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Page 2Charlotte CrawfordEH 1302Ms. WalkerJuly 24, 2017.docx
- 1. Page | 2 Charlotte Crawford EH 1302 Ms. Walker July 24, 2017 Women Rights During the early 1820’s women were left to make major decisions for the family. Women became stay at home parents, sharecroppers, and seamstress. Then women roles changed after World War II. Women were need are workers to support the war and to serve their country. After the war women began to set up movements demanding their equal rights. Women continue to fight for their equal rights in hopes that one day it will pay off. The topic on women rights were very enlighting, however I could have performed more research on this topic. Some other topics that I could have exponded open are, first women in education because there are still cultures that women are not provided with education but men are. Next I could have metioned women and abortation there is a big issue with women having abortations without the fathers consent. Then I could have mentioned forced arranged marriages upon young couples. F inally I could have mentioned female circumcision in other western countries women are forced in be circumcised. In the furture I will do more research on women rights. There is so much information to read about. The struggle that women face has truly made me take a look at my life.
- 2. Lecture #16—The Australopithecines and Early Homo The Big Questions • What are the characteristics of the australopithecines? • How can understanding anatomy help us understand behavior? • When did our ancestors first use stone tools?
- 3. Human Evolution Is Mosaic • Not all of the traits we associate with modern humans emerged at the same time. – The australopithecines are clearly bipedal but they have relatively small brains and pretty big molars with thick molar enamel. – Bigger brains appear with the first members of our own genus, Homo habilis, and then get a lot bigger with Homo erectus. – We will also see a general trend toward less skeletal and dental robusticity over time. The Australopithecines were… • A diverse group of Plio-Pleistocine African hominins – Pliocene 5.5 – 2.5mya – Pleistocene 2.5mya – 10,000ya • Divided into two genera (plural of genus) – Australopithecus or Gracile Australopithecines – Paranthropus or Robust Australopithecines
- 4. http://humanorigins.si.edu/sites/default/files/imagecache/mediu m_banner_520px_height/images/banner/2.3.2-7_wo_bars.jpg Hominin Sites Genus Australopithecus Gracile Australopithecines • Australopithecus anamensis – 4.2-3.9mya – Allia Bay and Kanapoi, Kenya • Australopithecus afarensis – 3.7-3mya – Laetoli and Hadar, Ethiopia • Australopithecus africanus – 3-2mya – South Africa Australopithecus afarensis will be our prototypical australopithecine.
- 5. Australopithecus anamensis 4.2-3.9mya Australopithecus anamensis—4.2-3.9mya Allia Bay and Kanapoi, Kenya (near Lake Turkana) Australopithecus afarensis 3.7-3mya Australopithecus afarensis—3.7-3mya Ethiopia Lucy—Hadar, Ethiopia Australopithecus africanus 3-2mya Adult specimen from Sterkfontein http://www.mnh.si.edu/anthro/humanorigins/ha/images/sts5_sma ll.jpg Australopithecus afarensis Lucy—Hadar, Ethiopia 3.18mya Lucy—The Most Famous Fossil
- 6. • Discovered in 1974 by Donald Johansen and Tom Gray • 40% complete skeleton • 3.5’ tall Laetoli Footprints, Tanzania 3.6mya Laetoli Footprints • Preserved in volcanic ash • 3.6mya • Bipedal—Legs lock into position when standing erect, inward angling femur, big toe not opposable, anterior foramen magnum • Height for females 3.5 – 4’; males as high as 5’. • Marked sex differences in the canines. – Sexual dimorphism comparable to baboons and -monogamy
- 7. General Characteristics • Post-Cranial Skeleton – Small body size (3.5-4.5’) – Arms and fingers relatively long • Suggests they were likely still spending time in trees— foraging? Sleeping? – Humerus not weight-bearing – Pelvis rounded – Tibia and femur bipedal Cranio-Facial Anatomy (Australopithecus afarensis) Cranio-Facial Anatomy • Foramen Magnum – Anterior like modern humans
- 8. • Cranial Capacity – Chimpanzees 350-400 – Australopithecines 400-500 – Humans (1200-1600) • Forehead – Chimpanzees and Australopithecus lack a forehead (associated with growth in brain, particularly frontal lob) – Post-orbital constriction—pinching behind the eye orbits • Chimpanzee and Australopithecus show constriction, chimpanzee more pronounced • Supraorbital Torus (browridge)— Chimpanzee>Australopithecus>human Cranio-Facial Region • Size of Facial Region – Zygomatic Arch (cheekbones)—masseter muscle attachments • Australopithecines have large zygomatic arches to support large masseter muscles; force focused on molars • Chimpanzees and humans have smaller zygomatics – Mid-facial prognathism—jutting out of the mid-face • Chimpanzees show more mid-facial prognathism than
- 9. australopithecines; australopithecines more than humans chimps and humans but the major changes in the cranial anatomy occur later than the emergence of bipedalism Dentition (Pan troglodytes, Australopithecus afarensis, Homo sapiens) Dentition • Incisors and Canines – Chimpanzee and human incisors are more prominent istic of fruit-eating primates – Chimp canines are sharper and more pronounced than australopithecine or human • female and male chimp canines larger but male chimp > female chimp • australopithecine canines are more on the human scale reflecting dietary and social adaptations – using nondental means to process foods and defend or
- 10. Dentition • Molars – Australopithecines have large molars and premolars—extended grinding surface on the molars for chewing • thick enamel on molars—grinding adaptation; many specimens show significant molar wear – Apes and humans have thin molar enamel—fruit-eating and food processing • Australopithecines have a U-shaped dental arcade, intermediate between parallel chimpanzee and parabolic human Mosaic Evolution • Australopithecines show some similarities to Pan spp., some to humans, some unique • Over time, chewing apparatus reduced, brain enlarged • Trend from Australopithecus to Homo is a marked increase in size of braincase relative to
- 11. face and teeth • Paranthropus aethiopicus – 2.5mya – Black Skull, Lake Turkana, Kenya • Paranthropus robustus – 2-1.3mya – South African fossils • Paranthropus boisei – 1.5mya, – Olduvai Gorge Paranthropus or Robust Australopithecines Characteristics • Dentition – Small front teeth – Enormous grinding molars – Mandible large and deep • Postcranial – Similar in size and features to Australopithecus
- 12. • ATE GRASSES! Paranthropus aethiopicus—The Black Skull Sagittal crest supports muscle attachments for temporalis muscles—HUGE muscles for major molar grinding. Chewing the cud! Paranthropus boisei KNM-ER 406 Early Hominin Behavior • “Man-the-Hunter”? – Raymond Dart, and other early paleoanthropologists, argued that early hominins were pair-bonded species in which males hunted and provisioned females and offspring in exchange for monopolizing sexual access to a female • What does the evidence suggest?
- 13. Early Hominin Behavior • “Man-the-Hunter” • “Hominid-the-Hunted-Omnivore” – Lots of australopithecine remains found in association with large predators – The little hominins show clear taphonomic signs of having been consumed by the larger predators • Leopards and really big eagles – both leave distinctive teeth/claw marks on prey (including little hominins) Early Hominin Behavior • The Australopithecine Adaptation – Long distance travel to collect plant and animal foods (insects are animals) – – Tools—social learning and transmission • Not stone tools yet but tools of perishable materials
- 14. • What about food sharing and mating? – Let’s think comparatively, look at other primates with similar sexual dimorphism… Early Hominin Behavior Species Female Body Weight as % of Male Mating System Gibbons/Siamangs (Hylobates spp.) 98-100% Pair-bonded Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) 50% Polygynous Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) 40-50% Uni-Male Bonobos/Chimpanzees (Pan spp.) 82% Polygamous Australopithecus afarensis 64% ? A. africanus 73% ? A. robustus 80% ? A. boisei 69% ? Modern Humans (Homo sapiens) 83% ?
- 15. Early Hominin Behavior • Dart suggested pair-bonding and males provisioning females. – Pair-bonded species, like gibbons and siamangs, show virtually no sexual dimorphism. – That does not appear to be the case with australopithecines. – The degree of sexual dimorphism they show is somewhere between polygynous and promiscuous species. – There is no reason to suspect that early hominins would deviate from this pattern. – What about modern humans? Hmmm… Early Hominin Behavior • What about food sharing? – Again, the comparative method is useful. – Male and female bonobos and chimpanzees hunt. In fact, in bonobos more females have been seen hunting than males. – Adult female chimpanzees share food with offspring and with unrelated females and their offspring, and occasionally share meat with males – Males almost never share food, with the exception of
- 16. occasional meat sharing hominins was primarily male-to-female What about Dart’s Hypothesis, Then? • Reflects the dominant early-to-mid 20th century gender and economic constructions in the West more than the evidence and, in fact, is inconsistent with data from living human groups. – Of 400 surveyed human societies in 1967, 80% practiced some form of polygyny, 20% practiced some form of monogamy (mostly serial monogamy). Becoming Human Transitioning to Homo • Homo habilis – Louis Leakey at Olduvai Gorge • 2-1.8mya – Stone Tools • Oldowan Tool Culture
- 17. • 2.5mya • Early Homo – Many specimens of unclear species designation – Some authors prefer not to assign species designations, referring to all pre-Homo erectus Homo specimens as early Homo Australopithecus afarensis Homo habilis General Trends from Australopithecus to Homo • Comparing the skulls, can see a general decrease in robusticity and increase in the proportion of the cranium taken up by the brain case. Characteristics of Early Homo • Cranium – 500-800cc – Less robust
- 18. – Reduced prognathism • Dentition – Overall reduction in size – More omnivorous • Post-Cranial – Similar size to Australopithecus Homo habilis in the Environment • General drying trend BUT it is characterized by short-term climatic fluctuations between wetter and drier periods – This rapidly fluctuating environment is selecting for (culture as the human adaptive strategy) • Omnivorous diet – Meat makes up an part of the diet but Early Homo is NOT doing any substantial hunting; we are still talking about scavenging, opportunistic hunting of small vertebrates and majority diet of plant foods
- 19. Along edges of forest for roots and tubers Along stream banks: stone to use as tools Trees provide nuts and fruits Scavenging from carcasses left by carnivores Opportunistic hunting of small game Oldowan Tool Technology Oldowan Tools • Stone tools first appear in the fossil record associated with the emergence of Homo • Choppers, scrapers, flakes • Percussive technique • Shows significant cognitive leap, planning