454/554 Be able to define and the main concepts of the following terms: Language · Receptive · Expressive · Semantics · Pragmatics · Syntax · Morphology · Phonology Speech Communication Reinforcement Anatomy Structures for Speech Articulation Dialect Theories of Language · Behaviorist · Nativist · Interactionist · Syntax · Semantics Chapter 2: Structural Bases of Human Communication SPCE 454 McLaughlin p. 54-61 { Speech mechanism = structures for speech production Anatomical Structures for Speech p.54 Respiration = process of ventilating the body to inhale fresh air and exhale used air Lungs Two sponge-like structures encased in the ribcage Primary purpose is to serve respiration Humans have adapted them for communication Breathing for speech is the same as respiration The difference is the duration of the cycle For respiration = same duration for inward and outward breathing For speech = outward breathing is controlled and extended The Lungs and Respiration Larynx “voice box” Responsible for transforming the airstream into phonation Vocal Folds Vibrating elastic-like structure Close to keep away foreign objects Closed (adducted) until forced open by subglottal air pressure Both protect the airway, specifically the trachea and lungs The Larynx and Phonation Vocal Tract Pharynx (throat) Oral cavity Nasal cavity These resonate and modify sound of the basic vocal tone based on shape and size Oral and Nasal Cavities Articulators = structures that can be manipulated to make sounds Lips Tongue Jaw Teeth Soft palate (velum) For vowels, the sound passes through an open oral tract, other than the lips which move to accommodate the vowel sound. Consonant sounds are much more restricted by the articulators Oral Structures and Articulation Our ears play a role in communication that is no less important than the mouth Infants must hear the sounds, words, and phrases of a language if they are eventually to reproduce them It becomes difficult to communicate if children cannot hear models or feedback Anatomy and Physiology of Hearing Auricle/pinna Most visible feature of the outer ear Minimally funnels sound into ear External auditory meatus/ear canal Slightly curved One-inch long Resonates sound that enters the ear The Outer Ear Transforms sound waves into mechanical energy Eardrum/tympanic membrane Separates the middle and outer ear Moves in and out in response to the pressure waves of incoming sound Ossicles – chain of three small bones Malleus Incus Stapes Eustachian tube Small duct that connects middle ear to pharynx Ventilates middle ear cavity, which equalizes air pressure The Middle Ear Located in temporal bone of the skull Semicircular canals Provide sense of balance and equilibrium as fluid moves in response to body changes Cochlea Primary structure concerned with hearing Coiled structure that resembles a snail Oval window Basilar membrane Organ of Corti Acoustic nerve (CN .

1. 454/554
Be able to define and the main concepts of the following terms:
Language
· Receptive
· Expressive
· Semantics
· Pragmatics
· Syntax
· Morphology
· Phonology
Speech
Communication
Reinforcement
Anatomy Structures for Speech
Articulation
Dialect
Theories of Language
· Behaviorist
· Nativist
· Interactionist
· Syntax
· Semantics
Chapter 2: Structural Bases of Human Communication
SPCE 454
McLaughlin
p. 54-61
{

2. Speech mechanism = structures for speech production
Anatomical Structures for Speech p.54
Respiration = process of ventilating the body to inhale fresh air
and exhale used air
Lungs
Two sponge-like structures encased in the ribcage
Primary purpose is to serve respiration
Humans have adapted them for communication
Breathing for speech is the same as respiration
The difference is the duration of the cycle
For respiration = same duration for inward and outward
breathing
For speech = outward breathing is controlled and extended
The Lungs and Respiration
Larynx “voice box”
Responsible for transforming the airstream into phonation

3. Vocal Folds
Vibrating elastic-like structure
Close to keep away foreign objects
Closed (adducted) until forced open by subglottal air pressure
Both protect the airway, specifically the trachea and lungs
The Larynx and Phonation
Vocal Tract
Pharynx (throat)
Oral cavity
Nasal cavity
These resonate and modify sound of the basic vocal tone based
on shape and size
Oral and Nasal Cavities
Articulators = structures that can be manipulated to make
sounds
Lips
Tongue
Jaw
Teeth
Soft palate (velum)
For vowels, the sound passes through an open oral tract, other

4. than the lips which move to accommodate the vowel sound.
Consonant sounds are much more restricted by the articulators
Oral Structures and Articulation
Our ears play a role in communication that is no less important
than the mouth
Infants must hear the sounds, words, and phrases of a language
if they are eventually to reproduce them
It becomes difficult to communicate if children cannot hear
models or feedback
Anatomy and Physiology of Hearing
Auricle/pinna
Most visible feature of the outer ear
Minimally funnels sound into ear
External auditory meatus/ear canal
Slightly curved
One-inch long
Resonates sound that enters the ear
The Outer Ear

5. Transforms sound waves into mechanical energy
Eardrum/tympanic membrane
Separates the middle and outer ear
Moves in and out in response to the pressure waves of incoming
sound
Ossicles – chain of three small bones
Malleus
Incus
Stapes
Eustachian tube
Small duct that connects middle ear to pharynx
Ventilates middle ear cavity, which equalizes air pressure
The Middle Ear
Located in temporal bone of the skull
Semicircular canals
Provide sense of balance and equilibrium as fluid moves in
response to body changes
Cochlea
Primary structure concerned with hearing
Coiled structure that resembles a snail
Oval window
Basilar membrane

6. Organ of Corti
Acoustic nerve (CN VIII) – transmits electrochemical pulses to
the brain
The Inner Ear
Chapter Four:
Models of Language Development
SPCE 454
McLaughlin (2006)
Chapter 4: Guiding Questions p.124
What is the study of language development based on?
What are the basic goals of science?
What are the basic attitudes of science?

7. What are the basic questions that science has attempted to
answer regarding language development?
What models have been proposed to explain language
development?
What impact has each model had on our understanding of
language development?
How are these models different and how are they similar?
How can the individual contributions of each model be
integrated into a comprehensive understanding of language
development?
Central Questions and Issues
Science and Research in Language Development [p.125]
Summary
Science, its methods and dispositions, plays a fundamental role
in understanding language development.
Through basic research, science addresses our curiosity about
language development and through applied research, science
addresses the needs of children with language disorders.
Scientific dispositions require us to approach data and theories
with caution and objectivity.
Chapter 4: Part ONE

8. Page 123 – 144
Science
Science is a way of asking and answering questions to gain an
objective understanding of the world
Explains natural events and relationships
Can explain development of language
Major goals of science are to explain a natural phenomenon and
technical application
Scientific explanation
Scientific explanation
Identification and verification of the variables that cause an
event to occur
Elements undergo manipulation to see what caused a change
Only manipulate one variable at a time
Example: What causes children to pay attention in class?
For language development, we focus on the variables:
Genetic inheritance
Neurological factors
Adults models
Imitation

9. Technical application
Technical application – goal of applied science in which
knowledge results in technology that is helpful to society
Develop better technology
Pharmaceutical products
Efficient energy generation
Subgoals of explanation
Understanding
Identifying the nature and causes of an event
Need to repeat observations
Language development in terms of behavior, grammar,
semantic, and pragmatics
Prediction
Goal of identifying the variables that reliable precede a
phenomenon
Languagement development is strained with hearing loss,
genetic disorders, and neurological damage
Control
Ability to influence probability of event through manipulation
of variables

10. Models of language and learning
How does a child get from point a to point b?
Example: No grammar to adult grammar
Can reach a conclusion through describing or explaining
In this chapter we look at explaining
Explaining is focusing on the actual process that cause the child
to develop language
nativism
Nature vs nurture
Children are born knowing all that they will ever know about
language
This knowledge blossoms as they mature biologically
Language develops because it is part of the child’s genetic
nature

11. Mentalism/structuralism
Very similar to the nativist view
Mentalism: knowledge primarily derives from inborn mental
processes
Structuralism: emphasizes the structure (not function)
Noam Chomsky
Empiricism
Children are born with none of the knowledge they will
eventually obtain
Genetics provides basic tools – biological structures and
neurological capacity
Language develops primarily from experience with the
environment
Experiences provided by the environment nurture it
Behaviorism is close to this view
Knowledge is the primary result of behavior
B.F. Skinner

12. Interactionism
Mutual influence of cognitive processes or social contexts on
language development
Interaction of genetic makeup and experience
Cognitive and social interactionism
Operant model
Skinner
Language is part of human behavior
Conceptualism applies to language as well as behavior
Behaviors are shaped and maintained through biology and
environment
Biological – nature of specific
Environmental – behaviors of individual members of the species
Behavior is reinforced through reaction of other people, the
social nature
Primary focus on spoken language
Verbal behavior is effect of multiple causes – past experience,
listeners, and variables both present and remote
Responses and operants
Response – instance or occurrence of a behavior
A reaction to a stimulus

13. Operants – kind of behavior
Family of responses that are related according to when and why
they occur
Smiles, nods, waves, stereotyped phrases
Probability – likelihood of a specific behavior
Comes from past and present circumstances
When we cross paths with one of our friends
Conditions and consequences
Consequences that follow speaking are a critical element
Frequently subtle
May result in primary negative reinforcement or primary
positive reinforcement
Increase the probability of a behavior
Children find attention that follows their behavior to be very
reinforcing
Examples of positive and negative reinforcement?
Verbal operants
Mand – “command” – requesting that an action be done in
response to deprivation

14. Food or water
Echoic – behavioral equivalent of imitation
Tacts – behavior equivalent of naming, describing, or labeling
Intraverbal – of chains as in recitation, alliteration, tongue
twisters, and cliches
Chaining – responses are learned as fixed sequences in which
each response leads to a subsequent response
Textual – occurs in response to a written or printed stimuli
reading
Operant model
Summary
The Operant Model was proposed by Skinner in 1957 as a
functional analysis of verbal behavior as a social behavior
Primary verbal operants are classified based on their specific
effects on others and are analyzed in terms of their setting
events and consequences.
Secondary behavior, in the form of autoclitic behaviors, acts on
primary verbal operants to arrange them according to the
relationships among them.

15. Secondary Verbal Behavior: Autoclitics
autoclitic
Supplementary Variables
supplementary variables
audience
Chapter 4: Part Two (page 144-168)
Chomsky’s Syntactic Theories
p.154

16. Summary
Chomsky proposed transformation generative grammar TGG I
1957 as a theory of mental processes for understanding and
formulating sentences.
Two fundamental assumptions of TGG included the existence of
linguistic universals and the innate, species-specific nature of
language
Chomsky proposed the language acquisition device (LAD) as
the hypothetical, innate mental structure that allows children to
develop language in a seemingly effortless manner.
Skinner vs. chomsky
It is not correct to say that either viewpoint is completely
wrong/right
They approach the task of identifying the cause of language
development in very different ways
Skinner
Behaviorist
Observable relationships among objects, events and behavior
Chomsky
Linguist and philosopher
Looked at underlying nature of language and the mind

17. transformational generative grammar
Theory by Chomsky
TGG proposed that the universal rules underlying structures that
may be transformed by rules to derive the specific sentence
forms of each language
Two concepts: Linguistic Universals and Language Acquisition
Device
Linguistic universals
All human language is based on several shared principles
All languages include simple declarative sentences; sentences
all must contain a subject and predicate
These universals suggested to Chomsky that all language is
innate, species-specific capacity to humans
Chomsky said biology supported this:
Language develops in the same order
Children step at the same time as saying their first word
Language cannot be suppressed; everyone develops language at
some level
Language cannot be taught to subhuman species

18. Language acquisition device
Innate mental structure that allows the child to process
incoming language and derive a generative grammar
Language is exceedingly complex, yet learned with no effort
Human brain is specially structured for processing language
LAD receives linguistic input and extracts it from generative
grammar
Through this, children extract all rules about grammar
The components of TGG
deep structure
surface structure
phrase structure rules
transformational rules
elementary operations
Deep structure
Deep Structure
Basic meaning and relationships underlying a speaker’s
sentence

19. “Deep within the mind”
Surface Structure
Production of a sentence expressing those meaning and
relationships
Words that surface to carry that idea
E.g. Sentence
Phrase structure rules
Generate the underlying deep structure of sentences based on
the speaker’s generative grammar
Begins with an idea
Want to convert the idea to linguistic form
Not a conscious activity
Transformation rules
Operate to alter the basic syntactic structures generated in deep
structure
Each language varies in surface sentence structure
E.g. In English, adjectives come before nouns. In Spanish,

20. nouns come before adjectives.
Can be interrogative, negative, passive, or imperative
constructions
Generalized operations – applied across more than one deep
structure to create complex or compound sentences
John talked and Marry laughed.
Conjoining – linking two independent clauses into a single
sentence structure
I like ice cream; chocolate chip with sprinkles is my favorite
kind.
Embedding – inserting a subordinate clause into an independent
main clause
Alex, the man in the baseball shirt, is attending his first Red’s
game today.
Assessment of tgg
Limitations
Lack predictability, comprehensiveness, and its limited
potential to explain language development
One dimensional view of language – only looks at SYNTAX

21. Innate language acquisition device – no real form, structure, or
location
Passive learners rather than active
Contributions
New insight to structure of language
Transformative sentences develop later than simple sentences
Understanding nature of sentence development is helpful
The Semantic Model: Fillmore’s Case Grammar [p.155]
The semantic model analyzes sentences in terms of case
grammar in which meaning is carried in the relationships
between each noun and the verbs in a sentence
The semantic model focused language development research on
the influence of cognition on language development.
In applying the method of rich interpretation, researchers
recognized the importance of considering the context to
determine meaning of children’s utterances.

22. The semantic model
Fillmore
Semantic concepts = meaning
Exists separately from syntax
Meaning is the relationships among events and objects in the
environment
Chomsky’s theory shows ambiguity in meaning
Came up with Case Grammar Theory instead
Case grammar theory
Basis is meaning
“Making sense” of sentences
Meaning of words and how words relate affects our
understanding of sentences
Case grammar = generative grammar that emphasizes the cases
or semantic roles assumed by nouns in relationship to the verb
of a sentence
Does not replace syntactic level; it takes precedence (priority)

23. Modality
Carries the tense and sentence type
Proposition
Semantic relations that specify relationships between the nouns
of the sentence and it’s verb
Rich interpretation
Analyzing a child’s utterance while considering the linguistic
and nonlinguistic context
Impact on theories of language development
Cognition might play a major role in language development
Meanings rely on perception and understanding of the world
Children recognize relationships by interacting with the
environment
The syntactic theory did not require this
Cognitive determinism – cognition determines language

24. Assessment of the semantic model
Limitations
Cognition cannot explain language development entirely
Cannot infer a causation between the two
Reliability and objectivity
Describes the importance of relationships but does not provide a
purpose for expressing words
Summary of semantic model
Analyzes sentences in terms of case grammar, in which meaning
is carried in the relationships between each noun and verb in a
sentence
Focused language development research on the influence of
cognition on language development
Pragmatic model: Searle’s Speech Acts Theory [p.161]
Sociolinguists shifted the research focus to the effects and
variations of language in social contexts.
Speech acts theory analyzed communication into locutionary,
illocutionary, and perlocutionary.

25. Interaction and routines within the infant-caregiver dyad have
received increased attention as important factors in the
development of language.
Other models also emphasizing interaction have evolved
recently, although their full impact is not yet apparent.
Pragmatic model: Searle’s Speech Acts Theory
The basic elements of speech acts
propositional force
illocutionary force
locutionary
illocutionary
perlocutionary
Impact on child language
primitive speech acts
Other interaction models
world knowledge
event knowledge

26. End of Chapter 4
Review questions are on page 169 and on Discussion Board
Your homework assignment is to finish your power point notes
And to answer 5 of the review questions in DB before class next
week.
Chapter 3: The Interactive Bases of Human Communication
Dr. Wolfe
SPCE 454/554
McLaughlin p.81-103
Social Principles of Learning
Relationship between caregivers and infants is a nurturing one
This occurs for a long period of time
Begin as one-sided, but involve into intense partnership that
serves as basis for future social interactions

27. Motivation to Speak
As infants begin to controls their experiences through behavior,
the need for communication grows
Their interest in language is “nurtured by faces that smile and
eyes that attend”
Social interaction – behaviors of two individuals behaviors of
the other
Subsequent behavior is linked to preceding behavior
Infants need caregivers to fulfill biological needs – feeding,
bathing, sleep, safety, etc.
Infants also need social stimulation – cuddling, talking, and
playing
They will eventually move from passive participants, to actively
engaging with caregivers
Caregiver-Infant Attachment
Attachment – close, nurturing, long-term relationship that
develops between the caregiver and infant
Recognize one another
Readily interpret the other’s behavior
Depend on the other’s participation to meet needs through
interaction
Dyad – two individuals acting as a unit
Infant’s temperament can influence the caregiver’s behaviors
toward the infant

28. Recognition
Recognition: identifying a stimulus that has been experience
previously; ability to attend to and identify a particular person’s
presence
Infants have the ability to recognize the following:
Their caregiver
Olfactory cues
Vocal cues
Facial cues
Infant Vocalization
Vocal sounds provide an essential basis for the development of
interaction
May not be true communication initially
If behavior is affected, this is deemed as social interaction
Social interaction may begin with infant’s reflexive cry
vocalizations
A caregiver’s response to the cries teaches infants that vocal
behavior of one individual can affect the behavior of another
Motherese
Baby talk

29. Shortened and simplified utterances
Exaggerated prosody and enunciation
Varied rate
Pronounced facial expressions
DR. WOLFE
SPCE 454
MCLAUGHLIN, P. 1-4,12-13,19-22
Chapter 1: Dimensions of Human Communication
Code

30. Communication is a system of language codes for expressing
and understanding thoughts, ideas, and feelings
Code = system of rules for arranging arbitrary symbols in an
orderly, predictable manner
Words are encoded by the speaker, and decoded by the listener
Speech
Speech = physical production of sounds to communicate
meaning through neuromuscular control of the structures of the
vocal tract
Vocal tract contains the larynx, pharynx, velum, tongue, teeth,
lips, and the oral and nasal cavities
Articulation = production of speech sounds through physical
movement of jaw, tongue, lips, and velum to change the size
and shape of the vocal tract
Voice = production of sound through vibration of vocal folds

31. Resonation = process of modifying the vocal tone as it passes
through the vocal tract
Fluency = rhythm, rate, and flow of speech as it is produced
Language
Language = arbitrary verbal symbols that speakers put in order
according to code to communicate ideas and feelings or to
influence the behavior of others

32. Language of animal species is primarily instinctive and lacks
creativity
Human language varies in a variety of contexts
Think about Shakespeare vs. Sportscaster
Language is a natural phenomenon of human behavior
Speech, Language, and Communication
Speech and language are separate but related!
They are seemingly automatic behaviors
The ways in which we experience speech and language can
cause the overlap
Communication is the set of language codes. Once this language
is understood and processed, the thoughts are orally articulated
through speech.

33. Language vs. Speech
Speech is most often the primary medium for transmitting
information
The nature of human communication requires that language is
involved in this process
It is possible to produce sounds without language
Sounds in isolation do not convey any meaning
Conversely, it is possible to transmit language without saying
anything
Think about writing or sign language
Language vs. Dialect
Dialect = distinct variation of major language that is spoken by
an identifiable subgroup of those people using that language
Associated with geographical regions, socioeconomic levels,
cultural differences, or ethnic subgroups
Most languages of the world have dialectal variations
Can be phonological, lexical, or grammatical
Phonological = e.g. “pen” vs. “pin”
Lexical = e.g. “pop” vs. “soda”
Grammatical = e.g. ending a sentence with a preposition

34. Expressive vs. Receptive Language
Expressive language
Encoding
Expression
Production
Receptive language
Decoding
Reception
Comprehension
“Speakers speak, listeners listen”
Expressive Language
Formulate an idea, select the words, and produce them to
convey the necessary information
Includes: gestures, facial expressions, and eye contact

35. Receptive Language
Listener comprehends the means of the speaker’s words
Identify the inner feeling, a novel object, or notable
circumstances behind the speaker’s words
Language as a Social Tool
Social interactionist view
Language does not exist separately from social interaction
Fundamental aspects of language consist of the reasons we
speak, the situations in which we speak, and the different ways
in which we speak depending on the circumstances

36. Language as a Learned Behavior
Behaviorist view
Language is a verbal behavior learned through social
consequence
We talk to influence the behavior of others
The responses to our verbal behavior dictate how and when we
talk in the future
Language as a System of Rules
Chomsky’s (psycholinguistic) view
Language represents the grammatical rules for arranging
symbols or words to represent ideas about the world