HUMAN DEVELOPMENTChapter 8PSYCHOLOGY

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Chapter 8
PSYCHOLOGY DEBORAH M.
LICHT MISTY G. HULL COCO BALLANTYNE
1
Voices
GIRL WITH POTENTIAL
Ericka Harley was 16 years old and starting her junior year of
high school when she found out she was pregnant.
Her mother, Joan, was disappointed to discover that her
daughter, an honor-roll student, would soon be a mom; she had
hoped Ericka might attend college and enjoy a successful
career.
Would Ericka ever make it to college?
The Study of Human Development (part 1)
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Refers to field of psychology that examines physical, cognitive,
and socioemotional change

Socioemotional development
Refers to social behaviors, emotions, and changes experienced
in relationships, feelings, and overall disposition
Physical development
Involves maturation wherein the body follows a universal,
biologically driven progression in a generally predictable
pattern
Cognitive development
Includes changes in memory, problem solving, decision making,
language, and intelligence that tend to follow a universal course
early in life and considerable variability with age
BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVE
Recognizes contributions and interplay of biological,
psychological, and social forces facing human development
THREE MAJOR THEMES OR DEBATES
Stages or continuity
Hereditary and environmental influences
Stability and change
5
RESEARCH METHODS USED TO STUDY
DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES
Cross-sectional method
Examines people of different ages at a single point in time
Longitudinal method

Examines one sample of people over a period of time to
determine age-related changes
Cross-sequential method
Examines groups of people of different ages, following them
across time
6
Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development (part 1)
CHROMOSOMES AND GENES
Chromosomes
Inherited threadlike structures composed of deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA)
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Molecule that provides the instructions for the development and
production of cells
Gene
Specified segment of a DNA molecule
CHROMOSOMES, DNA, AND GENES
Every cell in your body, except red blood cells and sex cells
(sperm or egg), contains a full set of 23 chromosome pairs like
those shown here.
These 23 chromosome pairs contain the full blueprint for you as
a complete, unique person. The primary component of each
chromosome is a single, tightly wound molecule of DNA.
Within that DNA are around 21,000 genes (Pennisi, 2012,
September 5), each determining specific traits such as hair
texture. Note the sex chromosomes (X and Y) on the lower

right, indicating that the sex is male. Photo: CNRI/Science
Source.
8
How exactly did you get your genes from your biological
parents?
Genes are found in chromosomes.
Chromosomes inherited from biological parents.
Sperm and egg both contain 23 chromosomes = 23 pairs.
Twenty-third chromosome pair determines genetic sex.
XX = female; XY = male
Researchers with the Human Genome Project have decoded the
entire human genome, which contains about 21,000 DNA
segments known as genes (Pennisi, 2012, September 5).
Genes are the blueprints for proteins that endow you with a
unique set of traits, including eye color, hair texture, and—to a
certain extent—psychological characteristics.
The colored lights are an artistic representation of the human
genome, the complete set of DNA found in most cells in the
body.
10
Genotype
Includes an individual’s complete collection of genes
Does not change in response to the environment but interacts
with it—outcome is not predetermined

Phenotype
Refers to the observable characteristics of an individual that are
the result of this interaction
Includes unique physical, psychological, and behavioral
characteristics
Epigenetics
Examines the process involved in the development of
phenotypes
The dominant gene governs the expression of inherited
characteristics.
The recessive gene cannot overcome the influence of the
dominant gene.
The “widow’s peak,” or V-shaped hairline, is thought to be
determined by the presence of a single, dominant gene (Chiras,
2015). The man on the left must have at least one dominant
widow’s peak gene, while the man on the right has two
recessive straight hairline genes.
FROM ZYGOTE TO EMBRYO TO FETUS
Zygote
Single cell formed by the union of a sperm cell and an egg
Travels down the fallopian tube while dividing into more cells
Multiples
Monozygotic twins develop from one egg inseminated at
conception.
Dizygotic twins occur when two eggs are inseminated by two
different sperm.

Germinal period (conception to end of 2nd week)
Implanting in uterine wall; rapid growth
Embryo period (3rd to 8th week)
Cell differentiation; formation of major organs and systems
begin
Heart begins to beat; spinal cord and intestinal systems develop
by end of period
14
Fetal period (2nd month to birth)
Rapid weight gain; clear sleep-wake cycles; all organs, systems,
and structures fully developed at birth
Brain weight one quarter of adult size
Prenatal Development and Periods of Critical Growth
Teratogens
Embryos are not protected from all environmental dangers.
Teratogens can damage a zygote, embryo, or fetus.
Damage depends on the agent, timing, and duration of exposure.
CAN YOU IDENTIFY THE POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF
TERATOGENS IN EACH OF THESE CATEGORIES?
Drugs

Environmental factors
Infections
Maternal disease
From conception until birth, the developing human is nestled
deep inside a woman’s body, but it remains vulnerable to threats
from the outside. See Table 8.1 for some common teratogens
and their effects.
See Table 8.1 for additional information about the dangers of
teratogens. From conception until birth, the developing human
is nestled deep inside a woman’s body, but it remains
vulnerable to threats from the outside. Listed here are some
common teratogens and their effects. Information from Brent
(2004)
18
THE FETAL PERIOD
Between 2 months and birth (fetus)
Average birth weight around 7 pounds by North American
standards
Sleep-wake cycles demonstrated
FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME (FAS)
Delays in development that result from moderate to heavy
alcohol use during pregnancy
Symptoms may include physical growth delays, learning
disabilities, and problems with anxiety, attention, and impulse
regulation.
Infancy and Child Development (part 1)
NEWBORN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Newborn reflexes
Automatic responses to stimuli
Some necessary for survival; other no obvious purpose

Examples
Rooting, sucking, grasping, Babinski, stepping, Moro
See Table 8.2 for additional information about newborn
reflexes.
20
Newborn senses
Prefer human faces as opposed to geometric shapes
Discriminate mother’s voice shortly after birth
Distinguish smell of mother’s breast milk
Prefer sweet tastes, react to sour tastes, notice differences in
breast milk taste
React to sense of touch
Respond to pain
Have blurred vision for several months
THE GROWING BRAIN
Synaptic pruning
Increase in neural connections is not uniform in brain
Unused synaptic connections eliminated
Decrease in neural connection by 40–50% by puberty
Rosenzweig’s rats
Rosenzweig and colleagues demonstrated how environment

influences animal brain development.
Rats with an enriched environment experienced greater
increases in brain weight and synaptic connections.
THE LANGUAGE EXPLOSION
Behaviorism and language
Proposes that all behavior—including language—is learned
through associations, reinforcers, and observations
Suggests language is learned through positive attention to
correct behavior and unpleasant attention to incorrect behavior
THE LANGUAGE EXPLOSION (LAD)
Language acquisition device
Provides universal, innate mechanism for language learning
(Chomsky)
Infant-directed speech (IDS)
Used by caregivers worldwide and stimulates infant attention to
socially appropriate partners
Language in the environment
The amount of language in the home correlates with SES.
The quality of speech input is also critical to language
development.
A lag in reading, math, and academic achievement in general is
found in children of lower SES status who are beginning school.

Sequence of acquisition
Cooing
Babbling
Telegraphic speech
NATURE AND NURTURE
GENIE THE “FERAL CHILD”
In 1970, a social worker in Arcadia, California, discovered 13-
year-old “Genie.” Between the ages of 20 months and 13 years,
Genie suffered abuse, deprivation, and neglect. She was
deprived of physical activity, sensory stimulation, and
affection.
Efforts to build Genie’s vocabulary had mixed success. She
learned basic syntax principles and eventually spoke meaningful
sentences. There were, however, certain linguistic skills that
could not be mastered.
Why couldn’t Genie master these certain linguistic skills? What
implications does this have for all child language development?
PIAGET AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
One of first to suggest infant cognitive abilities
Posits that child and adult cognition are different; cognitive
development takes place in stages
Senrorimotor: Object permanence
Preoperational: Egocentrism; conservation errors
Concrete operational: Logical thinking in reference to concrete
objects and circumstances
Formal operational: More logical and systematic thinking
See INFOGRAPHIC 8.3 for additional information about

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
29
KEY PIAGETIAN TERMS
Schema
Collection of ideas that represent a basic unit of understanding
Assimilation
Using existing information and ideas to understand new
knowledge and experiences
Accommodation
Restructuring of old ideas to make a place for new information
The critics
Cognitive stage with distinct characteristic; transitions more
likely to be continuous
Cognitive abilities underestimated
Object permanence occurs sooner.
Formal operational stage may not be last stage; distinctions are
needed between adolescents and adults of various ages.
VYGOTSKY AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Overview
Social and cultural factors influence cognition.
Children are apprentices in relation to more capable and
experienced others (zone of proximal development).
Scaffolding

Children are pushed to go just beyond what they are competent
and capable of doing, while providing help in a decreasing
manner.
KAGAN
Temperament
Characteristic differences in behavioral patterns and emotional
reactions that are evident from birth
High-reactive infants
Exhibit much distress with unfamiliar stimuli
Low-reactive infants
Do not respond to stimuli with great distress
THOMAS AND CHESS
Temperament
Easy: Follow regular schedules; easily soothed; transition
easily; 40%
Difficult: Erratic schedule; poor transitioning; irritable and
unhappy; 10%
Slow to warm up: Not fond of change; 15%
More than one type of temperament: 39%
THE HARLOWS AND THEIR MONKEYS
Research by Harry and Margaret Harlow and colleagues at the
University of Wisconsin showed that physical comfort is
important for the socioemotional development of these animals.
What do you think the monkeys did when given the choice
between a wire mesh “mother” that provided milk and a cloth-

covered “mother” without milk?
When given the choice between a wire mesh “mother” that
provided milk and a cloth-covered “mother” without milk, most
of the monkeys opted to snuggle with the cuddly cloth-covered
one (Harlow, 1958).
36
MARY AINSWORTH
Attachment
Refers to degree to which infant feels emotional connection
with primary caregivers
Secure attachment
Avoidant attachment
Ambivalent attachment
ATTACHMENT
The critics
Most of early work used mothers; subsequent research should
examine attachment to multiple caregivers.
Artificial environment created and does not mirror natural
environment.
Cross-cultural differences not always addressed.
ERIKSON
Psychosocial stages
Proposed that human development is marked by eight
psychological stages from infancy to old age

Suggested that each stage is marked by developmental task or
emotional crisis to be resolved
Unsuccessful resolution results in difficulty at next stage
ERIKSON’S STAGES ASSOCIATED WITH INFANCY AND
CHILDHOOD
Trust versus mistrust
Autonomy versus shame and doubt
Initiative versus guilt
Check Table 8.3 for a discussion of each stage and its positive
and negative resolutions.
Adolescence (part 1)
PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Key terms
Adolescence
Puberty
Primary sex characteristics
Secondary sex characteristics
Menarche
Involves the point at which menstruation begins
Can begin as early as 9 or after age 14; typical age is between
12 and 13
Spermarche
Involves time when boys experience first ejaculation
STIs
More than half of 15- to 24-year-olds affected by new infections

Adolescent infections especially risky; often untreated
Timing and effects of maturation
Early maturing girls: More negative outcomes; social anxiety,
higher risk of emotional problems and unhealthy and delinquent
behaviors; lower self-confidence
Early maturing boys: Generally, a more positive experience, but
aggressive behavior, cheating, temper tantrums common
Formal operations (Piaget)
Use of deductive reasoning and critical thinking begins.
Characterized by abstract reasoning, classification, symbol use,
thinking beyond moment, and considering many possibilities
and hypothetical situations
Adolescent egocentrism
Involves intense focus on self and feelings of immortality
Can lead to an increase in risky behaviors
Adolescent brain
Significant limbic system development compared with the
prefrontal cortex can lead to an increase in risk-taking behavior.
Increased myelination of axons occurs in the prefrontal cortex,
which is not yet fully developed.
Adolescents may not foresee the possible consequences of
reward-seeking activities.
Should this influence the decision about teenagers and the death
penalty?

Too Young
A teen inmate sits in her room at a maximum-security juvenile
facility in Illinois. As a result of the 2005 Roper v. Simmons
decision (Borra, 2005), defendants being tried for crimes
committed before age 18 are no longer candidates for the death
penalty. The U.S. Supreme Court arrived at this decision after
carefully weighing evidence submitted by the American
Psychological Association (APA) and others, which suggests
that the juvenile mind is still developing and vulnerable to
impulsivity and poor decision making (APA, 2013).
45
SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Erikson’s stage of ego identity versus role confusion
Involves adolescent identity formation and trying out new roles
Influenced by positive resolution and success at earlier stages
Positive resolution = Stronger sense of values, beliefs, and
goals
Negative resolution = Role confusion
PARENTS AND ADOLESCENTS
Relationships between teens and parents are generally positive,
but most involve some degree of conflict.
Many disputes center on everyday issues, like clothing and
chores, but the seemingly endless bickering does have a deeper
meaning.
The adolescent is breaking away from his parents, establishing
himself as an autonomous person.

Adolescent (part 8)
SOCIAL MEDIA AND PSYCHOLOGY
The social networking teen machine
Approximately 8% of Internet-using teenagers say they have
been bullied online in the past year; 88% have observed others
being “mean or cruel” on a social media site.
QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
How might this behavior impact on the socioemotional
development for the bullied? For the bully?
What advice would you give to parents?
KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Kohlberg
Focused on specific changes in beliefs about right and wrong
Noted that environmental influences and interactions with
others support continued moral development
Proposed three sequential, universal levels of moral
development:
Preconventional moral reasoning
Conventional moral reasoning
Postconventional moral reasoning
Used a variety of fictional moral dilemma stories to determine
the stages of moral reasoning
49

Criticisms
Women’s moral reasoning not represented; importance of caring
and responsibility discounted (Gilligan)
Theory primarily applicable to Western, collectivist cultures
Moral behavior defined, but not predicted
EMERGING ADULTHOOD
Occurs between age 18 and 25 years
Involves period of exploration and opportunity
Influenced by dependency on families for longer periods of time
Provides opportunities for seeking relationships, education, and
new world views
Support System
(Left to right, and front) Joan, Ericka, Ericka’s mentor Aisha,
and Niyah. In addition to Ericka’s grandmother, these are the
people who helped keep Ericka motivated and inspired
throughout college.
Ericka discovered Generation Hope, a non-profit organization
devoted to supporting teen parent college students.
Ericka considered withdrawing from college at one point, but
then she discovered Generation Hope, a non-profit organization
devoted to supporting teen parents as they work toward college
degrees. In addition to graduating cum laude, Ericka served as
president of the Student Government Association and belonged
to two honor societies. Courtesy Ericka Harley.
52

Adulthood (part 1)
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Early adulthood
Sensory systems and muscular and cardiovascular ability are
sharp.
Hearing starts to decline; lifestyle choices affect health.
Fertility-related changes occur.
Middle adulthood
Genes influence height and bone mass; exercise slows shrinking
process.
Wrinkles, sags, and skin spots may appear; hair thins and turns
grey; hearing loss continues; eyesight may decline; bones
weaken.
Adulthood (part 2)
Late adulthood
Characterized by decline in physical and psychological
functions
Vision deteriorates (cataracts, impaired night vision).
Hearing declines; reaction time increases; information
processed more slowly; memory deteriorates.
Exercise fosters development of new neural networks.
Adulthood (part 3)
Early adulthood
Measures of aptitude remain stable from early to middle
adulthood.
Processing speed begins to decline.
Middle and late adulthood
Cognitive function does not necessarily decrease.
After age 70, decline is more apparent; some skills become
more refined.

Crystallized intelligence
Fluid intelligence
From the Pages of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
JOIN A CLUB, STAY SHARP
Group social activity beats one-on-one encounters for
preventing cognitive decline.
Research findings suggest that the mental boost from group
activity becomes better with age.
Why does this occur?
Group relationships may sharpen skills by requiring
maintenance efforts and reinforcing self-identity.
Adulthood (part 4)
SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT: EARLY, MIDDLE,
AND LATE ADULTHOOD
Erikson and adulthood
Young adulthood: Intimacy versus isolation
Middle adulthood: Generativity versus stagnation
Late adulthood: Integrity versus despair
Adulthood (part 5)
PARENTING
Baumrind identified four parenting behavioral styles:
Authoritarian parenting
Authoritative parenting
Permissive parenting
Uninvolved parenting
How would you describe each of these styles to prospective
parents?

Adulthood (part 6)
AND LATE ADULTHOOD
Growing old with grace
As of 2014, fewer than 1% of Americans older than 65 lived in
a nursing home.
Most older adults in the United States enjoy active, healthy,
independent lives.
Positive emotions are more frequent; emotional stability
increases; stress and anger decreases.
Death and Dying
DEATH AND DYING
Kübler-Ross’ theory regarding imminent death (2009)
Denial
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
Acceptance
Across the World
DEATH IN DIFFERENT CULTURES
Views of death are related to religion and culture.
Every culture has its own collection of ideas about death.
Like any developmental step, the experience of death is shaped
by countless social, psychological, and biological factors.
Personal Values List
Silvers 302-03-Spring 2020

Consciously or unconsciously, your personal values will
determine how you operate your business,
how you treat your employees, and how you treat your
customers and venders. Best we determine
what those values are now so you can make good choices in the
future.
I invite you to go within yourself to see what is true for you by
discovering your personal values in this
easy and fun process.
Here are the steps you will take:
1. Relax and review the personal values list on page 2.
a. It is suggested you do this process in two to three phases i.e.,
first find 50 values you like,
let it rest – Come back later and narrow the list to 25, let it rest
again - Come back a third
time and choose your final seven values.
2. You will recognize those values that are meant for you. You
don’t have to mentally strain to
find them, they just seem obvious. Trust your process.
3. You may be drawn to values that seem to be the opposite of a
perceived weaknesses or ones
you want to develop more strongly. There is no right or wrong

here, just what you want.
4. Next, you will rank-order the others by asking, “If I could
only have one more value, which one
would it be?”
5. Once you get seven values on the list, you might find that the
leftover values are actually a
prerequisite of one of the higher values and are bundled into
your understanding of the higher
value. If that is the case, you don’t need to list it.
6. You will end up with a values list of seven total. Double
check to make sure you like the order
and everything that should be on the list is on the list.
Note:
This may not be your permanent-forever-lifetime values list,
and that is OK. However, this will be the
list of values list we will use for this small business
management class. This is your private list and
you will only share it if you want to. You will need it for the
rest of the course as a key part of learning
to “think like an owner”.
Assignment:
Now that you have determined your personal values, complete
the following:
1. Using numerical value bullets points, list your values in

order, first to last (#1 to #7)
2. Having developed your values, perhaps for the first time,
write a short paragraph (three to five
compete sentences) to discuss your thoughts about your values –
What’s this all mean to you
as a manager?
3. Discuss how (you think) your values apply to you as a future
manager of people, processes,
and systems.
4. Thinking like a manager:
• With values in mind, what’s most important to you as a
manager of people, processes, and
systems and why?
• How your values help or hinder you with
o Operating your department or business?
o How you treat your employees?
o How you treat your venders?
o How you treat customers?
Silvers 302-03-Spring 2020
Common Personal Values
Accomplishment Good will Quality over quantity
Abundance Goodness Quantity over quality
Accountability Gratitude Reciprocity

Accuracy Hard work Recognition
Achievement Harmony Regularity
Adventure Healing Relaxation
Approval Holistic Living Reliability
Autonomy Honesty Resourcefulness
Balance Honor Respect for others
Beauty Improvement Responsibility
Challenge Independence Responsiveness
Change Individuality Results
Clarity Initiative Romance
Cleanliness, orderliness Inner peace Rule of Law
Collaboration Innovation Sacrifice
Commitment Integrity Safety
Communication Intelligence Satisfying others
Community Intensity Security
Compassion Intimacy Self-awareness
Competence Intuition Self-confidence
Competition Joy Self-esteem

Concern for others Justice Self-expression
Confidence Knowledge Self-improvement
Connection Leadership Self-love
Conservation Learning Self-mastery
Cooperation Love Self-reliance
Coordination Loyalty Self-trust
Courage Meaning Sensuality
Creativity Merit Service
Credibility Moderation Simplicity
Decisiveness Modesty Sincerity
Democracy Money Skill
Determination Nature Solitude
Discipline Nurturing Speed
Discovery Obedience Spirituality
Diversity Open-mindedness Stability
Education Openness Standardization
Efficiency Optimism Status
Environment Patriotism Straightforwardness

Equality Peace, Non-violence Strength
Excellence Perfection Success
Exploration Perseverance Systemization
Fairness Persistence Teamwork
Faith Personal Growth Timeliness
Faithfulness Personal health Tolerance
Family Pleasure Tradition
Flair Power Tranquility
Flexibility Practicality Trust
Forgiveness Preservation Trustworthiness
Freedom Privacy Truth
Friendship Problem solving Unity
Frugality Professionalism Variety
Fulfillment Progress Vitality
Fun Prosperity Wealth
Generosity Punctuality Wisdom
Genuineness Purpose

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Chapter 8
PSYCHOLOGY DEBORAH M.
LICHT MISTY G. HULL COCO BALLANTYNE
1
Voices
GIRL WITH POTENTIAL
Ericka Harley was 16 years old and starting her junior year of
high school when she found out she was pregnant.
Her mother, Joan, was disappointed to discover that her
daughter, an honor-roll student, would soon be a mom; she had
hoped Ericka might attend college and enjoy a successful
career.
Would Ericka ever make it to college?
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Refers to field of psychology that examines physical, cognitive,
and socioemotional change

Socioemotional development
Refers to social behaviors, emotions, and changes experienced
in relationships, feelings, and overall disposition
Physical development
Involves maturation wherein the body follows a universal,
biologically driven progression in a generally predictable
pattern
Cognitive development
Includes changes in memory, problem solving, decision making,
language, and intelligence that tend to follow a universal course
early in life and considerable variability with age
BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVE
Recognizes contributions and interplay of biological,
psychological, and social forces facing human development
THREE MAJOR THEMES OR DEBATES
Stages or continuity
Hereditary and environmental influences
Stability and change
5
RESEARCH METHODS USED TO STUDY
DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES
Cross-sectional method
Examines people of different ages at a single point in time
Longitudinal method
Examines one sample of people over a period of time to

determine age-related changes
Cross-sequential method
Examines groups of people of different ages, following them
across time
6
Chromosomes
Inherited threadlike structures composed of deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA)
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Molecule that provides the instructions for the development and
production of cells
Gene
Specified segment of a DNA molecule
CHROMOSOMES, DNA, AND GENES
Every cell in your body, except red blood cells and sex cells
(sperm or egg), contains a full set of 23 chromosome pairs like
those shown here.
These 23 chromosome pairs contain the full blueprint for you as
a complete, unique person. The primary component of each
chromosome is a single, tightly wound molecule of DNA.
Within that DNA are around 21,000 genes (Pennisi, 2012,
September 5), each determining specific traits such as hair
texture. Note the sex chromosomes (X and Y) on the lower
right, indicating that the sex is male. Photo: CNRI/Science

Source.
8
How exactly did you get your genes from your biological
parents?
Genes are found in chromosomes.
Chromosomes inherited from biological parents.
Sperm and egg both contain 23 chromosomes = 23 pairs.
Twenty-third chromosome pair determines genetic sex.
XX = female; XY = male
Researchers with the Human Genome Project have decoded the
entire human genome, which contains about 21,000 DNA
segments known as genes (Pennisi, 2012, September 5).
Genes are the blueprints for proteins that endow you with a
unique set of traits, including eye color, hair texture, and—to a
certain extent—psychological characteristics.
The colored lights are an artistic representation of the human
genome, the complete set of DNA found in most cells in the
body.
10
Genotype
Includes an individual’s complete collection of genes
Does not change in response to the environment but interacts
with it—outcome is not predetermined
Phenotype

Refers to the observable characteristics of an individual that are
the result of this interaction
Includes unique physical, psychological, and behavioral
characteristics
Epigenetics
Examines the process involved in the development of
phenotypes
The dominant gene governs the expression of inherited
characteristics.
The recessive gene cannot overcome the influence of the
dominant gene.
The “widow’s peak,” or V-shaped hairline, is thought to be
determined by the presence of a single, dominant gene (Chiras,
2015). The man on the left must have at least one dominant
widow’s peak gene, while the man on the right has two
recessive straight hairline genes.
FROM ZYGOTE TO EMBRYO TO FETUS
Zygote
Single cell formed by the union of a sperm cell and an egg
Travels down the fallopian tube while dividing into more cells
Multiples
Monozygotic twins develop from one egg inseminated at
conception.
Dizygotic twins occur when two eggs are inseminated by two
different sperm.

Germinal period (conception to end of 2nd week)
Implanting in uterine wall; rapid growth
Embryo period (3rd to 8th week)
Cell differentiation; formation of major organs and systems
begin
Heart begins to beat; spinal cord and intestinal systems develop
by end of period
14
Fetal period (2nd month to birth)
Rapid weight gain; clear sleep-wake cycles; all organs, systems,
and structures fully developed at birth
Brain weight one quarter of adult size
Prenatal Development and Periods of Critical Growth
Teratogens
Embryos are not protected from all environmental dangers.
Teratogens can damage a zygote, embryo, or fetus.
Damage depends on the agent, timing, and duration of exposure.
CAN YOU IDENTIFY THE POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF
TERATOGENS IN EACH OF THESE CATEGORIES?
Drugs
Environmental factors

Infections
Maternal disease
From conception until birth, the developing human is nestled
deep inside a woman’s body, but it remains vulnerable to threats
from the outside. See Table 8.1 for some common teratogens
and their effects.
See Table 8.1 for additional information about the dangers of
teratogens. From conception until birth, the developing human
is nestled deep inside a woman’s body, but it remains
vulnerable to threats from the outside. Listed here are some
common teratogens and their effects. Information from Brent
(2004)
18
THE FETAL PERIOD
Between 2 months and birth (fetus)
Average birth weight around 7 pounds by North American
standards
Sleep-wake cycles demonstrated
FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME (FAS)
Delays in development that result from moderate to heavy
alcohol use during pregnancy
Symptoms may include physical growth delays, learning
disabilities, and problems with anxiety, attention, and impulse
regulation.
Newborn reflexes
Automatic responses to stimuli
Some necessary for survival; other no obvious purpose
Examples

Rooting, sucking, grasping, Babinski, stepping, Moro
See Table 8.2 for additional information about newborn
reflexes.
20
Newborn senses
Prefer human faces as opposed to geometric shapes
Discriminate mother’s voice shortly after birth
Distinguish smell of mother’s breast milk
Prefer sweet tastes, react to sour tastes, notice differences in
breast milk taste
React to sense of touch
Respond to pain
Have blurred vision for several months
THE GROWING BRAIN
Synaptic pruning
Increase in neural connections is not uniform in brain
Unused synaptic connections eliminated
Decrease in neural connection by 40–50% by puberty
Rosenzweig’s rats
Rosenzweig and colleagues demonstrated how environment
influences animal brain development.

Rats with an enriched environment experienced greater
increases in brain weight and synaptic connections.
Behaviorism and language
Proposes that all behavior—including language—is learned
through associations, reinforcers, and observations
Suggests language is learned through positive attention to
correct behavior and unpleasant attention to incorrect behavior
THE LANGUAGE EXPLOSION (LAD)
Language acquisition device
Provides universal, innate mechanism for language learning
(Chomsky)
Infant-directed speech (IDS)
Used by caregivers worldwide and stimulates infant attention to
socially appropriate partners
Language in the environment
The amount of language in the home correlates with SES.
The quality of speech input is also critical to language
development.
A lag in reading, math, and academic achievement in general is
found in children of lower SES status who are beginning school.
Sequence of acquisition

Cooing
Babbling
Telegraphic speech
NATURE AND NURTURE
GENIE THE “FERAL CHILD”
In 1970, a social worker in Arcadia, California, discovered 13-
year-old “Genie.” Between the ages of 20 months and 13 years,
Genie suffered abuse, deprivation, and neglect. She was
deprived of physical activity, sensory stimulation, and
affection.
Efforts to build Genie’s vocabulary had mixed success. She
learned basic syntax principles and eventually spoke meaningful
sentences. There were, however, certain linguistic skills that
could not be mastered.
Why couldn’t Genie master these certain linguistic skills? What
implications does this have for all child language development?
One of first to suggest infant cognitive abilities
Posits that child and adult cognition are different; cognitive
development takes place in stages
Senrorimotor: Object permanence
Preoperational: Egocentrism; conservation errors
Concrete operational: Logical thinking in reference to concrete
objects and circumstances
Formal operational: More logical and systematic thinking
See INFOGRAPHIC 8.3 for additional information about
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.

29
KEY PIAGETIAN TERMS
Schema
Collection of ideas that represent a basic unit of understanding
Assimilation
Using existing information and ideas to understand new
knowledge and experiences
Accommodation
Restructuring of old ideas to make a place for new information
The critics
Cognitive stage with distinct characteristic; transitions more
likely to be continuous
Cognitive abilities underestimated
Object permanence occurs sooner.
Formal operational stage may not be last stage; distinctions are
needed between adolescents and adults of various ages.
VYGOTSKY AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Overview
Social and cultural factors influence cognition.
Children are apprentices in relation to more capable and
experienced others (zone of proximal development).
Scaffolding
Children are pushed to go just beyond what they are competent

and capable of doing, while providing help in a decreasing
manner.
KAGAN
Temperament
Characteristic differences in behavioral patterns and emotional
reactions that are evident from birth
High-reactive infants
Exhibit much distress with unfamiliar stimuli
Low-reactive infants
Do not respond to stimuli with great distress
THOMAS AND CHESS
Temperament
Easy: Follow regular schedules; easily soothed; transition
easily; 40%
Difficult: Erratic schedule; poor transitioning; irritable and
unhappy; 10%
Slow to warm up: Not fond of change; 15%
More than one type of temperament: 39%
THE HARLOWS AND THEIR MONKEYS
Research by Harry and Margaret Harlow and colleagues at the
University of Wisconsin showed that physical comfort is
important for the socioemotional development of these animals.
What do you think the monkeys did when given the choice
between a wire mesh “mother” that provided milk and a cloth-
covered “mother” without milk?

When given the choice between a wire mesh “mother” that
provided milk and a cloth-covered “mother” without milk, most
of the monkeys opted to snuggle with the cuddly cloth-covered
one (Harlow, 1958).
36
MARY AINSWORTH
Attachment
Refers to degree to which infant feels emotional connection
with primary caregivers
Secure attachment
Avoidant attachment
Ambivalent attachment
ATTACHMENT
The critics
Most of early work used mothers; subsequent research should
examine attachment to multiple caregivers.
Artificial environment created and does not mirror natural
environment.
Cross-cultural differences not always addressed.
ERIKSON
Psychosocial stages
Proposed that human development is marked by eight
psychological stages from infancy to old age
Suggested that each stage is marked by developmental task or

emotional crisis to be resolved
Unsuccessful resolution results in difficulty at next stage
ERIKSON’S STAGES ASSOCIATED WITH INFANCY AND
CHILDHOOD
Trust versus mistrust
Autonomy versus shame and doubt
Initiative versus guilt
Check Table 8.3 for a discussion of each stage and its positive
and negative resolutions.
Key terms
Adolescence
Puberty
Primary sex characteristics
Secondary sex characteristics
Menarche
Involves the point at which menstruation begins
Can begin as early as 9 or after age 14; typical age is between
12 and 13
Spermarche
Involves time when boys experience first ejaculation
STIs
More than half of 15- to 24-year-olds affected by new infections
Adolescent infections especially risky; often untreated

Timing and effects of maturation
Early maturing girls: More negative outcomes; social anxiety,
higher risk of emotional problems and unhealthy and delinquent
behaviors; lower self-confidence
Early maturing boys: Generally, a more positive experience, but
aggressive behavior, cheating, temper tantrums common
Formal operations (Piaget)
Use of deductive reasoning and critical thinking begins.
Characterized by abstract reasoning, classification, symbol use,
thinking beyond moment, and considering many possibilities
and hypothetical situations
Adolescent egocentrism
Involves intense focus on self and feelings of immortality
Can lead to an increase in risky behaviors
Adolescent brain
Significant limbic system development compared with the
prefrontal cortex can lead to an increase in risk-taking behavior.
Increased myelination of axons occurs in the prefrontal cortex,
which is not yet fully developed.
Adolescents may not foresee the possible consequences of
reward-seeking activities.
Should this influence the decision about teenagers and the death
penalty?

Adolescent (part 8)
SOCIAL MEDIA AND PSYCHOLOGY
The social networking teen machine
Approximately 8% of Internet-using teenagers say they have
been bullied online in the past year; 88% have observed others
being “mean or cruel” on a social media site.
QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
How might this behavior impact on the socioemotional
development for the bullied? For the bully?
What advice would you give to parents?
Kohlberg
Focused on specific changes in beliefs about right and wrong
Noted that environmental influences and interactions with
others support continued moral development
Proposed three sequential, universal levels of moral
development:
Preconventional moral reasoning
Conventional moral reasoning
Postconventional moral reasoning
Used a variety of fictional moral dilemma stories to determine
the stages of moral reasoning
49

Criticisms
Women’s moral reasoning not represented; importance of caring
and responsibility discounted (Gilligan)
Theory primarily applicable to Western, collectivist cultures
Moral behavior defined, but not predicted
EMERGING ADULTHOOD
Occurs between age 18 and 25 years
Involves period of exploration and opportunity
Influenced by dependency on families for longer periods of time
Provides opportunities for seeking relationships, education, and
new world views
Support System
(Left to right, and front) Joan, Ericka, Ericka’s mentor Aisha,
and Niyah. In addition to Ericka’s grandmother, these are the
people who helped keep Ericka motivated and inspired
throughout college.
Ericka discovered Generation Hope, a non-profit organization
devoted to supporting teen parent college students.
Ericka considered withdrawing from college at one point, but
then she discovered Generation Hope, a non-profit organization
devoted to supporting teen parents as they work toward college
degrees. In addition to graduating cum laude, Ericka served as
president of the Student Government Association and belonged
to two honor societies. Courtesy Ericka Harley.
52

Adulthood (part 1)
Early adulthood
Sensory systems and muscular and cardiovascular ability are
sharp.
Hearing starts to decline; lifestyle choices affect health.
Fertility-related changes occur.
Middle adulthood
Genes influence height and bone mass; exercise slows shrinking
process.
Wrinkles, sags, and skin spots may appear; hair thins and turns
grey; hearing loss continues; eyesight may decline; bones
weaken.
Adulthood (part 2)
Late adulthood
Characterized by decline in physical and psychological
functions
Vision deteriorates (cataracts, impaired night vision).
Hearing declines; reaction time increases; information
processed more slowly; memory deteriorates.
Exercise fosters development of new neural networks.
Adulthood (part 3)
Early adulthood
Measures of aptitude remain stable from early to middle
adulthood.
Processing speed begins to decline.
Middle and late adulthood
Cognitive function does not necessarily decrease.
After age 70, decline is more apparent; some skills become
more refined.
Crystallized intelligence

Fluid intelligence
From the Pages of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
JOIN A CLUB, STAY SHARP
Group social activity beats one-on-one encounters for
preventing cognitive decline.
Research findings suggest that the mental boost from group
activity becomes better with age.
Why does this occur?
Group relationships may sharpen skills by requiring
maintenance efforts and reinforcing self-identity.
Adulthood (part 4)
AND LATE ADULTHOOD
Erikson and adulthood
Young adulthood: Intimacy versus isolation
Middle adulthood: Generativity versus stagnation
Late adulthood: Integrity versus despair
Adulthood (part 5)
PARENTING
Baumrind identified four parenting behavioral styles:
Authoritarian parenting
Authoritative parenting
Permissive parenting
Uninvolved parenting
How would you describe each of these styles to prospective
parents?
Adulthood (part 6)

AND LATE ADULTHOOD
Growing old with grace
As of 2014, fewer than 1% of Americans older than 65 lived in
a nursing home.
Most older adults in the United States enjoy active, healthy,
independent lives.
Positive emotions are more frequent; emotional stability
increases; stress and anger decreases.
Death and Dying
DEATH AND DYING
Kübler-Ross’ theory regarding imminent death (2009)
Denial
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
Acceptance
Across the World
DEATH IN DIFFERENT CULTURES
Views of death are related to religion and culture.
Every culture has its own collection of ideas about death.
Like any developmental step, the experience of death is shaped
by countless social, psychological, and biological factors.

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