bone, bone maceration, defleshing, bone tagging, bone labeling, bone articulation, soft tissue removal, degreasing of bones, bone bleaching, labeling, bone articulation, Storage of bones, Cold Water Maceration Method, Hot Water Maceration Method, Bug Box Maceration Method, Enzyme Maceration Method, Chemical Maceration Method,

1. BY
ODERINDE, GBENGA PETER
EMA EMEM-OBONG JOSEPH
OLATOMIDE OLUWASEGUN DAVIES
GADA AISHA
MOHZO CHRISTOPHER PETER
11/25/2017

2. INTRODUCTION
The idiom, “there is more than one way to skin a cat,” is typically used in a
figurative sense, but it’s in fact also applicable literally such that when one is
presented with the task of defleshing a corpse, such as a cat, there are many
options available.
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3. Bone maceration is a bone preparation technique that involves the obtaining of
clean skeletal bones from a deceased specimen for long term storage for study,
forensic investigation and for museums etc (Mairs et al., 2004).
It involves
 soft tissue removal
 degreasing of bones
 bone bleaching
 labeling
 bone articulation
 Storage of bones.11/25/2017 3

4. HISTORY
Natural decomposition is likely the earliest defleshing method used to achieve
skeletons for study and collection (Olry, 1998).
Archaeologists studying a cave in Southeast Italy with remains of people who died
7,500 years ago identified the first known case in New Stone Age Europe of
people scraping the flesh off of people’s bones after death (Shaw, 2015).
5

5. Fig. 1 Crusader war
1095 – 1291
Fig. 2 Pope Boniface VIII
Issued a Papal bull
“Detestande feritatis”
1299 - 1300
HISTORY

6. In 1543 Vesalius conducted a public dissection
of the body of Jakob Karrer von Gebweiler;
notorious felon (Couse and Connor 2015)
Fig. 3 Andreas Vesalius (1514 – 1564)
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7. SOFT TISSUE REMOVAL
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Fig. 4 Dermestid beetles Fig. 5 Skinning and Defleshing by hand
Fig. 6 Natural decomposition
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8. METHODS OF BONE MACERATION
There are a number of ways to remove remaining tissue:
Cold Water Maceration Method
Hot Water Maceration Method
Bug Box Maceration Method
Enzyme Maceration Method
Chemical Maceration Method (Leeper, 2015).
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9. 11/25/2017 9

10. COLD WATER MACERATION
Soak bones in
appropriate
container in cold
water
Involves soaking
remains in cold
water
Ammonia or
laundry detergent
to degrease the
bone
After all the
soaking, let the
bones dry
thoroughly.
Remove bones
periodically to pull
out flesh
Putrid water
should be poured
off periodically and
replaced with fresh
water
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11. Fig. 7 Cold water maceration
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12. PRECAUTIONS
 If the bones are soaked outdoors, try to keep leaves, soot and other debris
out of the water.
 Putrid water poured off should be done through a sieve or wire screen to
recover small bones (e.g. teeth that have loosened and fallen out of the
skull).
 After all the soaking, it should be ensured that the bones dry thoroughly to
avoid contamination.
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13. ADVANTAGE
 The advantage of cold water maceration is that it is easily done and
will not damage or shrink small bones.
DISADVANTAGE
 The disadvantage are that it is very smelly, and time consuming.
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14. 11/25/2017 14

15. HOT WATER MACERATION
Involves
soaking
remains in
hot water
Fleshed out
bones are
cooked in hot
water
Larger, bones are
gently boiled;
smaller, more delicate
bones gently
simmered to prevent
damage.
Ammonia or
laundry detergent
added to degrease
the bones
Cook for a short
time, remove bone
and clean off more
of the tissue
After all the
soaking, let
the bones
dry
thoroughly.
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16. Fig. 8 Hot water maceration
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17. PRECAUTION
Make sure you tie a string to the bones to facilitate picking it out of the hot
water.
Avoid cooking bones too long to prevent damage.
After all the soaking, it should be ensured that the bones dry thoroughly to
avoid contamination.
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18. ADVANTAGES
It is a much faster process than cold water maceration.
It is a less smelly process
DISADVANTAGES
It has the potential for causing damage and shrinkage to the bone.
It is more difficult to accomplish compared to cold water maceration
technique
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19. 11/25/2017 19

20. Adult and larvae
Dermestes feed
on dried flesh
After air drying,
the bone is
placed in a “bug
box”
After fleshing
out a bone, air
dry it for at least
a day or two.
Put open bottle
or pan of water
in “bug box” to
provide
humidity
When the
skeleton is clean,
remove from the
bug colony.
The time to clean
a bone depends
on the bone size,
Dermestid
colony size, and
the temperature.
BUG BOX MACERATION TECHNIQUE
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21. Fig. 9 Bug box maceration
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22. ADVANTAGE
The major advantage of the bug box method of cleaning bones are that
the bones remain the way they are i.e. usually not damaged .
DISADVANTAGE
It is smelly, and time consuming
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23. PRECAUTION
Avoid leaving bones in the bug box for too long (this can damage the bone)
Monitor the progress periodically to prevent infestation by other organisms.
If a wooden box is used or constructed, the joints must be tight to prevent
beetles from escaping
If a completely closed container is used, air holes must be provided. These
air holes should be covered with screen.
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24. STEPS IN ENZYME MACERATION
Enzymes
(protease and
lipases) are
used to clean
bones.
Time required
ranges from
several hours to
few days.
Fleshed out
bones are placed
in water solution
containing
trypsin or
neutrase.
At intervals,
digested tissue is
removed with a
hard brush.
The bones are then
brushed under
running water and
dried thoroughly
under sun.
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25. DEGREASING OF BONES
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Bones must be degreased because bones contain fat known as marrow in
long bones.
The best technique to be used for degreasing a particular bone depends on
two factors:
• Availability of space.
• The type of solvent selected (Hot or cold water)
Degreasing agents used include: Ammonia, benzene, acetone,
trichloroethylene, degreasing detergents, enzyme detergents
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26. STEPS IN DEGREASING OF BONES
Drill one or two small holes on opposite ends of the shaft of bones
Soak them in any of the solvents containing degreasing agents and check
bones periodically to ensure proper degreasing
The hole should not be too large and ensure not to drill it in a location that
will damage any of the specimen’s distinctive features
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27. BONE BLEACHING
Bleaching of bones is not compulsory, it
involves application of bleaching agents to
increase the whiteness of bones.
 Bleaching can remove small pieces of
tissue and other debris from bones with
cavities as well as most of the odor.
Bones may also be bleached by simply
setting them out in the sun.
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Fig. 10 Bone bleaching

28. Bleach bones in 3% to
6% solution or Spray
with (1%-3%) solution
of hydrogen peroxide
under a heat lamp.
Bleaching is complete
when hydrogen
peroxide solution stops
bubbling.
Time required to
bleach varies with the
bone type and
whiteness desired
Bleached bones are
rinsed with water and
allowed to dry
completely.
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29. LABELLING
It involves the use of incisions,
markings, sign, tags, and numbers
to aid easy identification of bones.
The catalog number written
directly on the bone should not
obscure any anatomical details.
Bones should be properly
identified to ensure bones from
either side of the hands and feet
are not mixed.
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Fig. 11 Labelling of bone

30. BONE ARTICULATION
Bone articulation involves
the union or assembling of
disarticulated bones before
storage or mounting.
Bones disarticulated during
bone cleaning can be
articulated by suturing a wire
through bones or using a
powerful super glue.
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Fig. 12 Bone articulation

31. BONE STORAGE
 After preparation, bones are stored in bags, boxes or mounted in Perspex
boxes for exhibition in museums or for forensic anthropology.
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Fig. 13 Facial reconstruction Fig. 14 Genetics
Fig. 15 Archaeology
APPLICATIONS

33. Bone maceration is a bone preparation technique that involves the obtaining of
clean skeletal bones from a deceased specimen .
Soft tissue removal
Degreasing of bones
Bone bleaching
Labeling
Bone articulation
Storage of bones.11/25/2017 33
SUMMARY

34. The first step in bone maceration is soft tissue removal either by natural
decomposition, use of Dermestid beetles or defleshing by hand.
Removal of the remaining tissue is achieved by:
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SOFT TISSUE REMOVAL METHOD
COLD WATER MACERATION Involves soaking remains in cold water.
HOT WATER MACERATION Involves soaking remains in hot water.
BUG BOX MACERATION Involves the use of Adult and larvae
Dermestes to feed on flesh.
ENZYME MACERATION Enzymes (protease and lipases) are
used to clean bones.
Table I: Summary

35. REFERENCES
• Couse, T. and Connor, M. A. (2015). Comparison of Maceration Techniques
for Use in Forensic Skeletal Preparations. J Forensic Investigation. 3(1): 6.
• Gritis, P. and Brunner, S. A. (1990). “A new procedure for dermestid beetle
preparation of skeletons from formalin-fixed specimens.” Herp Review
21(1):15-16.
• Leeper, B. J. (2015). Evaluation of current methods of soft tissue removal
from bone. Kenneth P. Dietrich School of Arts and Science. University of
Pittsburgh.
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36. • Mairs, S., Rutty, G. N. and Swift B. (2004). Detergent: an alternative
approach to traditional bone cleaning methods for forensic practice. The
American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology 25(4):276–284.
• Mann R. W. and Berryman H. E. (2012). A method for defleshing human
remains using household bleach. Journal of Forensic Sciences 57(2):440–
442
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