treatment idea
called tissue–engineering: the "application of the principles and methods of engineering

Autophagy Research Paper
Autophagy is a evolutionarily conserved essential proteostasis and catabolic membrane trafficking
process that has close associations with health and longevity [10, 11]. It maintains cellular
homeostasis and viability by regulating the quantity and quality of cytoplasmic constituents such as
organelles and macromolecules through lysosomal degradation, which is activated in response to
nutrient starvation and other stressors to generate energy and allow survival [12]. Autophagy plays
vital roles by self–degrading under a variety of physiological and pathological conditions such as
maintaining the stem cell quiescent state [13], manipulating immunity [14], regulating bone growth
[15], carcinogenesis [16–18] and cell metabolism [18]. Importantly, Autophagy directly targets
pathogenic misfolded Aβ for degradation [19]. Chemical that enhances autophagy was shown to be
capable of restoring nesting behavior in a murine model of Alzheimer disease [20]. Extensive efforts
have been made on Aβ degradation by autophagy, though people also argued that ... Show more
The endophilin family consists of five members: endophilin–1, endophilin–2, endophilin–3,
endophilin–B1 and endophilin–B2. Some of these have been noticed in recent neuroscience research
[30, 31]. CPG2 directly interacts and recruits endophilin–B2 to F–actin to facilitate glutamate
receptor internalization at synapse [32]. Importantly, endophilin–B1 can promote mitochondrial
elongation [33] in neurons, and its loss exacerbates AD pathology [34]. Nonetheless, the lack of
cellular and molecular studies has precluded a clear understanding of endophilin roles in neurology.
Furthermore, few endophilins have been ascribed function in Aβ

Loligo Lab Report
Synopsis. The chromatophore organs of Loligo are each composed of five types of cells: a central
pigment cell; radially arranged, obliquely striated muscle fibers; neuronal pro? cesses; glial cells;
and an investment of sheath cells. Sheath cells are absent in Octopus chromatophore organs. The
cycle of expansion and retraction of a chromatophore organ may occur within the order of a second.
It is clear that the muscle fibers expand the pigment cell and spread out the pigment granules. The
pigment is contained within an unusual, filamentous, cytoplasmic compartment called the
cytoelastic sacculus. This com? partment has elastic properties.
Reflector cells and iridocytes produce structural colors even though their components are colorless.
Reflector

Neuroanatomy Essay
Neuroanatomy is the study of structure and function relationships in the brain and nervous system.
As this encompasses a study of both macroscopic and microscopic structures, a variety of
histological tools have been developed to enable that endeavor
Microscopy
Microscopy is an important technique for studying the structure and function of the nervous system.
This is enabled through the use of histological staining, in which a tissue of interest is preserved and
sectioned, and then stained using one of an array of techniques.
Histological staining provides contrast to the tissue so that details can be distinguished. For
example, gray matter contains neuron cell bodies, or somata, that can be stained to become visible
under a microscope. Nissl stains are useful for gray matter. For white matter of the brain, dyes such
as Luxol Fast ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Histochemistry studies can reveal the molecular interactions of structures, such as neurotransmitter
production and activity, metabolism, immune function, and other interactions. Histochemistry can
also be used to reveal chemoarchitecture or chemical neuroanatomy.
Immunocytochemistry is a type of histochemistry that makes use of antibodies to visualize cell
types, axons, neuron structures, glial processes, blood vessels, or molecular components of cells like
neurotransmitters and intranuclear proteins. Immunocytochemical studies can also be used for
genomics studies of nervous system cells. Combining these techniques with a fluorescent stain
allows visualization of enzyme binding sites and reactions.
In situ hybridization is also an important histochemical tool for neuroanatomy studies. It uses
synthetic ribonucleic acid (RNA) probes to visualize complementary messenger RNA (mRNA)
transcripts of genes in the cell. This can help to reveal gene function.
Case

Controlling Cell Fate in Zebrafish
Over the past years, there have been many conflicting views over weather or not rest has an effect
on controlling cell fate. There has been previous studies that have indicated that the rest gene
influences gene expression. Researchers at the State University of New York at Stony Brook have
taken it upon themselves to determine if it is in fact true. By using methods like zinc finger nuclease
and quantitative PCR, they were able to find reliable evidence that: rest in zebrafish does have an
influencing affect on neural–specific gene expression but it fails to have many significant effects on
zebrafish neurogenesis. First of all, lets look at why exactly scientists choose to work on zebrafish.
Zebrafish was chosen by George Streisinger who was looking for a vertebrae model system to do
work on genetics. It would appear that zebrasfish have some qualities that particularly makes them
an exceptional choice for study. They are easy to maintain, manipulate (ability to microinject DNA,
RNA and proteins into) and have many offspring rather rapidly. Another really interesting quality of
zebrafish is that in the first few days of embryonic development, embryons are transparent, which
allows imaging of cell movement and gene expression. Embryos also develop rather quickly;
therefore scientists could do testing sooner then would be capable if mammals were used. Now lets
look at what exactly is the rest protein. From what research has determined previously, we believe
the rest

Explain The Mechanism Of RIG-I Recognizes Bacterial...
RIG–I recognizes bacterial ligands in glial cells. RIG–I is traditionally viewed as a viral pattern
recognition receptor, however, more recently the pathogen ligands for RIG–I have been expanded to
include bacteria nucleic acids. In non–CNS cell types RIG–I has been documented to identify
bacteria RNA directly or DNA indirectly via an RNA polymerase III dependent mechanisms. RIG–I
dependent recognition of bacterial nucleic acids was demonstrated to be pathogen and cell type
specific. In glial cells the role and mechanism of RIG–I in pathogen detection has not fully been
explored. We have previously demonstrated expression of RIG–I and the contribution of RIG–I to
recognition of RNA and DNA viruses. However, the requirement of RIG–I for ... Show more
Confocal imaging of RIG–I recognition of bacterial ligands and nano–TNAs. In this proposal we
will investigate the subcellular localization of bacteria and bacterial nucleic acids in relation to the
cytosolic innate immune receptor, RIG–I. In order to accomplish this goal we will combine
traditional immunofluorescence for RIG–I and cellular compartment protein markers with the use of
commercially available products EU and EdU to label bacteria RNA and DNA, respectively. The
Thermo Fisher Scientific products EU and EdU were originally developed to detect global RNA
transcription and measure de novo DNA systhesis or S–phase synthesis, respectively. By growing
bacteria in the presence of these products prior to infection of glial cells we can track not only
bacteria but nucleic acid subcellular localization. This will provide insight into the accessibility of
nucleic acids to host innate immune receptors. By innovatively combining immunofluorescence and
nucleic acid labeling we will characterizing the localization of bacteria, bacterial nucleic acids, and
RIG–I over a given time course providing valuable insight into the mechanisms of host cell
recognition of bacteria in glial cells.
Nano–TNAs present significant advantages over traditional counterparts for therapeutic and
adjuvant applications.

Fog Pathway
The Fog pathway drives actin and myosin apical constriction
In developmental biology an important objective is to understand how cells behave to shape tissues
that produce highly organized embryos. Epithelial morphogenesis is a process driven by actin and
myosin apical constriction that results in sheets of cells rearranging to form defined structures. The
Drosophila Folded–in–gastrulation (Fog) pathway is one of the best developmental signaling
pathways in demonstrating this process. During gastrulation, the epithelial cells undergo a range of
morphogenetic mechanisms to form the ventral furrow (VF) and the posterior midgut (PMG). This
process begins with Dorsal, a maternal factor, activating Twist and Snail transcription factors which
in turn activates the transcription of the secreted ligand Fog that is a zygotic factor expressed in
presumptive mesoderm and posterior midgut primordium. Fog in turn activates Concertina (Cta), a
Gα12/13 homologue through an unknown membrane receptor that leads to the activation of
RhoGEF, which is recruited to the apical membrane by T48 protein. RhoGEF2 then activates Rho1,
a small GTPase, activating the Rho pathway and its components such as Rho kinase (Rok), non–
muscle myosin II, and actin, leading to apical constriction and actin–myosin–based cell–shape ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(2013) developed a novel functional genomic approach by reconstituting the epithelial folding
pathway in a cell–based assay. From S2 cells, S2R+ cells that contracted in response to Fog were
engineered. The S2R+ cells did not contract during RNAi–mediated depletion of proteins in the
pathway, such as Cta, RhoGEF2, or Rho1, indicating that the pathway has been reconstructed in
these cells. The Fog receptor mist was identified by performing a targeted RNAi screen in the S2R+
cells and individually depleting 138 GPCRs in the Drosophila genome. The S2R+ cells that do not
exhibit contraction to Fog therefore contained the

Defected Peripheral Nervous System Essay
The injuries of nervous system affect many people every year and is estimated that spinal cord
injuries alone affect 10,000 each year. Nerve regeneration can be achieved by production of new
neurons, glia, axons, myelin, or synapses. There are differences between the functional mechanisms
of peripheral nervous system (PNS) and the central nervous system (CNS). PNS has an intrinsic
ability for repair and regeneration while CNS usually is incapable of self–repair and regeneration.
There is currently no treatment for recovering human nerve function after injury to the CNS.
Although, PNS has self–regeneration capacity, much research still needs to be performed for
optimizing the environment for maximum regrowth. Injury to PNS immediately elicits the migration
of phagocytes, Schwann cells, and macrophages to the lesion site in order to clear away debris such
as damaged tissue [56–60]. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Generally, two surface molecules including complement receptor type 3 (CR3) and galactose–
specific lectin MAC–2 are involved in Wallerian degeneration process and consequently the
peripheral nerve regeneration. However, injury to CNS is not followed by extensive regeneration. It
is limited by the inhibitory influences of the glial and extracellular environment. The environment
within the CNS, especially following trauma, counteracts the repair of myelin and neurons. Growth
factors are not expressed or re–expressed; for instance, the extracellular matrix is free of laminin, so
glial scars rapidly form and produce factors that inhibit re–myelination and axon repair. The axons
themselves also lose the potential for growth with age due to a decrease in the expression of

Latest Alzheimer's Disease
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a form of dementia that causes problems with memory, thinking, and
behavior. AD typically involves the development of a progressive neuropsychiatric disorder that is
characterized by gradual memory impairment, loss of acquired skills and emotional disturbances
(Lee, Y. J., Han, S. B., Nam, S. Y., Oh, K. W., & Hong, J. T.). Every 67 seconds an individual in the
United States develops AD. AD is the sixth leading cause of death in the United States. There are 5.3
million Americans diagnosed with AD (Latest Alzheimer's Facts and Figures). AD is one of the few
degenerative diseases that cannot be prevented, stopped, or cured (Latest Alzheimer's Facts and
Figures). Post–mortem examination of the brain of AD patients usually ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
2010). The neuroinflammation is an early, non–specific immune reaction to tissue damage or
pathogen invasion (Lee et al. 2010). Inflammation of the central nervous system (CNS) is
characterized by increased glial activation, pro–inflammatory cytokine concentration, blood–brain–
barrier permeability, and leukocyte invasion (Lee et al. 2010). Microglia are cells that support and
protect neuronal functions (Lee at al. 2010). They act as the first and main form of active immune
defense that orchestrate the endogenous immune response of the Central Nervous System. The
microglia play a central role in the cellular response to pathological lesions such as Aβ. Aβ can
attract and activate microglia, leading to clustering of microglia around Aβ deposits sites in the brain
(Lee et al. 2010). Even though microglia have neuroprotective functions, neurotoxic mechanisms
which involves continuous activation of microglia and toxic factors are released by microglia, which
may lead to neuroinflammation (Lee et al. 2010). Astrocytes (star–shaped glial cells) are the most
abundant cells in the brain and are located in the brain and spinal. Astrocytes have various functions
such as: biochemical support of endothelial cells of the BBB, supplying nutrients to the nervous
tissue, maintenance of extracellular ion balance, and healing the brain and spinal cord following
traumatic injury (Lee et al., 2010). Chemokines are released by astrocytes which attract microglia
and they further express proinflammatory products, thus increasing neuronal damage in the
pathogenesis of AD (Lee et al., 2010). Astrocytes play a critical role in Aß clearance and
degradation, and they also provide trophic support to neurons forming a protective barrier between
Aß deposits and neurons (Wyss–Coray et al., 2003). Neurons contribute to the production of

Microbiota Controls The Homeostasis Of Glial Cells
Cristiaan Ciarlo
Bio 328
Summary: The article titled: Microbiota Controls the Homeostasis of Glial Cells in the Gut Lamina
Propria assessed the varying conditions in which Microbiota within the developing digestive tract
can influence the process of network formation of the certain aspects of the enteric nervous system.
The enteric nervous system (ENS) is the aspect of the digestive system endowed with its own
nervous system (Bowen 2006). As far as the article is concerned, there were three important
biological findings presented in the article concerning the ENS.
The first was that glial cells, under situations that are comparable to environmental, aggregate in the
lamina propria during early stages of development after birth. The second finding was that this
population of glial cells undergoes a regenerative cycle throughout the life of the organism. This
occurs in a specific region of the gut. The final finding was that this early stage development and
subsequent regeneration throughout the life of the organism depends on the microbiota presented to
the gut. The Microbiota, as they are referred to in the article, are part of an enormous array of
microbes which colonize the body (Baily, Gur, Worly, 2015). Therefore it can be understood that the
gut microbiota are the microbes of the body that inhabit the gut. These seem to be part of the
primary focus in the article.
The article noted that there were questions that arose regarding the development of this specific

Assignment 2.3: Glial Cells
2.3: Glial Cells
Scientist would think that the Glial Cells weren't entitled to do anything but until 20 years later,
brain scientists assumed that neurons connected within one another. Glial Cells represented our
thoughts and that glia were kind of like stucco and grout holding the house composed. They were
well–thought–out as modest insulators for neuron communication. There are some rare kinds of glial
cells, but recently scientist's experts have begun to focus on a more precise brand of glial cell called
the 'astrocyte,' as they are rich in the cortex. Technologists have also exposed that astrocytes connect
to themselves in the cortex and are also gifted of sending information to neurons. Finally, astrocytes
are also the mature stem

Mullelr and Glial Cells Essay
This experiment was done to determine the main purpose Muller cells, a type of glial cell, and its
cell regions have in the body. The Muller cell's endfoot was of particular interest, and scientists
wanted to observe the affects the endfoot has on conductance and resistance, as well as its overall
purpose. The results from this experiment could then provide us with a more generalized view of the
purpose that other glial cells, especially astrocytes, have in the brain. It was hypothesized that if
most of the Muller cell's conductance was located in the endfoot, then the resistance in the endfoot
would also vary significantly compared to the rest of the cell and this would have huge impacts on
how potassium ions removed from ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The measurement of resistance in the Muller cell with the endfoot still intact was much lower than
when the resistance in the cell after the endfoot had been removed. Additionally, when researchers
cut a part of the cell above the endfoot, leaving the endfoot untouched, the cell resistance did
increase slightly, but not by very much. These observations helped to prove that the endfoot, not
other parts of the cell, contributes to most of the cell's resistance, and therefore conductance. When
measuring impedance in the cell, the endfoot impedance increased when penetrated, while other
parts of the cell showed no real changes. When KCl solution was added into the cell and the amount
of potassium ion efflux was recorded along the cell, it was found that about the same amount of
potassium efflux occurred all along the cell membrane, with the endfoot having a much greater
efflux of potassium ions than anywhere else on the Muller cell. All in all, it was determined that the
Muller endfoot is not only where the highest conductance and lowest membrane resistance in the
cell is locate, but also where the most potassium channels are located. Therefore, the endfoot greatly
controls how much potassium ion movement. This goes for Muller

Histo Practice Exam 1
1. Fixation
2. formaldehyde
3. glutaraldehyde
4. Dehydration
5. clearing
6. epoxy resins, paraffin
7. microtome
8. glass slide, wire grid
9. Hematoxylin, Eosin
10. Eosin
11. Hematoxylin
12. cationic/ + charged
13. acidophilia
14. anionic/ – charged
15. basophilia
16. RNA
17. pink, purple
18. False, it differs
19. insoluble molecules
20. small, organic solvents
21. Shrinkage
22. artificial spaces, molecules
23. artifacts
24. chemical composition
25. enzymes
26. antibodies
27. RNA, DNA
28. radioactive
29. resolution/resolving power
30. 0.2
31. true
32. non–membrane bound
33. membrane
34. Mitochondria
35. fluorescent tags.

36. rhodamine 123
37. False, this is not a self sufficient replication system
38. EM ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Loose (areolar), Dense
80. embryonic mesenchyme
81. skull
82. formation of bone from mesenchyme
83. Loose
84. Dense CT
85. Loose CT
86. Loose/areolar CT
87. fibroblast, macrophage, mast cell, plasma cell
88. Fibroblast
89. collagen
90. rough ER, Golgi, ECM
91. rough ER
92. golgi
93. ECM
94. Cross–linking
95. elastic fibers
96. Macrophage
97. macrophage
98. macrophage
99. fibroblast
100. Fibroblasts
101. mucosal mast cells, CT proper mast cells
102. inflammatory
103. largest
104. hypersensitivity reaction
105. mast cells
106. mast cell
107. plasma cells
108. Plasma cells
109. RER (basophilia)
110. Plasma cells
111. Loose connective tissue in lamina propria
112. ECM (extracellular matrix)
113. Proteoglycan
114. glycoaminoglycans (GAGs)
115. GAGs
116. nutritive, degrading
117. Proteoglycans, glycoproteins, glycoaminoglycans
118. dynamic
119. Fibroblasts, smooth muscle cells, chondroblasts.
120. RER, golgi
121. mature elastic fibers

122. desmosin, isodesmosine
123. elastin fibers (in artery wall)
124. Reticular CT
125. Elastic CT
126. Dense regular CT
127. Dense Irregular CT
128. dense irregular CT
129. dense regular CT
130. loose CT (of the epidermis)
131. dense irregular CT (of dermis)
132. Dense regular CT (of tendon)
133. fibroblasts (in cross section of tendon)
134. Specialized connective tissue
135. Connective tissue (CT) proper
136. 1) the distribution and relative number of cells; 2)types of fibers

Glial Cell Research
Glial cells play an important role in the function of the neurons. Approximately ninety percent of the
human brain is made up of glial cells (Moyes 182). For many years, scientists believed that these
glial cells played a passive role in the nervous system of vertebrates. This is why they were named
glial cells because the Greek word glia means glue (Moyes 182). One type of glial cells that is part
of the peripheral nervous system is Schwann cells (Moyes 182). Collectively, these cells make up
the myelin sheath and help repair any damage that might happen to the motor or sensory neurons
(Moyes 182). Oligodendrocytes is another type of glial cells located in the central nervous system
(Moyes 182). They differ from Schwann cells because they are able to wrap around ... Show more
The sympathetic nervous system is most active during times of stress, physical activity, or a
response to a startling stimulus (Moyes 331). The sympathetic nervous system is also called the
"fight–or–flight" system (Moyes 331). This is because when this nervous system is stimulated the
heart rate of vertebrates increase and they experience deeper breathing, and blood vessels being
dilated (Moyes 331). The sympathetic nervous system is also able to stimulate the adrenal medulla
in order to release a hormone named epinephrine. Epinephrine is able to increase the heart and
respiratory rates (Moyes 332). The sympathetic nervous system also diverts blood from the digestive
system to the muscles in order to make sure that the muscles have enough nutrients and oxygen
(Moyes 331). The parasympathetic nervous system on the other hand is known as the "resting and
digesting" system (Moyes 331). Both the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system are
referred to as involuntary nervous systems, but the parasympathetic nervous system undergoes quite
activities such as digesting (Moyes

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