ONLINE ASSIGNMENT PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

1. MOUNT TABOR TRAINING COLLEGE, PATHANAPURAM
SEMESTER II, 2014-2015
EDU 10.2 TECHNO-PEDAGOGIC CONTENT KNOWLEDGE ANALYSIS
ONLINE ASSIGNMENT
TOPIC: PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION
 LINEAR
 BRANCHING
Submitted to: Prof. E K Jijan Submitted by: Hermine Henry
English
Reg. no: 16514303013

2. INTRODUCTION
Programmed learning (or programmed instruction) is a research-based system which helps
learners work successfully. The method is guided by research done by a variety of applied
psychologists and educators.
The learning material is in a kind of textbook or teaching machine or computer.
The medium presents the material in a logical and tested sequence. The text is in small steps or
larger chunks. After each step, learners are given a question to test their comprehension. Then
immediately the correct answer is shown. This means the learner at all stages makes responses,
and is given immediate knowledge of results.
Programmed learning, is an educational technique characterized by self-paced, self-administered
instruction presented in logical sequence and with much repetition of concepts. Programmed
learning received its major impetus from the work done in the mid-1950s by the American
behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner and is based on the theory that learning in many areas is
best accomplished by small, incremental steps with immediate reinforcement, or reward, for the
learner. This technique can be applied through texts, so-called teaching machines, and computer-
assisted-instruction. No matter what the medium, two basic types of programming are used:
linear, or straight-line programming, and branching programming
It is rather interesting that Edward L. Thorndike wrote in 1912: "If, by a miracle of mechanical
ingenuity, a book could be so arranged that only to him who had done what was directed on page
one would page two become visible, and so on, much that now requires personal instruction
could be managed by print".
Thorndike, however, did nothing with his idea. The first such system was devised by Sidney L.
Pressey in 1926. "The first..[teaching machine] was developed by Sidney L. Pressey... While
originally developed as a self-scoring machine... [it] demonstrated its ability to actually teach".
"In a Skinnerian education system there would be no marks given. None would be necessary, as
students would proceed through programs of instruction mastering each in turn…With a teaching
machine, no tests are needed… When a student gets through the program of material there is no
point in testing him. The mark, if one insists on mark, would tell how far the student has
proceeded. It is to be assumed that records of students' progress would be in terms of programs
completed. When a program is completed you know it all then. I have no doubt at all that
programmed instruction based on operant principles will take over education." (B.F. Skinner.
1967)
CONTENT
What is programmed learning?
If so much research had already been done on learning from films, what exactly did programmed
learning add? The short answer is "stimulus control", by which is broadly meant the teaching
material itself. Also, in programmed learning, a complete system was proposed which included
these stages:
1. The aims of the course are stated in terms which are objective, and can be measured.
2. A pre-test is given, or the initial behavior is stated.

3. 3. A post-test is provided.
4. The materials have been tried out and revised according to results (developmental
testing).
5. The materials are constructed according to a predetermined scheme (stimulus control).
6. The material is arranged in appropriate steps.
7. The learner has to respond actively (not necessarily overtly).
8. Arrangements are made for responses to be confirmed (knowledge of results).
9. The teaching medium is appropriate for the subject-matter and the students.
10.The materials are self-paced or presented in a manner which suits the learner.
Originally introduced in the mid-1950s by behaviorist B.F. Skinner, programmed instruction
is a system whereby the learner uses specially prepared books or equipment to learn without
a teacher. It was intended to free teachers from burdensome drills and repetitive problem-
solving inherent in teaching basic academic subjects like spelling, arithmetic, and reading.
Skinner based his ideas on the principle of operant conditioning, which theorized that
learning takes place when a reinforcing stimulus is presented to reward a correct response. In
early programmed instruction, students punched answers to simple math problems into a
type of keyboard. If the answer was correct, the machine would advance to another problem.
Incorrect answers would not advance. Skinner believed such learning could, in fact, be
superior to traditional teacher-based instruction because children were rewarded immediately
and individually for correct answers rather than waiting for a teacher to correct written
answers or respond verbally. Programmed instruction quickly became popular and spawned
much educational research and commercial enterprise in the production of programmed
instructional materials. It is considered the antecedent of modern computer-assisted learning
TYPES OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION
There are two basic types of programming are used:
 Linear or extrinsic programming
 Branching or intrinsic programming
Two types of programmed learning can be compared. Linear programming involves a simple
step-by-step procedure. There is a single set of materials and students work from one problem to
the next until the end of the program. Branching programming is more complex. Students choose
from multiple-choice answers and then are prompted to proceed to another page of the book
depending on their answer. If a correct answer is given, students move on to another page with
more information to learn and more questions to answer. An incorrect answer leads to comments
on why the answer is incorrect and a direction to return to the original question to make another
selection.
Linear programming immediately reinforces student responses that approach the learning goal.
Responses that do not lead toward the goal go unreinforced. Each bit of learning is presented in a
“frame,” and a student who has made a correct response proceeds to the next frame. All students
work through the same sequence, and a low rate of error is necessary to ensure continued
positive reinforcement of correct responses. Linear programming immediately reinforces student
responses that are correct. Each 'bit' of information is presented in a "frame," and a student who
has made a correct response proceeds to the next frame. All students work through the same

4. sequence.Although Sidney Pressey (1927) originated programmed learning, B. F.
Skinner(1958) popularized it. Skinner's approach has been called linear in nature and
involves the following features:
o Learners are exposed to small amounts of information and proceed from one frame or one
item of information, to the next in an orderly fashion (this is what is meant by linear)
o Learners respond overtly so that their correct responses can be rewarded and their
incorrect responses can be corrected
o Learners are informed immediately about whether or not their response is correct
(feedback)
o Learners proceed at their own pace (self-pacing)
Branching, or intrinsic, programming, was initially developed in conjunction with the use of an
electronic training device for military personnel. This technique provides the student a piece of
information, presents a situation requiring a multiple choice or recognition response, and on the
basis of that choice instructs the student to proceed to another frame, where he or she learns if
the choice was correct, and if not, why not. A student who responded incorrectly will either be
returned to the original frame, or routed through a subprogram designed to remedy the deficiency
indicated by the wrong choice. A student who selects correctly advances to the next frame in the
program. This process is repeated at each step throughout the program, and a student may be
exposed to differing amounts of material depending upon errors made.
In branching programming, the student who responds incorrectly will either be returned to the
original frame, or routed through a subprogram designed to remedy the deficiency indicated by
the wrong choice. This process is repeated at each step throughout the program, and a student
may be exposed to differing amounts of material depending upon errors made.
Norman Crowder, a contemporary of Skinner, was working independently for the armed services
on programmed instruction. He felt that a program was a form of communication between a
programmer and a user. Like any communication, the program must be directed to the
individual. Unlike Skinner, Crowder was not working from a psychological perspective, but
from a communications point of view. In an intrinsic or branching program, each frame presents
more text than the average linear frame. After reading, the user responds to an adjunct question,
usually in a multiple-option format. Unlike Pressey's auto-instructional approach, which provides
only confirmation of the correctness or incorrectness of that response, branching style optional
choices lead users to optional forms of feedback, most of which is corrective. If the user makes a
correct response, the program asserts the reasons why she or he was correct and moves on to new
material. If an incorrect response is made, the program, at the very least, informs the user that an
error was made and then branches the user back to the previous frame for another try.
The primary purpose of feedback" is to determine whether the communication was successful, in
order that corrective steps be taken." (Crowder 288) Depending upon the complexity of the error
committed, the programE. may initiate a remedial sequence of instruction, a practice designed to
eliminate the learning deficiency. Branching instruction adapts the sequence of the program to a
limited degree to fit the prior learning and processing capabilities of the user. The term intrinsic
refers to the fact that all program options are intrinsic to the program and, therefore, not
dependent on any external programming device. This approach is especially adapted to machine

5. presentation, which provides for greater levels of adaptability. Branching texts tend to be large
and confusing, especially when users try to access them in a manual way.
The primary difference between Skinner's conception of programming and Crowder's is in the
function of the response. To Skinner, learning results from making the correct response. Contrary
to this response orientation, Crowder believed that learning results from the realignment of the
user's knowledge structure, and that the response is simply a means for controlling the program
or machine. The larger chunks of information need to be assimilated and integrated with what the
user already knows. The response, he believed, tests the level of integration. This type of
programming benefits the higher-ability user, who is more capable of higher-level integration of
ideas, more than it does the lower-ability user.
CONCLUSION
Just as the programming developed more complexity over the years, so did the teaching
machines themselves. Early, simple machines were little more than electronic workbooks. Later
machines allowed students to be instructed on more complex material that required more than
one-word or one-number responses. In some, students could write their responses and move
ahead by comparing their answers to acceptable answers. Programmed-learning books differ
from traditional workbooks because they actually teach new information through this step-by-
step stimulus-response method rather than simply offering practice material for already-learned
skills.
Research has shown that programmed learning often is as successful, and sometimes more
successful, than traditional teacher-based learning because it recognizes the different abilities and
needs of individual children. Students who have mastered the material can move ahead more
quickly, while those who need more practice are repeatedly exposed to the problems.
Programmed learning also allows teachers more time to concentrate on more complex tasks. One
criticism of programmed learning centers on the lack of student-teacher interaction. It has been
shown that some students thrive more fully with the human motivation inherent in more
traditional learning situations.
Originally a book or 'teaching machine' was used to present the material to be learned in a series
of very small steps, called frames. Each frame contains some information and a statement with a
blank that the student fills in. The student then uncovers the correct answer before going on to

6. the next frame. If the student's answer was correct it is positively reinforced by this progress to
the next frame; if not, the student immediately sees the correct answer. Each frame may either
introduce a new idea or repeat material covered earlier. The lessons start from the student's initial
knowledge and in small steps proceeds to a final learning goal. Because of active student
participation, small steps, immediate feedback, and reinforcement, programmed learning can be
very effective.
Currently, the principles of programmed learning are being applied in computer assisted
instruction (CAI). The computer can be used to present learning material and help students learn
through a variety of techniques such as quizzes, simulations, explorations, and tests. Computer
assisted instruction is effective in part because of the availability of immediate feedback.
Skinner's ideas remain cogent and interesting, but have never been realized. They certainly
deserve consideration and national debate. When education methodology can be elevated to the
status of scientific research, it seem foolish to ignore or denigrate any known method which will
improve the achievement of students.
At the beginning, programmed instruction was thought for students particularly gifted, in order
to prevent them to waste their time by listening things they already knew, and that could be
useless for their learning process. Those who think (and are still thinking) that programmed
instruction isolate students, must consider that the machine brings them into contact with the
people who composed the material and with a large number of other students. Besides,
computers prevent students from repeating the same material and facilitate the review of
previous lessons, so, each student can learn in accordance with his own level. But all this is only
feasible in class, where the role of teachers is once more important for stimulating discussion and
improving the quality of education itself. Moreover, the fact that the student is among his friends
avoids the risk of socially isolating him as homeschooling does.
REFERENCE
http://psychology.jrank.org/pages/505/Programmed-Learning.html
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Programmed_instruction
http://lrs.ed.uiuc.edu/students/fretzin/epl1q2programmed.htm
http://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/program.htm