Cell Division Research Paper

Cell Division Research Paper
Cells as we learn are capable of reproduction. Cell division according to the book is a process that produces genetically identical daughter cells.
Some living organisms are able to reproduce a sexually. In this process Chromosomes are duplicated and then distributed during the process of
mitosis. The offspring are exactly the same as the parent as well as each other. Certain organisms such as humans and animals reproduce sexually by
the bond of an egg cell from a female and a sperm cell from a male. These organisms carry out meiosis. Genes in a eukaryotic species are grouped up
together in chromosomes found in the nucleus, each of the chromosomes contain one long strand of DNA. Before cells begin to divide the chromosomes
duplicate making ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Depending on how the chromosomes react during the process of meiosis determines the inheritance patterns. Certain kinds of genes are known to be
linked and come together as a pair on the same chromosome. The process of crossing over can separate these linked genes and produces gametes with
recombinant chromosomes and creates offspring with recombinant phenotypes.
Whether we are born males or females is determined by the X and the Y chromosomes. A person who gets two X chromosomes forms as a female
while a person who gets both an X and a Y forms as a male. So I have both an X and a Y chromosome while my three sisters all have two X
chromosomes. Some human disorders are sex linked. Hemophilia and colorblindness are due to recessive alleles. A male who receives a recessive
allele from his mother will have the disorder however for a female to have the disorder both the mother and father must pass on the recessive allele.
In conclusion cells are super complicated and undergo many processes I myself will never truly understand. However after studying the material I am
able to understand that what I perceived as simple things in life actually occur because of many complex things going on inside of our
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Interview Sixth Grade Life Science Students On The Topic...
I chose to interview seventh grade life science students on the topic of cell division. Because I teach at a magnet junior high/ high school within
Toledo Public students, the students I teach in the seventh grade are coming from a variety of different elementary schools both in and out of the
district. This results in a wide variety of prior content knowledge in science. Based on the Ohio New Learning Standards for Science, in the sixth
grade, students are introduced to the idea of mitosis and that cells come from pre–existing cells. However, based on my past two years of experience
teaching seventh grade life science, this is often not the case. Most students have a basic understanding of cells, but have not been introduced to
mitosis, nor the major component of cell theory that all cells come from pre–existing cells. It may also be important to note that my seventh grade class
incorporates both seventh and eighth grade life science standards from the Ohio New Learning Standards for Science.
Interviews began as students were shown a model of a cell which is shown in Image 1. Students were first asked the stem question, "What is this a
model of?" From there students were asked, "Where do cells come from?" The probing questions asked to students were dependent on their responses,
but were asked in order to reveal their knowledge of cell division. Three student responses are described in this paper, as they revealed a variety of
prior content knowledge. Three

Bold Filash Case Study
MILESTONE ONE
AREA OF FOCUS AND FRAMEWORK
BY
AJITESH KUMAR AKULA
IT 520
SUBMITTED TO PROFESSOR: MARK LEPAGE
AREA OF FOCUS AND FRAMEWORK
пѓ BACKGROUND AND AREA OF FOCUS Set up in 1982 as BOLDDISK in Waltham, Massachusetts, BoldFlash alludes to a portable enterprise,
which had a center goal of working as PC storage media. Afterward, the organization was re–branded as BoldFlash, and it moved to shanghai, Ontario
and Austin. By and by, the fundamental operations of the firm are flashing memories, and its affirmed customer is OEM and Direct–to–Consumer
commercial centers.
Generally, BoldFlash is encountering various difficulties, comprehensive of shopper dependability, on–time transference of cost, and the nature of
administrations, to say only a couple. The whole procedure requires frameworks and structures, which would enhance customer recovery inside the
following more than four decades (45 years). On a few events, the association fell beneath its commercial center opponents; for illustrations, it
encountered a total strain or weight on the costs other than the capacity of getting brand items to meet or satisfy the necessities of the market (Fortuna
and MohorcМЊicМЊ, 2015).
Prior to the demise of the predecessor of Roger Cahill, the cell phone division experienced repetitive chips' improvement. With an aggregate miss on the
center commercial center storage hardware in tablets, BoldFlash's opponent got an aggressive edge over the organization inside the essential
commercial center. The essential driver of this misfortune was credited to Harrison, who was exceptionally oppressive or dictatorial. He advanced a
complaint custom inside the organization where each specialist attempted so much shielding themselves from his iron–fist sort of administration.
Roger Cahill, a free, amicable, and liberated individual, saw this as the rule reason for struggle inside the partnership. While working in the fundamental

workplaces, he didn't know of the desires from different hierarchical offices under his administration. For every one of the divisions under his
supervision, including the production department, the product development area, and

Treatment Of Chemotherapy With Cell Division
Docetaxel (XT) sold as Taxotere or Docecad, is a settled threatening to mitotic chemotherapy pharmaceutical that works by intruding with cell division.
Docetaxel is affirmed by the FDA for treatment of secretly advanced or metastatic chest infection, head and neck development, gastric tumor,
hormone–adamant prostate danger and non small cell lung disease. It works by preventing the disease cells from isolating into 2 new cells, so it
obstructs the development of tumor. Docetaxel ties to microtubules reversibly with high fondness and has a greatest stoichiometry of one mole
docetaxel per mole tubulin in microtubules. Docetaxel can be used as a lone administrator or in mix with other chemotherapeutic pharmaceuticals as
shown depending upon... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Systemic treatment is regularly utilized as a part of conjunction with different modalities that constitute "nearby treatment" (i.e. medications whose
adequacy is limited to the anatomic territory where they are connected) for growth, for example, radiation treatment, surgery, and/or hyperthermia
treatment. The adequacy of chemotherapy relies on upon the sort of tumor and the stage. The general viability ranges from being corrective for a few
growths, for example, some leukemias, to being inadequate, for example, in some mind tumors,to being unnecessary in others, as most non–melanoma
skin cancers. Clinical information has indicated docetaxel to have cytotoxic movement against bosom, colorectal, lung, ovarian, prostate, liver, renal,
gastric, head and neck tumors, and melanoma. In hormone unmanageable prostate growth docetaxel enhances future and general life quality. Docetaxel
has a place with a class of chemotherapy medications called plant alkaloids. Plant alkaloids are 5produced using plants. The vinca alkaloids are
produced using the periwinkle plant. The taxanes are produced using the bark of the Pacific Yew tree. Vinca alkaloids and taxanes are otherwise called
antimicrotubule operators. Treatment with docetaxel has the particular result of expanding survival time in patients with certain sorts of tumor. Some
clinical trials show median survival times to be expanded by just three months,

The Four Stages Of Cell Division
Cell division is the process by which a cell divides into two or more cells. There are two types of cell division, mitosis, and meiosis. Mitosis is a type of
cell division in which one cell divides in to two new daughter cells that are genetically identical to one another. In the context of the cell cycle, mitosis
is the part of the division process in which the DNA of the cell's nucleus is split into two equal sets of chromosomes. Mitosis on the other side is a
process where a single cell divides in to two cells to produce four cells containing half the original amount of genetic information. These cells are the
sex cells – sperm in males, eggs in females. Mitosis consist of four steps, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase. On the other side meiosis
has nine steps, interphase, prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I & cytokinesis, prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and lastly telophase
II & cytokinesis. Beginning with mitosis, in early prophase the cell starts to break down some structures and build other up, setting the stage for
division of the chromosomes. First the chromosomes start to condense (making them easier to pull apart later on). Then the mitotic spindle begins to
form. The spindle is a structure made of microtubules, strong fibers that are part of the cell's "skeleton." And its job is to organize the chromosome and
move them around during mitosis. In late prophase (also known as prometaphase), the mitotic spindle begins to capture and

CEP55 Essay
CEP55 plays a critical role for precise midbody assembly as CEP55–depleted cells exhibited an abnormal midbody structure that lacked visible
midbody under light microscope [220]. They also demonstrated the interaction of CEP55 with an orchestra of structural and regulatory proteins
essential for accomplishment of cytokinesis. These proteins include Aurora B, MKLP2, PRC1, ECT2, Anillin and Syntaxin 2 which are recruited to the
midbody thus implying the importance of CEP55 being indispensable for midbody structure maintenance [220]. Carlton et al. and Morita et al. have
independently demonstrated that CEP55 coordinates the final stage of cell abscission. They have showed that at midbody, CEP55 recruits proteins
involved in vesicular fission ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Further characterization is required to discriminate the role of CEP55 being direct (facilitates actual abscission) or indirect (regulates recruitment of
vesicular trafficking proteins) in cytokinesis.
1.7.4 The structure of CEP55 and ESCRT complex at the midbody
As discussed previously, CEP55 forms a complex with ALIX and TSG101 at the midbody to recruit ESCRT machinery to the midbody for facilitating
membrane fission events required to assist separation of two daughter cells [212, 223]. Among many other ESCRT complexes (such as 0, I, II and III),
ESCRT–III plays critical role in regulating cytokinesis as it forms long filamentous structures to allow construction of constriction site [195, 212, 223].
In context to CEP55, ALIX enables recruitment of ESCRT–III whereas TSG101 allows conscription of ESCRT–I initially which in turn recruits
ESCRT–III (Figure 1.11B) [212, 223]. CEP55, like other centrosomal proteins is a highly coiled–coil protein and is known to exist as a homodimer
[218]. Initially, Morita et al. demonstrated that CEP55 is comprised of two coiled–coil region joined by a hinge region that enabled binding of ALIX
and TSG101 [223]. However, Lee et al. demonstrated that the hinge region is part of the coiled–coil region with the probability of being a continuation
of N–terminal domain (Figure 1.11B) [196]. In addition, Lee et al. also demonstrated that each homodimer of CEP55 binds only one copy of either
ALIX or TSG101

Why Are Antibiotics For Cancer Treatment?
While glancing at science daily, I came across two extremely interesting articles, both pertaining to cancer treatment. These articles talk about two
different approaches that could possibly lead to more effective and efficient cancer treatment, in comparison to what is currently used in the medical
world today. Both these articles cover research that could potentially save your or my life, one day later down the line. These articles portray, radically
different approaches to cancer treatment as compared to what we currently see today in chemotherapy.
The first Article surrounds a research group out of Manchester University, which is led by Professor Michael P. Lisanti. In their research, they found
that they could re–purpose current FDA approved antibiotics to combat cancer stem cells. Primarily the antibiotics would be used to target the cell's
mitochondria, because as we know, they are the cells main energy source. The researchers in this article, believe that antibiotics will target the
mitochondria because of its evolutionary roots back to bacteria. This in turn should make it possible for some antibiotics to eradicate the mitochondria
and thus killing the cell. Overall, the results in my opinion were extremely promising. In the lab, it was shown that 4 out of the 5 antibiotics tested,
would eliminate the cancer stem cells every time. The most promising part of this potentially new cancer treatment, was the fact that very few to no
normal cells were harmed. On top of

Taking a Look at Slime Mold
INTRODUCTION:
What is a Dictyostelium discoideum? D. discoideum commonly referred to, as slime mold is a species of amoebas that are soil living; they belong to
the phylum Mycetozoa. "D. discoideum is a eukaryote that transitions from a collection of unicellular amoebae into a multicellular slug and then into a
fruiting body within its one lifetime. " The unicellular phase consists of solitary amoeba feeding on bacteria and reproducing by binary fission. When
faced with starvation, the amoeba collects into aggregates and develops into multicellular fruiting bodies. This particular multicellular organism is only
multicellular under the certain environmental conditions that demand of it.
THE LIFE CYCLE:
The life cycle of D. discoideum it is most easily defined as the starting with the spore stage. Spores are very small, pod –shaped, and capable of
sprouting a unicellular amoeba when plated on moist agar. After it has hatched, the amoeba enters a vegetative state during which the amoebae then
feeds by consuming bacteria, and they constantly divide to generate independent daughter cells. Once the amoeba has reached a certain number it is
more dependent on their source of food, they begin to aggregate and stream toward the next portion called the main collection point. This is now
making its way to the collection point where they form cell streams, which then collect into larger rivers. Streaming is the product of chemotaxis and
in response to the waves of cAMP it began

The Evolution Of Human Chromosomes
Introduction
Human chromosomes are incredibly complex, containing a variety of different structures necessary to maintain its function; one of these is called a
Telomere and is found at the ends of the chromosomes. Telomeres contain thousands of repeats of the repetitive TTAGGG DNA sequence; this is
combined with a complex enzyme known as telomerase. Furthermore, the function of this ribonucleoprotein enzyme complex is to maintain telomere
length in cancer cells by adding TTAGGG repeats onto the telomeric ends of the chromosomes; this compensates for the normal expected shortening of
telomeres which occurs in all dividing cells.
Predominantly human cancers emerge during ageing or during the end stage of disease are caused by the increased rate of chromosomal instability,
thus inducing lesions responsible for apoptosis within cells altering them into immortal cells, i.e. cancer cells. Telomere shortening has very strong ties
to the increased risk of immortal cells occurring within ageing and chronic disease, showing a very strong indication that the shortening of sequence
affects cell division; this directly contributes to the chromosomal instability and cancer initiation processes.
Telomere biology is increasing our understanding of where ageing and chronic disease cancers occur from, this is directly linked to the understanding
of telomerase and how it appears within immortal cells but not somatic cells. Furthermore, there are proving a number of theories to suggest

Summer Assignment 3: Cell Division
Summer Assignment #3
Cell division Cell division is when a cell divides to produce two daughter cells with the same genetic information. In cell division, specialized cells
are created from multicellular organisms and work to carry out different task and make tissue. Since specialized cells work together on multiple task
they use less energy and carry out functions productively. When repairing weak cells, such as skin cells,cell division helps mend the cells that have
specific functions to complete. Cell division can also affect organisms in a negative way. If a stem cells undergoes too many cell divisions, instead of
assisting in mending the cells it can cause the ances of having cancerous tissue to arise. It is found that, since basal

Extending Lives--But at What Cost?
Even though the prospect of extending life indefinitely via the philosopher's stone has been around since the ancient Greeks and has also been
mentioned in the Bible, modern–day biochemists and biomedical engineers are much closer to achieving the ideal of immortality. Life extension has
also had its role in popular culture in movies such as Logan's Run. The movie depicts American society in 2274 when a totalitarian government is in
power. Due to the limited resources, the dystopian government dictates that all citizens must die when they reach age thirty, and all the citizens of this
government live with a watch that ticks down the time they have left to live (talk about a literal biological clock). This is a darkly humored film that
can be viewed as an interpretation of Malthusian theory (described in 1798), which states that while resources like arable land, food, and natural oils
grow linearly, the human population grows exponentially. Although life extension is an intriguing idea for some people, the potential problems it would
likely cause, in addition to the existing problems that it would exacerbate, would greatly outweigh the benefits. Specifically, there are drawbacks behind
extending the average human's lifespan by a considerable amount, like extending the individual's life past his or her health span and functionality.
People could be sustained through biotechnology past their prime just to live in pain due to the tissues not integrating themselves correctly into

The Continuity Of Life Chapter 1 Summary
Chapter 9 The Continuity of Life: Cellular Reproduction Summary (184)
Reproduction is important for the survival of all living things. Without a mechanism for reproduction, life would come to an end. There are two types
of reproduction to learn in elementary grades, asexual and sexual reproduction. Many teachers are afraid of discussing reproduction, but if presented as a
factual lesson it is easy for the students to understand the principles without the standard giggles.
Asexual reproduction refers to simple cell division that produces an exact duplicate of an organism. There are many different types of asexual
reproduction which can be discussed to show students the variability of modes of reproduction. Some single–celled organisms reproduce by simple cell
division, this is called binary fission. In this manner, the mother cell simply splits in half producing two daughter cells. Some cells reproduce by
unequal division of the cells, this is called budding. In this process the bud forms as a knob on the mother cell. The nucleus divides and identical
parts go to the mother cell and the bud. The bud may grow until it is as large as the mother cell and can form buds of its own. In some cases buds ...
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Red biotechnology involves medical processes such as getting organisms to produce new drugs, or using stem cells to regenerate damaged human
tissues and perhaps re–grow entire organs. White (also called gray) biotechnology involves industrial processes such as the production of new
chemicals or the development of new fuels for vehicles. Green biotechnology applies to agriculture and involves such processes as the development of
pest–resistant grains or the accelerated evolution of disease–resistant animals. Blue biotechnology, rarely mentioned, encompasses processes in marine
and aquatic environments, such as controlling the proliferation of noxious water–borne

Science Portfolio Reflection: My Student Exploration Monet...
#2 Science Portfolio Reflection
My Student Exploration packet of Cell Divisions, was the very first gizmo assignment handed to me by my science teacher, Mr. Moreno. I had
recently been transferred to his class, so I didn't understand what the rest of the class was doing. Fortionally, I used my quick thinking to boost myself
up to the level everyone else was at. I read all three of the science books to understand the topics that they were studying. My former class were
learning about outer space, but in my new class we were surveying topics about the body, like cells. Anyways, this assignment required for me to use
all the knowledge I learned in the short time I was in this new class, and to do further research in Gizmos.com, to grasp

Examination Of Cell Division And Dna Replication
The experiments of the past week allowed examination of cell division and DNA replication, the processes by which cells carry out important
functions. It is important to have an understanding of these processes in order to have an understanding of biology. These most small occurrences are
the basis for life in all cells. Without division and DNA replication, organism could not grow and carry out complex tasks, such as metabolism. In
addition, natural selection can only occur where genetic variation does. This makes division of cells and the recombination of their DNA essential to
the continuance of human life.
Cells that are diploid have two sets of chromosomes, one coming from each parent. This kind of cell is most familiar to us because this is the way
humans are genetically formed. However, the process of replicating and packaging those genes is more complex than most people realize. The process
begins in the nucleus. The nucleus is the epicenter of control for the cell. In every nucleus there is a set of chromosomes with our genetic makeup
attached to them. These chromosomes are essential to the life of the cell. Therefore, when cell division, or mitosis, or occurs, each cell gets a copy of
the entire set of chromosomes, rather than just a part of them. Each phase of mitosis carries out a very specific task.
Interphase is the beginning of this process. In this stage, you cannot yet discern chromosomes in the nucleus. The nucleolus, however, will be visible at
this time.

Resistance Of The Mutant Oncogenes
Introduction
One in five deaths today is a result of some form of cancer. This terrible disease stems from mutations in body cells, which interfere with the cells'
normal regulation of growth, division, and death. Cells can make occasional mistakes and divide too early or not destroy themselves at the right time
(Alberts et al. 2014). The Hayflick limit, described in 1961 by Leonard Hayflick, states that normal human cells can divide for about 50 times (Watts
2011). In cancers, though, this limit does not exist, and cells continually divide. Occasional mistakes do not have tremendous consequences on large,
multicellular organisms, however. When many cells begin to make these mistakes, though, tumorigenesis andcancer can occur. ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The pigment protects skin cells, particularly the DNA of the cells, from damaging ultraviolet radiation from the sun, and has been shown to reduce the
frequency of radiation–induced mutations and to completely remove low–dose radiation effects (Mosse et al. 2000). Within melanocytes are
melanosomes, organelles in which melanin production occurs. The melanosomes have 4 stages of maturity, starting with stage 1, or premelanosomes,
and progressing to stage 4, or mature melanosomes. The stages can be determined based on the composition of the vesicles in the cells (Setaluri 2003).
The mature melanosomes then branch off from the dendritic tips of the melanocytes and travel to keratinocytes, keratin–producing cells (Seiberg 2001).
The chemotherapy drug methotrexate is an alkaloid that has been used as a treatment for acute lymphocytic leukemia, non–Hodgkin's lymphoma,
osteosarcoma, choriocarcinoma, head and neck cancer, and breast cancer. Methotrexate is an antimetabolite that acts as a folic acid antagonist.
Components of folate vitamins are required for DNA synthesis and cell replication, so by inhibiting folic acid and other folates, methotrexate slows the
DNA synthesis and division of certain cancer cells, and impacts cell proliferation (Jolviet et al. 1983). The estimated half maximal effective
concentration (EC50) for methotrexate was found to be 0.00339ОјM for human breast cancer MDA–MB–231

Biology Summative: Telomeres, Telomerase, and Cancer Essay
In current society, cancer is one of the most fatal and prevalent diseases to exist. However, new research being conducted on telomeres and telomerase
provides insight on not only the aging process and mortality of cells, but also on how the idea of cell death connects to cancer cells. By gaining
knowledge on the supposed immortality of cancer cells, researchers are acquiring a higher understanding of the subject, and attempting to work on
alternate techniques to provide treatment for the illness. The connection between telomeres and cancer and the momentous discoveries being made on
them is revolutionizing the world through potential current and future applications that have significant implications for cancer treatment, and society,
the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Another study conducted on human melanoma suggested the link between telomerase activity and cancer; it was discovered that a mutation on the
promoter region of a telomere length regulating gene acts as a cancer drivers6, 7. Thus, there is a definite connection between telomeres, telomerase,
and cancer. Secondly, the knowledge of this link led to significant implications and applications for cancer treatment, which are highlighted through
recent and important discoveries. First of all, current methods of cancer treatment are unreliable; both chemotherapy and radiotherapy have dangerous
side effects, including second cancers12, 13. As a result, vigorous research is being conducted in using the connection between telomeres and cancer to
treat the illness. One potential solution that scientists discovered is the use of telomerase inhibitors, which would actively inhibit the enzyme10. An
experimental anticancer technique that Geron researchers tested is a mixture of the drug Alkeran and an anti–telomerase agent GRN163L10. The
drugs hindered the development precancerous cells, and even fought real cancers10. In another experiment, scientists inhibited telomerase activity in a
cancer by building complementary RNA strands of the telomerase production gene, which would attach to the telomerase mRNA and obstruct the
process9. The

Mitosis And Cancer: Article Analysis
In the article, "Mitosis and Cancer," it talks about how cancer is formed and how the spread of cancer cells can be slowed down. Cancer is
essentially a disease that causes an abnormal growth of cells. In mitosis, there are certain checkpoints that a cell must pass before dividing. With
cancer, the checkpoints are ignored and continue to grow rapidly.
This rapid cell growth is caused by a mutation in the DNA. The two most common genes that risk the chance of cancer are the p53 gene and the
BRCA1 gene. The p53 gene is also known as "the guardian of the genome." The function includes the ability to control cell cycles. This gene is
mutated in more than half of cancers in humans. The Breast Cancer Gene, or BRCA1 is normally supposed to suppress tumor functions, but when this
backfires, a tumor can begin to form.
With cancer, there are two different types of cells. Benign cells and malignant cells.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The first thing is that cancer cells cannot be destroyed on its own. A normal cell would only divide a certain amount of times before it will stop. A
cancer cell, however, with the supply of nutrients, will keep dividing indefinitely. The second key difference of normal cells and cancer cells are that
cancer cells do not follow the density–dependent inhibition of growth. This means that for a normal cell, once there is no more room for the cell to
divide, it will stop dividing unless some of the cells are scraped away, then it will replace. In cancer cells, the cells do not stop when there is no more
room. They will keep piling on top of one another and will eventually lead to a malignant tumor. This is the most important factor that leads to the
spread of cancer throughout the body. The third difference is that cancer cells have abnormal cell surfaces. The cells tend to not stick together, and
from this allows metastasis to occur, which is the spread of cancerous cells in the

Cancer Stem Cell Thesis
Isolation of Cancer Stem Cells through their Dielectrophoretic Signature
Thesis
The purpose of this research article is to create a microfluidic device that can isolate and separate cancer stem cells from regular cancer cells in blood.
Background
In spite of all the achievements and advances in the medical field, cancer stays as one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Cancer is an umbrella
term for groups of diseases that are all characterized by uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells [1]. These abnormal cells are cells that are either
mutated or damaged in such a way that natural mechanisms for checking cell growth are no longer efficient for containing their growth. If these
unusual cells are allowed to multiply unchecked, severe health issues will arise possibly leading to death. Cancer can result from both external factors
including tobacco usage, virus infections, chemicals, and radiation, as well as from internal factors such as hormones and inherited mutations [1].
Approach ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These cells are said to behave very similarly to normal stem cells in that they have the ability to self–renew and differentiate into more specialized cell
types. In the case of the CSCs, they are capable of replicating themselves and eventually differentiating into the more commonly known tumor cells [2].
Currently, no cure for cancer exists but various cancer treatments and therapies do exist. These typically involve surgery, immune therapy, targeted
therapy, hormone therapy, orchemotherapy. Many of these treatments focus heavily on killing rapidly dividing and growing cells, which is
characteristic of most cancer cells. Therefore, people aspire to isolate these rare CSCs from normal rapidly dividing cancer cells in order to study them
further to cure

Nicotine Cell Proliferation And Invasion
Journal Assignment 2
Background
Purpose of the research
The purpose of this research is to show that nicotine induces cell proliferation and invasion as well as epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), even
though nicotine is not carcinogenic on its own. These series of inductions of mechanisms lead to lung cancer as well as breast cancer and pancreatic
cancer.
Type of cells chosen for study
The lung cancer cells especially in non–small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) are the primary target cells for this study. In addition to the lung cancer cells,
the human breast cancer cells and pancreatic cancer cells are selected for the study in order to compare and confirm the similar activities of the gene
expression and mechanism that induce these cancers.
Background of the topic
Nicotine is the primary component of tobacco products, which causes addiction and can eventually lead to lung cancer through series of metabolic
activities. (http://www.carcinogenesis.com/article.asp?issn=1477–3163;year=2013;volume=12;issue=1;spage=1;epage=1;aulast=Warren ) Nicotine,
which results from cigarette smoking, is found to be the major cause of lung cancer. Non–small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is referred to as a type of
lung cancer that is associated with epithelial cells (http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/non–small–cell–lung/healthprofessional/page1 ).
The lung is covered by layers of epithelial cells connected with junctions that provide the function of transporting and secreting

Analysis Of The Article 'Mitosis Can Drive Cell...
In the article, "Mitosis Can Drive Cell Cannibalism Through Entosis", Joanne Durgen (et al.) suggests that cell division may cause living cells to engulf
each other by invading another living cell. Although the word "cannibalism" sounds terrible, cell–eating–cell is very descriptive of what happens in this
process and is shown that it may be beneficial in limiting tumor growth. Briefing over where entosis is found and what it does, what proteins regulate
the entosis process, and possible beneficial characteristics in human cancer and chemotherapy in this article may give a better understanding of this
microscopic process.
First, let's start with entosis. The beginning of the article states that this cell–swallowing process happens in homotypic epithelial cells (Durgan et al.). It
is shown that the functions of this process uses clinging junctions and the production of actomyosin–based contractions. A cell pushing into or invading
into a deformed one gives a way of engulfment. Durgan also shows that the process just gone over triggers the matrix to break down, causing it to be
unstable and unable to resist the force coming from another cell. In a figurative sense, entosis is like bumpers cars. One of the cars has a faulty
bumper to protect it because the person in the other car loosened the bolts, causing it to fall off, which makes it useless. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
One protein mentioned called RhoA is said to force cells into shape. Another protein called Rac1 can maintain myosin phosphorylation to put a
controlling influence on entotic

Skin Cancer Informative Speech
What exactly is cancer and where does cancer originate from? As of today, there are many types of cancer some of them include breast, melanoma,
lung, lymphoma, and leukemia. (ACS) Cancer is a serious disease in which abnormal cells divide uncontrollably and destroy the body's tissue.() While
researching cancer I want to find out what exactly this killing disease is and where did it come from? What I want to know more about cancer such as,
why do millions of people around the world suffer from it while others don't? I would enjoy finding out more about cancer because both my grandma
and grandpa have suffered from different types. My grandma three years back had lung cancer, she had never smoked or drank in her whole entire life
and had to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The first type of skin cancer is called basal and squamous cell skin cancer. Squamous cells around the outer layer of the epidermis that are flat and
shed as new cells form.() The basal cells are on the lower part of the epidermis and constantly divide in order to replaces the squamous cells.()
Basal cell cancer is the most common of all the types of skin cancer. This kind of skin cancer is most likely caused by sun damage and is usually
developed in the head and neck areas. As of squamous cell cancer only two out of ten cases will be seen. This type of skin cancer is usually found
on sun exposed parts of the body such as the face, ears, neck, lips, and can also for on the back of hands. Squamous cell cancer can also be found in
skin scars and chronic sores. The second type of skin cancer is called melanoma which is formed from melanocytes, the pigment that makes up the
skin. This type of cancer can also form on moles beginning no–cancerous at first and later forming cancerous cells. Melanomas can form anywhere on
the skin but are most common found to start on the chest or back areas. Melanoma is more dangerous than the squamous and basal cell skin cancer
because it is more likely to spread to other areas of the body. The last type of skin cancer is called Merkle cell skin cancer. Merkel cells are thought
to be a type of neuroendocrine because they most likely share features with nerve cells and also, hormone cells. This type of skin cancer is the most
dangerous type because if not caught in its early stages it can spread and be very hard to treat. At last with treating all of these types of skin cancer
goes the patient can choose from surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and

Aging And The Aging Process
Aging, it's something that as a species of life on this planet we are predisposed to and its results are an inevitable factor that effects our bodies in
several ways, from cataracts development to the progression of memory issues from such diseases as Alzheimer's or Huntington's. The concepts of
aging are broken down into two theories widely accepted by several varying fields of studies such as gerontology, the study of the aging process, and
oncology, the study of cancer and tumor development. The Cellular theory, which focuses solely on the idea that a species and individual's lifespan
and condition in life is based on genetic and cellular factors that predispose us to a variety of diseases. The second theory is known as Wear–and–Tear
theory which heavily concentrates on the concepts of external factors in the aging process. The studies behind this theory focuses on the physical
condition of the body and the environmental circumstances that result in the condition of the body as an individual is aging. The aging process is a
unique aspect of life that attributes to several varieties of diseases and conditions that affect the lifestyle of the individual both externally and internally.
The concept that is become more appropriate among professional studies within the fields mentioned prior is a combination of both cellular and
physical theories. These studies are becoming more apparent as the population of 55 to 75 year olds is increasing both nationally across the United

The Basic Types Of Tissue
Tissue
In humans, there are four basic types of tissue:
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue
Nervous tissue
Epithelial tissue
Epithelial tissue & subtypes
The epithelial tissue covers inner and outer layer/surface of the body, e.g. the stomach, or blood lines, vessels and the lung.
The epithelium consists of closely packed, flattened cells that make up the inside/ outside lining of body areas. Epithelial tissues that cover/line surfaces
are classified by cell shape and by the number of cell layers, the image on the left is the subtypes of epithelial tissue;
Squamous – flattened cells, fried egg shape in appearance. The nucleus is flattened and centrally located. Because of their thin membrane and large
surface area, it allows passage of small molecules e.g. air diffusion in the lungs. The function of simple squamous tissue is absorption & excretion of
gases lungs. And the function of stratified squamous is protection due to its many layers and is located in the outer layer of skin, oral cavity lining,
esophagus, vaginal & anal canal.
Cuboidal– cubed or squarish shaped, has a single nucleus located in the middle. The simple cuboidal tissue can be found in the lines of kidney tubules
and glands it's function is absorption, secretion and protection. The stratified cuboidal tissue is found in the lines ducts of sweat glands, it's job is to
secrete water & ions.
Columnar– has the shape of a column. The simple columnar tissue is a single row of tall, closely packed

Comparing My Sister's Keeper 'And The Fault In Our Stars'
So let us start with that word Cancer. What is Cancer? Some people might just know that it is a disease but they don't know what exactly Cancer is.
According to Cancer Treatment Center of America Cancer is the disease caused by an uncontrolled division of abnormal cells in a part of the body.
When someone had a person in their family or someone that they are close to hit by some type of cancer and it affects everyone but they all find some
way to help that person and care for that person because they have love for them. Love can make you do a lot of things you might regret and some
things that you won't regret. Love plays a huge role in both the stories My Sister's Keeper and The Fault In Our Stars. If you were in this situation
what would ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
So the cancer patient's perspective should be the most interesting. "Depression is not a side effect of cancer. Depression is a side effect of
dying.(Cancer is also a side effect of dying. Almost everything is really.)"(Green 3) this means that Hazel believes she is going to die and she
doesn't want to fight the cancer because she has no motivation to do so. Hazel knows that love has a lot to do with this whole situation " as he read,
I fell in love the way you fall asleep: slowly, and then all at once." (Green 125) With Hazel falling in love with Augustus made her forget about the
cancer she had at times. As the cancer patient you must find things to do to keep your mind of the cancer. The thing Hazel did most the time was
spend time with Augustus. "They don't really pay attention to me, except when they need my blood or something. I wouldn't even be alive, if it
wasn't for Kate being sick." (Picoult 33) . even though Anna isn't the cancer patient she is still being treated like one because of her older sister
Kate who is the one battling Cancer. "Kate hugs a pillow to her stomach, and tears keep streaming down her face. Her pale hair is stuck to her face in
damp streaks; her breathing's too tight"(Picoult 11). This shows that Kate doesn't really know how to handle that she has cancer and she thinks no one
loves her. Kate is ready to stop fighting and just give up at that

Types Of Cell Division First Go Through Interphase Essay
Cell division
Both types of cell division first go through interphase which has three stages. The cell grows in the G1 stage. It copies all of its chromosomes during
the S phase, the two copies of the chromosomes are held together by the centromere resulting in an X shape. The last stage is preparing for division
which is called G2 phase. After this is starts to divide in either mitosis or meiosis.
Mitosis– the typical process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cell. ... results in two identical daughter nuclei of identical genetic constitution to the
parent cell. (Henderson's dictionary of biology, 2008)
Mitosis happens in five steps and results in two daughter cells. This process is used in most cells apart from in the production of gambits. The five
stages are prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. However, these stages do overlap a bit.
Prophase is the first stage and this tends to occur before any obvious chromosome movement happens. A lot does happen but it is just hard to see. The
chromosomes condense into chromatids by folding up. 2 chromatids joined by a centromere is a chromosome. Two proteins help in sorting and packing
the chromatids up during prophase these are topoisomerase ll (part of nuclear scaffolding and uses an ATP for DNA decatenation) and condensin
(involved in stabilizing loop formation in chromatin). During this stage the microtubule network is reorganized, by the cytosolic microtubules breaking
down and the formation of the

The Main Theories of How the Process of Aging Works Essay
The Main Theories of How the Process of Aging Works
This report outlines the main theories of how the process of aging works. Since researchers have not discovered a universally–accepted theory of aging,
the theories discussed are potential explanations of how we age. The likelihood of each hypothesis is considered roughly equal. The different theories
discussed focus on the workings of different parts of the body, from the molecular level of DNA mutations and replication, to the organism level of
becoming "worn out." Aging is a very complex and gradual process, and its ongoing operation is present to some degree in all individuals. It is a
journey to the maturity, as well as to the degeneration of the body. Because... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Since genes on DNA code for specific proteins, mutated genes may produce defective proteins, which do not work properly. Many proteins can be
affected, such as enzymes, proteins comprising muscle tissue, and a recently discovered type of protein called transcription factors, which bind to DNA
and regulate the individual activities of genes themselves. Physical mutagens are substances that increase the chance of mutation and include such
physical phenomena as x–rays and radioactivity from radium. The atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan are examples of
physical mutagens that caused an increase in the number of cases of leukemia. Certain chemicals and radiation cause mutations to occur in DNA by
giving off high energy particles. These particles collide with the DNA and knock off atoms of the DNA randomly, damaging it. DNA consists of
sequences of four possible nitrogenous bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine, paired so that adenine always pairs with thymine, and guanine
always pairs with cytosine. As cells repair the damaged DNA, a different DNA base is often substituted. This base–substitution is known as a point
mutation and can cause the production of a defective or damaged protein. Apart from being caused by radiation or chemicals, mutations also occur
spontaneously but at lower rates. Physicist Leo Szilard and biochemist Denham Harmon proposed that because most

Describing Cell Division Essay
Hypothesis: To observe cells located in an onion root tip and identify which stage of cell division the cells are in.
Introduction: Prevost and Dumas (1824)first proposed cell division, when they described cellular division in fertilized frog eggs. In 1858 Rudolf
Virchow popularised the one–omnis cellulae cellula epigram ("Every cell originates from another existing cell like it"). Strasburger in 1873 found
this epigram to be true, as he and Flemming found out that new nuclei was developed from pre existing ones. The term of mistosis was used to
describe this process by Flemming in 1882(Tan 2006). Cell division is necessary for an organism to grow, mature and sustain tissue. The division of a
individual cell produces a pair of daughter ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Centriole replication also begins in G1 and normally continues until G2.When the activities of G1 have been accomplished the cell begins the S phase.
In this phase there is DNA replication and the synthesis of proteins and histones in the nucleus. The aim of DNA replication in cells is to prepare the
cells to undergo mitosis, copying the genetic information in the nucleus . A singlechromosome copy is given to each of the daughter cells.Once DNA
replication is completed there is a concise G2 phase dedicated to last–minute protein synthesis and completion of centriole replication. The cell will
then enter the M phase (prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase) and the beginning of mitosis.During prophase the DNA changes to form
chromosomes while for mitotic spindle made of proteins called micro–tubules begins to form and attaches to the kinetochores on each chromosome. –In
metaphase the chromosomes are moved to the centre plate of the cell by the spindle microtubules.In anaphase the micro–tubules attached to the
kinetochores of each chromosome shorten pulling the chromatids of each chromosome to polar ends of the cell while the unattached micro–tubules
stretch the cell.
During telophase the chromatid is now called chromosomes. It reaches the poles of the cell as the unattached microtubules continue to elongate. This is
then followed by cytokinesis.
Method: Obtain an onion root and cut the bottom of

Cancer: Uncontrolled Cell Division In The Body
Cancer is a universal term for a set of over 100 of diseases that affect can anyone. Cancer cells, unlike somatic cells, divide at a quick and abnormal
rate. Factors that may cause one to develop a type of cancer include genetic links and aging; lifestyle factors such as physical activity, diet, and tobacco
or alcohol usage; and excessive environmental exposure to sunlight, ultraviolet light, radiation, or certain chemicals or bacteria (American Cancer
Organization). The most common way one can develop cancer, however, is through uncontrolledcell division in the body.
The cells in the body either in one of two phases: interphase, during which cells grow, replicate DNA, go about their routine functions, and prepare for
mitosis or meiosis.

Cellular Division : The Process Of Cell Division
Cellular Division
Introduction Cellular division is the process of one cell splitting into many. This process is present in all of nature and is a continuous process.
Cellular division causes wounds to be healed, sex cells to be produced, and overall growth to be done. The two main forms of cellular division are
Mitosis and Meiosis. Through analyzing what categorizes each process students can get a better understanding of cellular division.
(Mike)Mitosis Mitosis is the process of cell division resulting in the creation of two identical daughter cells. The purpose of Mitosis is, in most
cases, growth and repair of an organism. This process of cell division is divided into either five or six phases depending on your sources of
information. These phases are Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, and Cytokinesis. According to some sources, Cytokinesis is
part of Interphase. Interphase is the starting point of the Mitosis cycle. It is an in between and longest stage of the cells life, where the cell grows
and begins to ready itself for mitosis. There are three stages in interphase G1, S, and G2. G1 is a developmental stage where the cell generates
proteins and organelles. S is when the cell begins to copy its genetic material or DNA. G2 is when the cell is done copying its genetic material and
begins producing more proteins and organelles until mitosis begins. Prophase is where mitosis begins to pick up pace. The chromatin, made up of
genetic material and

Court Script Analysis
Court Script:
(A court case inside the human body is taking place in the _____. The jury of healthy cells are sitting off to the right side of the judge, and the plaintiff
and witnesses sit, anxiously waiting for the defendant to be brought in.)
The cancerous cell enters being escorted by the bailiff and his lawyer and a white blood cell, representing a police officer. They sit, the prosecution
sitting at one table and the defense at another.
Bailiff: All rise.
(Everyone stands up)
Department One of the Superior Court is now in session. Judge Name presiding.
(Everyone sits)
Judge: Please be seated. Calling the case of the lymphocyte versus the cancerous cell. Are both sides ready?
Prosecuting and Defense Lawyer: (They stand up) Yes,... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
No further questions, Your Honor.
The trial continues in this manner, as each of the remaining witnesses are questioned. Most of the evidence is pointed against the cancerous cell, but
some evidence provided by the witnesses helps the defense's case. However, the cancerous cell is looking extremely suspicious in his obvious attacks,
and the jury are deciding their verdict and the Defense and Prosecution are presenting their closing statements.
Defense Lawyer: Your Honor, I have shown substantial evidence that my client is not guilty of murder and felony. The witnesses have shown that this
cancerous cell is not dangerous to the body, even though my opposition says that he is. However, we have proven that he is not guilty, and therefore,
should not be convicted of murder and felony.
Judge Central: Thank you. Prosecution, you may proceed.

Prosecution Lawyer: Your Honor, you have heard and seen the evidence against the cancerous cell. As shown by the witnesses, it has been determined
that the cancer cell did make the first move against the skin cells, lungs, and brain. On March 12, 2008, this cancerous cell has been proved beyond
doubt of his guilt. Therefore, we ask you to convict him on the matters of murder and felony against various parts of this human body. Thank

The Effect Of Cisplatin On Cell Division Of Escherichia...
Introduction
Cisplatin (figure 1a) is a platinum derived alkylating–like, anti–proliferative compound and is also known as cis–diammine–dichloro–platinum (II)
(CDDP). It is one of the most effective anti–neoplastic drug that is used in the treatment of several neoplasias such as lung, ovarian, bladder and
testicular cancers 1. It was synthesised in 1844 by M. Peyrone (figure 1b). However, it did not attain any scientific importance until 1965, when
Rosenberg, Vancamp et al at Michigan State University discovered that platinum electrodes were able to inhibit cell division of Escherichia Coli
bacteria. This discovery led to a further investigation of cisplatin effects on cell division in different tumor cells. It was shown to have anticancer
activity and was the first platinum cytotoxic drug approved by food and administration authority (FDA) in 1978 2.
Figure 1a: cisplatin structure 1.
Figure 1b: synthesis of cisplatin 3.
A normal cell replicates and divides into two cells which in turn divide into four daughter cells and so on by DNA replication in mitosis. As the cell
grows old, it dies because of the programmed cell death known as apoptosis. The dead cells are then replaced with new cells. However when the
DNA of the cell is damaged, for example when there is a genetic change such as DNA mutation or defective protein synthesis, the cell becomes
abnormal. It begins to divide uncontrollably and forms a growth (cancerous tumour), in contrast to the normal cell in which

Cancer : An Uncontrollable Division Of Cells
INTRODUCTION TO CANCER
What is Cancer?
Cancer is described as an uncontrollable division of cells. According to the National Cancer Institute, cancer is one of the leading causes of death in
the world, with an estimated 595,690 deaths and 1,685,210 new cases in 2016 alone (NIH 2015). Cancer can develop from almost every organ of the
body, with the most common organs affected being the breasts, lungs, prostate, colon, and bladder (NIH 2015). As the disease progresses, it may
become metastatic, where the cancer cells migrate from their point of origin to other parts of the body. Cancer can spread in three ways: through tissue,
through the lymph system, and through the blood (NIH 2015). When cancer progresses to a metastatic state, it is ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
While the overall cancer death rate has declined, the war continues today as we are still plagued with the complicated disease, cancer.
Hallmarks of Cancer (Hanahan and Weinberg 2011)
During tumor development and progression, cells develop/acquire six hallmark capabilities as they transform from normal cells to neoplastic tumor
cells. These hallmarks are developed at various times throughout cancer cell progression are thought to promote the growth and metastasis of tumors.
These hallmark qualities, as outlined by Hanahan and Weinberg, are thought to be fostered by underlying genomic instability, referring to mutations in
the genome, and inflammation, usually brought on by the immune system. The six hallmark capabilities include: sustaining proliferative signaling,
evading growth suppressors, resisting cell death, enabling replicative immortality, inducing angiogenesis, and activating invasion and metastasis.
1.Proliferative Signaling
Cell growth and division is controlled by the production and release of growth promoting signals. While normal cells carefully regulate the release of
these signals, these signals are deregulated in cancerous cells. Cancer cells are believed upregulate the cell cycle and cell growth through growth
factors which bind to cell–surface receptors and release signals. Other mechanisms for sustaining proliferative signaling in cancer cells include:
autocrine stimulation, where the cancer cells emit growth factors and then respond to those same

Functions Of Mitosis And Meiosis
Topic Cells
(A.C. 3.1)
Mitosis and meiosis are both forms of the nucleus in eukaryotic cells and share some similarities, but also exhibit distinct differences that lead to
very different outcomes (UK essays 2013; widmaier et al, 2014; Toole, 2015; Khan, 2016). Mitosis is a cell division that produces two daughter cells
receiving a copy of every chromosome with the same genetic component as the parent cell, while meiosis is a cell division that produces haploid sex
cells or gametes which contain a single copy of each chromosome (widmaier et al, 2014; Diffen, 2016; Toole 2016; Encyclopaedia Britannica). The
purpose of mitosis is cell regeneration, growth, and asexual reproduction, while the purpose of meiosis is the production of gametes for sexual
reproduction (UK essays 2013; Vancouver community college, 2011). Mitosis Meiosis parent cell parent cell
cell division cell division
2 new cells
4 new cells
Figure 3.1.

Compare And Contrast Mitosis And Meiosis
Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis
Inside the human body, there are two different cells who help the reproductive system. Those are Mitosis and meiosis which are similar and different
than one another.
There are many ways that mitosis and meiosis are similar such as them having always having a Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase,Telophase (PMAT). In
addition, both of them have their own interphase at the start of the PMAT. Also, since they have a PMAT then they will always create cells during it
which would mean that PMAT will always repeat. WithoutMitosis and Meiosis, the human population would already be extinct. Even though they
have their similarities they also have their own differents. Everything is different in their own way. Mitosis and

The Basic Types Of Tissue
Tissue
In humans, there are four basic types of tissue:
1.Connective tissue
2.Muscle tissue
3.Nervous tissue
4.Epithelial tissue
Epithelial tissue & subtypes
The epithelial tissue covers inner and outer layer/surface of the body, e.g. the stomach, or blood lines, vessels and the lung.
The epithelium consists of closely packed, flattened cells that make up the inside/ outside lining of body areas. Epithelial tissues that cover/line surfaces
are classified by cell shape and by the number of cell layers, the image on the left is the subtypes of epithelial tissue;
Squamous – flattened cells, fried egg shape in appearance. The nucleus is flattened and centrally located. Because of their thin membrane and large
surface area, it allows passage of small molecules e.g. air diffusion in the lungs. The function of simple squamous tissue is absorption & excretion of
gases lungs. And the function of stratified squamous is protection due to its many layers and is located in the outer layer of skin, oral cavity lining,
esophagus, vaginal & anal canal.
Cuboidal– cubed or squarish shaped, has a single nucleus located in the middle. The simple cuboidal tissue can be found in the lines of kidney tubules
and glands it's function is absorption, secretion and protection. The stratified cuboidal tissue is found in the lines ducts of sweat glands, it's job is to
secrete water & ions.
Columnar– has the shape of a column. The simple columnar tissue is a single row of tall, closely

Titanium Essay
1.INTRODUCTION:
Titanium has played a successful biomaterial in biomedical application especially for orthopedics (bone–anchoring systems), dentistry, drug delivery,
and nanotherapeutics in treating bone cancer and arthritis. One of the treatments of bone cancer patients is the replacement of cancerous bone with
implant material. The current implant materials have implemented coating technology (such as Calcium phosphate or hydroxyapatite) which gives
good cytocompatibilty but over the time it gets encapsulated with the surrounding bone cells and lead to poor osseointegration. An augment of current
implant material, we used nanotechnology application tailoring nanoscale topography on conventional implant material into TNA by anodization ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This indicate the TNA may result in modification of the cellular protein lead to clustering or aggregation and this could explain the variations in the
cells shape and spreading behaviours that we observed earlier. Our preliminary result suggested the interaction of the TNA surfaces with bound cells
may induce structural and cellular changes could be due to the surface roughness, chemistry and wettability that may count as the cell interaction
factors. Therefore, we would like to suggest further detail study of genomic and proteomic test that can help us to explain this phenomenon. We would
also like to screen several oncogene and tumor suppressor gene expression in order to study the potential carcinogenesis effect of this material.
2.OBJECTIVES
2.1To evaluate the differential intelomere length of the cells grown on the TNA and the test–control materials.
2.2To measure the expression of telomerase activity in the cells that grown on the TNA and test–control materials.
2.3To study the TNA effect on the genetic changes using metaphase spread technique and immunoblot for the protein changes in looking the potential
anticancer properties.
2.4To screen the possible oncegene expression or tumor suppressor gene product of the cells grown on the TNA compared with the test–control.
3. LITERATURE

Different Stages Of Cell Division
1) Cell division is typically explained through the progression of 4 distinct phases, G1, S, G2, and M, and can be tracked through CDK complex
concentration ranges. CDKs are cyclin–dependent kinases, which regulate the cell cycle of eukaryotic cells; as suggested by the name, protein
kinases are an enzyme that is dependent on cyclin for the regulation of cell division through the addition of phosphate groups. The different stages
of the cell cycle correlate with different levels of cyclin and act as a threshold that once reached, triggers a phase transition. For example, for a cell
to move out of G2 phase into M phase, Cyclin B interacts with the CDK1 complex, and causes phosphorylation to stimulate the phase shift; however,
if the stage is not complete, the whole process slows down to accommodate the discrepancy in CDK complexes (Nelson Education, figure 9.17, page
191). This can be caused by several things, such as the presence of damaged or deformed DNA, or externally through contact inhibition, where a
delay in phase shift is caused by partial or incomplete contact of all cells. If there is only partial cell contact, contact inhibition will typically prevent
progression past the G1 phase until there is complete cell contact, which can be reflected in variable levels of the CDK complex(Nelson Education,
page 191). Overall, CDK regulates cell division through the combination of CDK and cyclin, the activation of protein via a phosphate group that
triggers a phase change,

Genetic Disorder: Down Syndrome
Ansel Li
BIOL 196 LAB – 1002
Josh Greenwood
2 July 2015
Writing Assignment #2
Meiosis I & II Cell division involves in events of cells dividing and replicating that results in two daughter cells or more. Mitosis is a type of cell
division where chromosomes in the nucleus are divided into two identical sets of chromosomes in its individual nucleus. Nevertheless, meiosis is a
type of cell division that decreases the cell's chromosome numbers by half, and that is for the purpose of sexual reproduction. A typical human cell
contains two sets of sex chromosomes, paternal and maternal,which give the diploid cell. which also gives ploidy number "2n", and it is considered
to be a diploid cell (two sets of chromosomes, 2n, complete set). Meiosis is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It's symtoms include physical growth impedement, facial and body abnormality, and intellectual blockage. Down syndrome would be considered a
common disorder in humans. It is estimated to have 1000 babies born each year with down syndrome due to genetic errors. Down Syndrome was
first described by British doctor John Langdon Down in 1866; and the cause was discovered by French researcher Jean Esquirol in 1959, which was
the extra chromosome 21.
As we know, chromosomes have sequences of DNA, which are genes, that carries genetic information for most of our cells. During DNA replication,
copying errors can cause change in the sequence of a gene. Sometimes there is no effect, but most likely is going to lead to mutations, which causes
theses diseases. For humans, we have twenty three pairs or forty six chromosomes. Thus, when our sperm cell fertilizes an egg, we form a zygote that
gets twenty three chromosomes from each parent (mom and dad), that results in a total of forty six chromosomes. Abnormality happens during
separation of our sperm or egg cells, this may cause an extra chromosomes of twenty four chromosomes instead of twenty three. This process is also
called "nondisjunction", which is the collapse of chromosomes disconnect correctly, which causes one of the chromosomes in one of the two daughter
cells to withhold, and losing a chromosome in other. Losing chromosomes most likely causes the embryo to be non functional. Correspondingly, an
embryo with extra chromosome will most likely be dead, however in Down Syndrome's case, the extra chromosome is number 21, the embryo tend to

Cell Cycle Regulation, Uncontrolled Growth And Division Of...
CANCER
Cancer is defined as group of diseases characterized by uncontrolled growth and division of cells. The condition also includes spreading of abnormal
cells to adjacent healthy sites of the body (1). If this condition is not controlled it could result in death. Abnormality in cell cycle regulation
mechanisms, uncontrolled cell division, and invasiveness to the healthy tissues are the characteristic features of the cancer cells. Cells are the structural
and functional units of all organisms. All the functions in the body are carried out by the cells in a well organized and regulated manner. When the
cells deviate from their normal functioning and behave abnormally without any meaningful purpose in the body turn out into cancerous ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Different types of cancers behave differently based on the site of the origin. For example lung cancer behaves differently compared to the breast
cancer. One important fact to be known is the characteristics of a cancer is based on its site of origin even it spreads to other tissues, for example
metastatic breast cancer behaves like itself even it spreads into lungs. Cancer can be caused external factors such as tobacco intake, infectious
organisms, and unhealthy life style. Internal factors such as inheritance, genetic mutations, and immune conditions. These factors may act alone,
combine or sequence to cause cancer. Fig 1 Diagrammatic representation of cancer (2).
In United States, cancer is the second most leading cause of deaths next to cardiac diseases. One in every four deaths is accounted by the cancer.
Nearly 1,658,370 new cases of cancer are expected in 2015. About 589,430 of Americans are expected to die of cancer in 2015 which equals to 1620
people per day. The five year survival rate for all cancers is 49 % between 1975–1977 which is increased to 68 % between 2004 to 2010 relatively a
high percentage increase. The improvements in survival rate reflect improvements in diagnostic and treatment options.
PANCREATIC CANCER
Pancreas is a glandular organ located behind the stomach. When pancreatic glandular cells divide out of control and

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