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06 drilling fluids
1.
Shell Special Intensive
Training Programme Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 1 of 18 ©Univation 6 DRILLING FLUIDS AND APPLICATIONS 6.1 Introduction Drilling fluids are generally the "blood" of all drilling operations and the petroleum industry especially has continued to make increasing use of these fluids the cost of which can account for over 20% of total operating costs. To minimise the cost as well as improve performance and safety, other generic types of these, fluids are continuously being developed mainly to meet the increasing challenges of: • Deeper well drilling/completion especially in high temperature and pressure environment. • Increasing use of advanced wells (ERD, multilateral and horizontal wells) • Stiff environmental regulations Historically, either water based muds (WBMs) or Oilbased muds(OBMs) have been used for drilling especially in the North Sea and other operational areas of the world. The performance of many water-based muds makes them to be particularly deficient in drilling deep, high angle, extended reach wells or in high temperatures and pressures. Oilbased muds are therefore being used in large numbers to overcome these deficiencies. As the operating companies make aggressive moves towards the exploration/ development in the deeper waters, the use of OBMs has increased tremendously. Although wells drilled with OBMs produce lower waste volumes, the Environmental Protection Agencies worldwide and in particular the HSE in the UK have stiff guidelines on the release of free oil and drill cuttings discharges and wastes are usually not allowed to be discharged on site. This has led to the development of a variety of potentially low-toxicity, biodegradable synthetic based muds(SBMs) and a variety of pseudo-oil based muds(POBM) which theoretically offer better pollution prevention potential over oilbased muds. These systems definition of the optimum operating conditions for completing oilwells nowadays depend largely on the understanding of the complex fluid mechanics of drilling/completion fluids. A good knowledge of the fluid
2.
Shell Special Intensive
Training Programme Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 2 of 18 ©Univation rheological behaviour is fundamental to this understanding most especially with respect to: • The formulation of the fluid recipe • Accurate prediction of pressure drops • Design for optimum hydraulics for effective hole cleaning and stability, fluid displacement strategies for cement-mud displacement, etc. 6.2 Functions of Drilling Fluids Basically, drilling fluids are used to : 1. Remove cuttings from the bottom of the hole and carry them to the surface 2. Release any carried sand and cuttings at the surface 3. Hold cuttings and any weight materials in suspension during circulation interruption 4. Cool and lubricate the bit and drillstring 5. Wall the borehole wall with an impermeable filter cake 6. Control formation pressure 7. Support part of the weight of drillpipe and casing 8. Reduce to a minimum any adverse effects upon the formation adjacent to the hole 9. Insure maximum information about the formations to be penetrated 10.Transmit hydraulic horsepower to the bit 11.Prevent and control corrosion of drillstring and other wellbore facilities
3.
Shell Special Intensive
Training Programme Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 3 of 18 ©Univation 6.3 Properties of Drilling Fluids In performing the above listed functions drilling fluids must not: • generate secondary reaction which can lead to precipitation. • Must not react with the formation • must maintain stability of properties under the operating conditions of temperature and pressure • must not damage the formation either through plugging by solids, bacterial deterioration, etc. The properties of the fluids depend largely on the fluid composition and flow behavioural characteristics. Nevertheless, the key properties of the drilling fluid are: 1. Mud Density -'This is measured normally with a mud balance. 2. Rheological properties:Apparent Viscosity, Plastic Viscosity, Yield Point, Gel Strength, Flow behaviour index (n), Consistency(k). -Properties are derived from measurements carried out with viscometers Six speed Fann 35 viscometer is the most common. 12-speed versions are now being introduced for in-depth rheological characterisation. Details of computational techniques are presented in section 4. The Marsh Funnel also provides a quatitative information on the fluid viscosity. The relative new Fann 70 allows for fluid analysis under pressure and high temperature. 3. Fluid Loss: Both filtrate (in millilitres) and cake thickness(in 1164") are measured using the Filter Press. There are static and dynamic filter presses for static and dynamic filtration. 4. Solids Content: Sand content can be measured by the sand content kit while the retort kit can evaluate all solids in the system plus the liquid fractions.
4.
Shell Special Intensive
Training Programme Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 4 of 18 ©Univation 5. pH - This is measured using the pH meter or the litmus paper. pH<7 is acidic and pH>7 is basic. 6. Resistivity -This is measured using the resistivity meter. There are other measurements/analysis carried out on drilling fluids, but the above are the relatively basic ones. 6.4 Drilling Fluid Composition Drilling fluids can be either gas, liquid slurry or foam. The liquid slurry is called drilling mud and is the most commonly used drilling fluid. Gas drilling fluids are hardly used but for some special applications. They are used in combination with the liquid a foam fluids especially for underbalanced drilling. The Drilling Mud The mud is basically made up of: 1. A continuous phase which can be either water, oil and is the base fluid 2. A dispersed phase which ca-n be basically clay(bentonite) or other solids(asphalt, etc) 3. Chemical additives to control fluid properties such as weighting materials (Barytes), viscosity and loss control additives. From the point of view of mud logging, drilling muds offer the best advantage especially with respect to cuttings recovery and well control. There are basically three major types of drilling fluids nowadays. These are: A. Water based drilling fluids These are a mixture of solids, liquids and chemicals. These are active solids like bentonite added to water with the water as the continuous phase. . Bentonite acts mainly as the dispersed phase providing the main gel structure. Chemical additives are added in various proportions to control the fluid properties. These chemical additives are commonly used for the control of pH, viscosity, weight, fluid loss, etc.
5.
Shell Special Intensive
Training Programme Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 5 of 18 ©Univation For example, • Caustic soda is used to control pH and can be classified as an active solid • Barite is used to increase mud weight; This is an inactive solid • CMC (Carboxy-methyl-Cellulose) a polymer is used to control fluid loss; This is an active additive • Lignite can be used to control mud viscosity; This is an active additive. There are also Loss Control Materials (LCM) to prevent and control the total loss of whole mud into the formation. Examples are nut plug, byrofibre, Mica, etc and are inactive materials. The chemical additives normally provide the generic names for the different water based muds. Examples are 1. Inhibitive Mud - These are calcium based muds used to control swelling and hydration of clays and sensitive shales. Highly suitable for drilling formations containing gypsum and hydrites as well as dirty sands(sands with high clay content). 2. Dispersed - Lignosulphonate Muds - Such muds can be made up of water, bentonite, caustic soda, CMC polymer and Lignosulphonate. They have good viscosity control, high solids tolerance and good fluid loss control. They are suitable for use when: • High mud weight is needed > 14ppg • Drilling under moderately high temperature • High contamination is expected • Low fluid loss is required 3. KC1/Polymer Muds: These are non-dispersed muds used to drill water sensitive, sloughing shales. Typical compositions can be as follows :
6.
Shell Special Intensive
Training Programme Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 6 of 18 ©Univation Water or brine; potassium chloride; Caustic soda; CMC- Lubricants; bentonite and possibly HEC. 4. Salt, Saturated Muds - These are brine based fluids in which the continuous phase is either Sodium chloride, Calcium Chloride, Calcium Bromide, Zinc Bromide, etc. They are good for drilling through salt sections where fresh water mud contamination is a major threat. B. Oil Based Muds These are similar in composition as Water based muds except that the continuous phase is oil. There are three types 1. Pure oil based muds 2. Water-in oil - emulsions with oil as continuous phase and water as dispersed phase 3. Invert muds I.e. oil-in water emulsions with water as continuous phase and oil as dispersed phase. These muds are generally more expensive and require more stringent pollution control. Their use is generally restricted to conditions where WBM are dangerous, technically impossible or uneconomical to use. These include high pressure and high pressure applications as well as conditions where the formation such as shale, is highly sensitive to water based muds. They are particularly popular for drilling advanced wells such as extended reach wells, multilateral and horizontal wells. Typical composition can be: • Diesel as base oil • Calcium or sodium chloride • Water in dispersed phase • Bentonite
7.
Shell Special Intensive
Training Programme Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 7 of 18 ©Univation • Typical additives • LCM • Barytes, etc. C . Synthetic Based Muds Because of the environmental effect of oilbased muds, many drilled cuttings have to be processed to clean out the oil before dumping to Meet control regulations. This makes its use rather expensive. To reduce cost and minimise pollution, new synthetic oils are now being developed and used to make synthetic based muds(SBMs). The SBMs are classified according to molecular structure of the synthetic base fluids which can be esters, ethers, etc. They have drilling and operational properties similar to OBMs but have the advance of being more “environmentally friendly". Likewise, so-called pseudo oil based muds are also being developed which are mainly water based systems but possess the merits of oilbased muds especially in terms of stability at high temperature and high pressure. 6.5 Drilling Fluids Classifications Drilling/completion fluids are predominantly non-Newtonian, the flow behaviours of which are very complex and varied depending on the type and composition of the fluids. Therefore appropriate knowledge of, prediction and control of the fluids rheology are essential to successful fluids optimisation. Generally, drilling and completion fluids are known to possess the following visco-elastic properties for a variety of oilfield operations: • Effective or apparent viscosity • Plastic viscosity • Yield point • Gel Strength
8.
Shell Special Intensive
Training Programme Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 8 of 18 ©Univation • Flow behaviour index • Consistency index The accurate description of these fluids rheological properties is fundamental to specific applications such as: • The prediction of pressure drops and equivalent circulation density in the wellbore The design for optimum hydraulics for effective wellbore cleanup and stability Determination of optimum operating conditions such as pumping rate and circulation pressure for fluid displacement and solids placement. • The suspension and transport of solids including cuttings and milled swarfs • Design for the concentration and type of chemical additives for optimum fluids formulation. The operating window of fluid rheology should therefore: • enable effective solids removal including cuttings, swarfs and debris • minimise pressure losses • prevent hole erosion • enable fluids and solids placement /displacement. Accurate prediction of the flow behaviour and flow model is the key to adjusting the rheological properties for specific applications. Fluids are generally classified in accordance with their relative rheological models 6.5.1 Fluid Rheological Models In general, the Bingham plastic and Power Law models represent the popular models used for defining drilling/completion fluid rheological properties. These models are separately expressed as:
9.
Shell Special Intensive
Training Programme Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 9 of 18 ©Univation 1. Bingham Plastic Model Most bentonite-water mixtures fall into this category The behaviour is defined mathematically by the following equation τ = τy + µp∗γ In field units, τ = Shear stress, lb/100ft2 : τy = Bingham yield point, lb/100ft2 : µp = Plastic viscosity, cp; γ= Shear rate, sec 2. Power Law Model Most polymer based muds fall into category and it is defined mathematically as: τ = n K γ* However, more specialised models are now available to characterise the different types of more complex fluids now in use within the oil industry. These are the Herschel-Bulkley(HB) model, Cassons model as well as the Robertson and Stiff model. 3. The Herschel-Bulkley model This is a more generalised classification and majorities of modern mud recipes fall into this category. It is expressed mathematically as: n y K γττ * += 4. Casson’s Model: 2 1* 10 2 1 γτ KK += 5. Robertson and Stiff model: ( )B CA += γτ where
10.
Shell Special Intensive
Training Programme Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 10 of 18 ©Univation τ = Shear stress τy =Yield point µp = Plastic viscosity γ= shear rate n = Flow behaviour index K =consistency index Α,Β,Χ,Κ0 and Κ1 are flow constants. Generally, Plastic viscosity (cp) 300600 θθµ −=p where θ600, 300 = dial readings at speeds 600rpm and 300 rpms respectively. Bingham yield point (lbs/100ft2 ) py µθτ −= 300 Apparent Viscosity at each rotary speed, cp)gives100byd(multipliepoise, γ τµ =s Get Strength (lb/l00 ft2 ) This is based on the maximum dial deflection on viscometer when turned at low speed which is 3rpm speed for a 6-speed Fann 35 or 0.9rpm for a 12speed Fann35. The Gel strength results are presented as 10sec. Gel and a 10 minute. Gel. Fig. 6.1 shows an illustration of the profiles.
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Training Programme Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 11 of 18 ©Univation 6.6 Drilling Fluid Design The design of drilling fluids for optimum results involves the specification of : 1. Type of drilling fluid to use This depends largely on the type of formation to be drilled and the expected downhole operating conditions including the potential hazards to be encountered. These will invariably dictate the actual type and composition of the fluid in terms of chemical additives. 2. Specification of Fluid Density One of the primary functions of the drilling fluid is the control of formation through the imposition of hydrostatic pressure on the formation. Thus, the mud must be of sufficient density to meet this basic function Therefore 0.052*ρm*D=pR +POB PR = Reservoir or pore pressure, psi POB = Overbalance (Usually about 200psi is enough but could be as high as 500psi depending on the conditions)
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Training Programme Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 12 of 18 ©Univation It is important that the imposed pressure must not be more than the maximum allowable which must be a factor less that the formation breakdown pressure. From the above, the mud density required can be computed as follows ρm = (PR +POB )/(0.052 * D) 3. Fluid Rheological Properties The main rheological properties are apparent viscosity, plastic Viscosity, gel strength, yield, n and K. The drilling mud must have good suspension and carrying capacities. Therefore optimum combination of these properties are required. These properties are adjustable to suit specific requirements whereas the mud density is largely dependent on the formation pore pressure. 4. Other properties Other relevant properties are as specified in Section 2.2 above and can be adjusted to requirements. 6.6.1 Choice of Drilling Fluids The main factors governing the choice and composition of drilling fluids are mainly • Types of formations to be drilled • Range of temperature • Formation pressure and rock strength which dictate the mud weight and fluid type • Formation evaluation technique which might require change from oil based to water based mud; e,g. Resitivity logs. • Water quality e.g Offshore where sea water may be used resulting in the use of unsaturated salt water muds! • Environmental considerations. • Borehole problems
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Training Programme Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 13 of 18 ©Univation 6.7 Effect of High Pressure and High Temperature on Drilling Fluid Properties High pressure and high temperature are known to have major effects on especially the drilling fluids. Temperature Effects Generally, water based drilling muds are known to be highly unstable in HP- HT wells with viscosity reducing with increase in temperature; Baryte sag and secondary reactions and breakdown of polymer systems have been known to occur. Increase in temperature is also known to lead to a decrease in mud weight especially for oil- based muds with density at surface being lower at depth than at the surface. This no doubt will have major effect on the bottom hole circulation pressure, as the equivalent density would be lower than expected which can result in a potential influx of formation fluid into the wellbore. The effect on fluid loss on the other hand is not well known except that the possibility of mud instability can lead to the presence of more 'more' 'free water' which can result in higher filtrate loss. However, the reduced annular pressure may minimise this loss. Pressure does not appear to have any major effect on the fluid rheological properties but density has been known to decrease with increase in pressure. For oil based muds, temperature has been known to lead to a decrease in viscosity while pressure causes an increase in viscosity. Barite sag i.e. the settling of solids onto the low side wall of a deviated hole or to the sump of a vertical hole. Potential avalanche of solids settling will lead to inconsistency with respect to mud weight. Attempting to viscosity the mud may lead to a higher Equivalent mud density which may result in fractures and potential lost circulation problem.
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Training Programme Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 14 of 18 ©Univation Effect of Pressure Increase in pressure generally appears to have an increase in equivalent mud density with depth but probably to a lesser degree. Effect on rheology however is not well defined. While thermal expansion appears to affect the rheological properties, the mud compressibility does not seem to be affected by rheology. However at low shear rate, some mixed effects have been observed with viscosity increasing with increase in pressure. Thus, adequate correction for the fluid properties must be effected when drilling HP-HT wells. Suggested Control 1. To avoid HP-HT problems, it is essential to understand the response of the chosen mud to HP-HT. This includes prediction of down hole mud weight and rheology. This will guide the choice of fluid properties at surface and the mixing formula. 2. Efforts should be made to make the low shear rate rheology as high as possible to suit existing hole conditions. 3. Fluid properties must continuously be monitored and treatment by thinners should be avoided where possible to avoid potential hole problems. 4. Use of small/ medium size range of weighting materials 'm small concentrations may help in minimising barite sag. 5. Excessive mud circulation at low flow rate should be avoided if possible and circulation bottoms-up at each predefined point to reduce heavy mud presence in the annulus should be encouraged. 6. Optimum hydraulics are crucial to a successful drilling of HP/HT wells to avoid problems 6.8 Drilling Hydraulics
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Training Programme Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 15 of 18 ©Univation Pressure Drop Equations for non-Newtonian Fluids A. Power-Law Fluid The model equation for Power Law is: n n K n K γ τ γ γ τ τ γτ = = = 1 2 1 2 log log For pipe Flow Apparent Viscosity, µa n n n a n v Kd + = − − 0416.0 13 96 )1( )1( µ Reynolds Number Re = ( ) n n n d K v + − 13 0416.089100 2 ρ Pressure Drop Equation FlowTurbulentFor- 8.25 vLf p FlowLaminarFor- 144000 0416.0 1 3 2 1 d d nLKv p n n n ρ =∆ + =∆ + Annular Flow
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Training Programme Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 16 of 18 ©Univation Apparent Viscosity ( ) ( ) n n n a n v ddK +− = − − 0208.0 12 144 1 1 12 µ Reynolds Number Re = ( ) ( ) n n n dd K v + −− 12 0208.0000,109 12 2 ρ Pressure Drop Equations ( ) ( ) FlowTurbulent- 1.21 vLf p FlowLaminar- 144000 0208.0 1 2 12 2 1 12 dd dd nLKv p n n n − =∆ − + =∆ + ρ B. Herschel-Bulkley Fluids ( ) n n K γ ττ γττ 0 0 - K =+= Approximately possible to use same power law equations. C. Bingham Plastic Fluids γµττ py += Pipe Flow Equations Apparent Viscosity c y pa v dτ µµ 66.6 +=
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Training Programme Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 17 of 18 ©Univation Reynolds Number Re = µ ρvd928 Pressure Drop Equations FlowTurbulent- 8.25 vfL p FlowLaminar- 2251500 2 2 d d L d vL p yp ρ τµ =∆ +=∆ Annular Flow Apparent Viscosity ( ) v ddy pa 125 − += τ µµ Reynolds Number Re = a vd µ ρ928 Pressure Drop Equations ( ) ( ) FlowTurbulent- 1.21 vfL p FlowLaminar- 200)(1000 12 2 12 2 22 dd dd L dd vL p yp − =∆ − + − =∆ ρ τµ Fo all cases, the flow equations are: A. pipe flow q=2.45*d2 *v B. Annular Flow ( ) avddq **45.2 2 1 2 2 −=
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Training Programme Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 18 of 18 ©Univation PUMP HORSEPOWER REQUIREMENTS Mechanical Efficiency, Input pq Input Output m ∆ ==η Input HP Requirements = m pq η1714 ∆