Leaving The Orbit

Leaving The Orbit
Leaving the Orbit but Entering Knowledge When I was a child, I used to think that the idea of space travel was out of this world, some parts of
myself still do. I've always believed that astronauts had a job more fascinating than anyone else, to have the luxury of being a part of one of the most
spectacular feats in the world. It was a luxury not just given to them, but obtained through years of exhausting, strenuous work. I'm very proud, to this
day, to be a citizen of the country that put the first footprint on the moon. Margaret Lazarus Dean, author of Leaving Orbit, and a NASA junkie, does an
excellent job at opening the eyes of her readers to show the long hours, days, and years put into American space flight. After reading the book, the
stories and experiences shared have helped me to more suitably understand the substantial accomplishment American spaceflight has made. ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A date 29 years before I was born, but nevertheless a date significant to a majority of Americans. "It was a moment that still defines what many have
come to call the American century." Paul Harris states in the Article "Man on the moon: moment of greatness that defined the American century". On
July 20, 1969, America became the first country to ever step foot on the moon. Neil Armstrong, American Astronaut, may be known by the ad lib
phrase "that's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind". Armstrong stated this after stepping on the moon surface and defying all odds, an
American flag was now on the moon
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

The Physics Of The Solar System
Formally, classified natural satellites or moons include 176 planetary satellites orbiting six of the eight planets. Of the inner planets, Mercury and
Venus have no natural satellites; Earth has one large natural satellite, known as the Moon; and Mars has two tiny natural satellites, Phobos and
Deimos. The large gas giant planets have extensive systems of natural satellites, including half a dozen comparable in size to Earth 's Moon. The
objects in the solar system are classified foremost by their dynamics and motion, while size and composition are important for secondary classification.
The solar system itself is, defined by the orbits of its constituent bodies. Classification by motion is more useful for astronomers. In fact, the dynamics
of the solar system were a central issue for early astronomers such as Ptolemy in the second century and Nicholaus Copernicus in the 16th century. In
what follows, we introduce different classifications of the planetary moons.
1.2.Classification of motion of natural satellites
1.2.1Classification based on the orbits
The natural satellites may be, classified into three categories according to their orbits (Newburn and Gulkis, 1973; Burns, 1986) as follows.
Category 1: Regular satellites
The regular satellites move prograde in nearly circular orbits in the equatorial plane of the mother planet. This sector of satellites represents the four
Galilian satellites of Jupiter, the eight classical satellites of Saturn (from Mimas to Iapetus),

A Short Note On Mission And Mission Of Mars
Wei Jiang
ESS 102
Instructor: Erika Harnett
November 18, 2016
Manned Mission to Mars The year is 2045, a time when the earth is in great turmoil. Tsunamis, hurricanes, tornadoes, droughts, famines... all the
impacts of global warming are just starting to disrupt life. Europe and North America are experiencing immigration in unprecedented numbers, neither
because the migrants are escaping persecution, conflicts and wars in their countries, nor because they are pursuing economic prospects; but because
they can no longer survive the high temperatures in their countries. Europe and North America have become too warm for their inhabitants but just the
right temperature for migrants from South America, the Middle East, Africa and South Asia to survive. But the problem is not just global warming and
migration – there is a more frightening threat, one that could turn the entire Earth's crust upside down – Nuclear War. All political and diplomatic
negotiations have failed, leaving war as the last resort. There is not a single safe spot on earth to escape to. There is only one option left –a place
outside earth, a different planet – Mars. The possibility of relocation to Mars comes as big relief to people on earth, but there is one problem – not
everybody can go. The mission is too expensive for ordinary people. Only billionaires and politicians who have stolen (and are still stealing) funds
that belong to their states can afford it. However, the good news for a few lucky people is

Mercury's Orbit
In 265 b.c the first discovery of Mercury was made by Timocharis of Alexandria. Timocharis was a Greek astronomer and philosopher. However
little was known of him, like whether or not he had a family or where he lived. Mercury was named after the gods messenger, Mercury was the son
of Jupiter and Maia. Jupiter was the god of light and sky, he was the protector of the state and its laws. Maia was the goddess of spring, she healed the
earth and helped it grow.
Mercury has nearly no atmosphere, Mercury does however have an exosphere. An exosphere is a thin layer of atoms blasted off its surface by solar
flares and striking micrometeoroids. Inside of this thin exosphere there has been no wind erosions of the surface. Seeing as Mercury has ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
One Mercury year is only about 88 days on Earth. A powerful feature of Mercury is its orbit it is one of the fastest orbiting planets compared the rest
in our solar system. Out of all the planets orbits, Mercury's orbit is the least circular. Mercury's orbit is not circular because Mercury's the closet orbital
distance to the Sun rather than being larger when contrasted with that of the other planets it is wider. Along with other planets, Mercury's surface
experiences a wider range of extreme temperatures than any other planet in the Solar System, that we know of. It is very simple to explain, Mercury's
surface is much hotter than any other planet, due to the direct heat for part of the day. Conveniently, the temperatures of other planets remain
relatively stable because their atmospheres being virtually the same. Over time the orbit of Mercury shifts slightly around the Sun, this process is
known as precession. This was a constant problem for astronomers in the late nineteen hundreds and early twenty hundreds. Many theories were
presented to show the difference between the actual and fictional ideas. One idea even suggested the idea of a unknown planet closer to the Sun than
Mercury had been. The truth was eventually proven when Einstein published his great theory, that there was another planet before Mercury, but he
had no real proof of its existence. As a result of this theory, Mercury's orbit idea was finally described exactly how it was. Though it had been
believed for a long time that Mercury's spin–orbit was not correct, it was discovered in the mid–twenty hundreds that it is, in fact, correct. This idea
produced what would soon be a great discovery for a satellite that the planet does indeed orbit. Mercury's orbit takes the small planet as close as 29
million miles and as far as 43 million miles from the sun. If one

Space Junk Epidemic
Space Junk Today, speeding past our Earth ten times faster than a bullet (tweentribune), are millions of pieces of space junk ranging in size from
flecks of paint to entire Satellites (NASA). To most people this does not sound like much of a problem, but even a fleck of paint moving 17,500
miles per hour or more can cause significant damage to spacecraft and space walkers alike. As more collisions take place and as new items enter the
atmosphere the statistical probability of a collision will increase. Eventually, the probability of a collision will become so high that it will be unsafe to
enter space from Earth (NASA). Now, as discussion of colonizing Mars intensifies, space junk has a new way of spreading and clogging up more of the
universe. When humans colonize Mars they will ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As of December 2015 there were 1071 operational satellites around the Earth and over 21.000 objects larger than 10cm hurtling around the planet
(Universetoday). In 2013 there were 81 space launches and in 2014 that number increased to 92 space launches. 2014 had the highest number of
space launches in a year in more than two decades (spaceflightnow). If those on Mars could cut back on the number of Satellites they put up they
would have a significantly lower statistical probability of collisions. This would make long term space use possible.
Another important anti–space junk component is banishing pieces of rockets that fall off, like solid rocket boosters on the Space Shuttle
(Space.com). These large chunks of debris would cause extreme amounts of damage. If a fleck of paint can harm satellites and space suits then a 177
foot long, 12 foot diameter, 1.6 million pound Solid Rocket Booster would be cataclysmic. If various space organizations can reduce the number of
rocket stages they use, they can dramatically reduce the amount of large space junk orbiting the Red

Universal Gravitation Essay
Newton's law of universal gravitation extends gravity beyond earth. The law of the universal gravitation is about the universality of gravity. Newton's
law of universal gravitation states that every particle is attached with each other particle in the universe. Newton's law of the universal gravitation states
that, "Any two bodies in the universe attract each other with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them." The law of universal gravitation was find by Newton because of an apple. When the apple
fell from the tree on to Newton's head. Newton found it mysteriously, so he started to think about the reason and the formula out of this nature
phenomenon. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
We as humans live in the Earth. Earth is one of the planets, and it is also stays in theorbit. It stays on the orbit and circled round the sun. The days it
takes for one circle of the Earth's orbit is one year and move circled around. Our daily life can be break down as day and night. The difference
between it is the sun. During the day, we have sunshine but not at the night. It is a rotate of the daily life. It will never change, there will not be one
day is without sunshine. In some ways, the universal gravitation, and the principles of the planets stay in the orbit around the sun affects our society.
Newton's law of universal gravitation extends gravity beyond earth. The law of the universal gravitation is about the universality of gravity. Newton's
law of universal gravitation states that every particle is attached with each other particle in the universe. Newton's law of the universal gravitation states
that, "Any two bodies in the universe attract each other with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between

My Accurate Sci Fi Story
John (Jack) Brugato
ESS 102 AH
Research Paper –– Rough Draft
4/10/17
Space Debris My scientifically accurate sci–fi story will focus on astronauts tasked with aiding in the clean up of space debris. The story will take
place not too far in the future, in a time where space debris is creating problems for NASA and other space programs. Space debris is proving to be too
dangerous and has resulted in numerous failed missions and destroyed unmanned spacecraft. The purpose of clearing out the space debris is because
NASA discovered a planet that had promising signs of life and is sending other probes and unmanned spacecraft to investigate further.
What is Space Debris? One issue with space travel has to do with the debris that is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Kessler Syndrome was brought to light in 2009 when the Iridium 33, a United States satellite, was struck by the Cosmos 2251, an unused Russian
satellite. Due to Kepler's laws of orbital motion and the objects being as close they were to Earth's gravitational pull, the two satellites collided at
about five miles per second (Parker, greeniacs.com). The result of the collision proves Kessler's concerns, as a cloud of thousands of pieces of broken
equipment and satellite parts was created, which is now in Earth's orbit. The true danger of space debris relies in the speed of each piece. Since each
piece travels at around four to five miles per second, smaller pieces could be catastrophic towards future missions (Dunbar, nasa.gov). One such case of
debris causing damage comes through the missions STS–50 to STS–114. Over the span of these 54 missions, debris and meteoroids hit the windows of
the shuttles about 1600 times, resulting in 92 replacements (Madrigal, wired.com). The shuttles' radiators have also been hit a number of times, leaving
holes in the facesheet. One instance in particular occurred when a 100 micron sized particle hit the window of the STS–50, causing a one millimeter
crater (Whitlock, nasa.gov). These instances show how dangerous even the smallest particles can be for spacecraft.
How is it tracked? Space debris is not going unnoticed however. NASA and the Department of Defense are tracking

Project 1 Essay
Project 1:
1. Results for a: ht=500/ spd=0mph –too slow! Satellite crashed into Earth! Results for b: ht=500/ spd=100mph –too slow! Satellite crashed into Earth!
Results for c: ht=500/ spd=25000mph –too fast! Satellite left viewing area and took off in space somewhere!
I was determined to get a 100%, so I played around with the numbers until I found that at 500 miles above the Earth, the satellite would have to be
launched at 16,700mph in order to reach a perfect orbit. Below is the explanation of why:
"Although the satellite is always falling towards the earth, because of gravity, the right combination of height and speed causes the satellite to fall as
much as the earth curves, so the satellite never crashes"
2. I thought ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
7. The asteroid that is travelling at constant speed would not be accelerating, since constant speed is continuous motion with no acceleration.
8. Gravity is the force that is keeping the asteroid in orbit around the sun. The force of gravity will pull the asteroid inward, but because the asteroid is
constantly moving forward– it is sort of a constant state of perfectly balanced tug–of–war.
9. 1) Sun 2)Jupiter 3) Mars 4)Other Asteroids The reason for these rankings is because although the Asteroid belt is located between Jupiter and
Mars, ALL of the other objects in these ranks are orbiting around the Sun... Jupiter's gravitational pull will cause an asteroid to collide with another
asteroid, however, so you could say that Jupiter's influence is stronger than Mars, and if other asteroids collide with an asteroid, it will change the
mass of the asteroid itself by breaking it apart– only to be pulled in again by Mars or Jupiter (and overall, the Sun).
10. KE= 0.5 x 1000 (30)2 (that is 30 squared..I just cant figure out how to get my keyboard to type it and it's driving me insane...)
11. KE= 0.5x1000(30)squared KE= 0.5x1000(900) KE= 0.5x900,000 KE= 450,000
12. If the distance of the sun were farther, the kinetic energy would not change– because the velocity and the mass of asteroid would still remain the

The Solar System
1.1.Natural satellites
Formally, classified natural satellites or moons include 176 planetary satellites orbiting six of the eight planets. Of the inner planets, Mercury and
Venus have no natural satellites; Earth has one large natural satellite, known as the Moon; and Mars has two tiny natural satellites, Phobos and
Deimos. The large gas giant planets have extensive systems of natural satellites, including half a dozen comparable in size to Earth 's Moon. The
objects in the solar system are classified foremost by their dynamics and motion, while size and composition are important for secondary classification.
The solar system itself is, defined by the orbits of its constituent bodies. Classification by motion is more useful for astronomers. In fact, the dynamics
of the solar system were a central issue for early astronomers such as Ptolemy in the second century and Nicholaus Copernicus in the 16th century. In
what follows, we introduce different classifications of the planetary moons.
1.2.Classification of motion of natural satellites
1.2.1Classification based on the orbits
The natural satellites may be, classified into three categories according to their orbits (Newburn and Gulkis, 1973; Burns, 1986) as follows.
Category 1: Regular satellites
The regular satellites move prograde in nearly circular orbits in the equatorial plane of the mother planet. This sector of satellites represents the four
Galilian satellites of Jupiter, the eight classical satellites of Saturn

Non Gravitational Effects On Jupiter 's Satellites
Non–gravitational effects on Jupiter's satellites The non–gravitational forces affecting on the natural satellites orbits were studied recently using
observations. This effect creates a quadratic term in orbital longitude and a secular changing of the semi–major axis. Causes may be only hypothetical.
It is assumed that the causes of the effects are in the tides in the body of the planet and in the body of satellite (Emelyanov 2015; private
communication). Lainey et al. (2009) considered an extensive set of astrometric observations from 1891 to 2007 to study the orbital tidal evolution of
the innermost Jovian satellite Io. They integrated numerically the full equations of motion for the satellite center's mass. It is noteworthy that Io's tidal
heat comes from the orbital energy of the Io–Jupiter system (resulting in orbital acceleration), whereas dissipation of energy in Jupiter causes Io's
orbital motion to declare. They used a weighted least squares inversion procedure and minimized the differences between the observed and computed
positions of the satellites to determine the parameters of the model. The solution for the tidal dissipation gives for Io, and for Jupiter, where, is the
love number and is the quality value. The orbital accelerations represent a shift in the orbital positions of the Galilean satellites Io, Europa and
Ganymede of 55 km, –125 km and –365 km over the 116 years respectively. The fit astrometric residuals range essentially between 0.02 and

The Physics Of Satellites Orbiting Earth
Satellites orbiting earth will experience external perturbations that can affect the orbit. The primary force acting on the satellite depends on the altitude
of the orbit. The most significant effect is caused by atmospheric drag which affects satellites in low earth orbit. Outside of low earth orbit, satellites
still experience external forces that could change the orbit however unlike atmospheric drag, the orbit altitude will not necessarily decrease. In addition
to atmospheric drag, satellites are subject to thermal drag and gravity perturbations.
Atmospheric Drag: (Author: Emma)
Atmospheric drag effects all spacecraft orbiting earth below 2,000 km, producing both short periodic and slow perturbations. It is the is the largest
source of error in modeling the force on many satellites because it is difficult to predict [2]. Atmospheric drag is caused by the collisions of gas
molecules with the spacecraft. Over time, the collisions start to decay the orbit. Demonstrating a positive feedback effect, where drag decreases the
orbital altitude where the density is greater which produces more drag which then decays quicker. Factors that influence drag are the atmospheric drag
surrounding the spacecraft, as well as the spacecrafts drag coefficient, area, mass and velocity [1].
The atmospheric density is not constant and changes with solar activity. The solar magnetic activity cycle is the periodic change in the sun 's activity that
lasts around 11 years. During solar maximum,

The Gravitational Slingshot Essay
The Gravitational Slingshot
The gravitational slingshot is a way that scientists have truly harnessed the gravitational pull of a planet by using it to launch satellites and other useful
projectiles towards their desired locations. This method was developed through the use of Newton's Laws of Gravity and Kepler's Laws of Planetary
Motion. When these ideas of gravity and the shape of a planet's orbit were brought together piece by piece, this new theory changed how a projectile
traveling through space could simply cross an orbital pattern, which would in turn change the path of the moving object. The change in the path
accelerates the object at a higher rate and sends it speeding off in its proper direction. The gravitational ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Kepler established the Laws of Planetary Motion. The first Law states that the orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci.
The second law states that a line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time. And the final Law tells that the
square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi–major axis of its orbit. Kepler's Laws also come into play with
the use of the gravitational slingshot, because Kepler believed that the orbit that a planet takes around another body follows an elliptical pattern, instead
of traveling in a perfect circle. Of course each planet has a specific elliptical orbit, just as humans have different fingerprints to identify them. Before
launching their equipment into space, each planet must have its pattern identified to ensure accurate results for the launch. This knowledge helps
scientists identify where the ellipses are in relation to the paths of orbit so that they can launch satellites in the proper direct, at the proper time, with
the proper velocity. Combining both of these sets of theories together has lead the way to the effect we know as the gravitational slingshot effect.
Today, the gravity assist effect is used extremely often by NASA and the Air Force. It is the most fuel efficient, naturally occurring "booster" in

How Aristarchus Made A Large Jump From Terrestrial...
How Aristarchus made a large jump from terrestrial measurements of scale to the celestial is truly impressive. Without any measures of the sizes of
and distances to any celestial objects, Aristarchus was able to measure both for the Moon. He was able to use something he knew about the Earth and
a bit of smart geometry to deduce the size of the Earth 's shadow at the distance of the Moon. By watching the Moon go through the Earth 's shadow
which is formally known as a lunar eclipse, Aristarchus could determine the ratio between the size of the shadow at the distance to the Moon and the
size of the Moon.
Aristarchus knew that on average two times a year, the surface of the full Moon becomes dark for a period ranging up to around two hours. It was
reasoned that during these times, the Moon was passing through the shadow cast by the Earth, known as a lunar eclipse. The eclipse would only occur
during the full Moon because that 's the time when the Moon is on the opposite side of the Earth from the Sun. Aristarchus realized that the longest
lunar eclipses must occur when the Moon passes right through the center of the Earth 's shadow, and so that the angular size of the Earth 's shadow
could be measured by noting the difference in the position of the Moon before and after the eclipse. He could then compare this angular size to the
angular size of the Moon to get the ratio between them. He used the formula Now by using the formula.
The moon could fit into earth roughly

Johannes Kepler Essay
Johannes Kepler
Johannes Kepler is now remembered for discovering the three laws of planetary motion, and writing about them in books that were published in 1609
and 1619. He also did important work in optics, discovered two new regular polyhedra, gave the first mathematical treatment of close packing of equal
spheres, gave the first proof of how logarithms worked, and devised a method of finding the volumes of solids of revolution. This can be seen as
contributing to the development of calculus. Not only did he help the development of calculus, but he calculated the most exact astronomical tables
known today. This accuracy did much to establish the truth of heliocentric astronomy, which states that... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The curriculum included geocentric astronomy. This is the study of how all seven planets at the time– Moon, Mercury, Venus,Sun, Mars, Jupiter and
Saturn – moved around the Earth. Their positions to the stars were being calculated by combining circular motions. This system was what worked with
the current physics of the time, although there were certain difficulties. However, these astronomers, who also saw themselves as mathematicians, were
content to carry on calculating positions of planets. They figured they would leave it to natural philosophers to worry about whether the mathematical
figures added up to the physical ones. Kepler, however, did not take like this attitude. His earliest published work in 1956 says that people should
consider the actual paths of the planets, and not just the circles used to construct them.
At Tubingen, Kepler studied Greek and Hebrew as well as mathematics. Ironically, at the end of his first year Kepler got A's in every subject except
mathematics. It is supposed that Maestlin was trying to tell him he could do better, because Kepler was one of the select pupils that Maestlin chose to
teach more advanced astronomy to. He was teaching them the new, heliocentric cosmological system that was formed by Copernicus. Kepler almost
instantly accepted that the Copernican system was physically true.
It seems that even in Kepler's student days there were signs that his religious beliefs were not

Exoplanets Lab
AS91415
Discovery of Exoplanets Tate M. Stagpoole
Introduction
Extra–terrestrial planets (Exoplanets) have captivated humans for hundreds of years, the idea that there are planets exist outside of our solar system.
There are two types of planets: terrestrial planets, or rocky planets and gas giants. With the development of high zoom telescopes and arrays, we as a
race, now have the technology to observe and recognise planets outside our solar system. NASA missions such as Hubble and Kepler have yielded
huge results for the discovery of exoplanets, with over 3000 planets discovered as of April 2017. Scientist use multiple techniques to discover
exoplanets. Spectroscopy (Radial velocity method), transit method, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As scientists, particularly astrobiologists, learn more about life on Earth our perception of is habitable is changing 7. The discovery of life living my
mid ocean ridge geothermal vents in the 1970's is a classic example of this. Before it was thought that life could not exist without light from the sun. By
these geothermal vents organisms exist, completely cut off from other ecosystems. These vents are often thousands of kilometers below sea level and
most receive no light from the sun. They also exist under a high pressure environment. Some of these organisms, or extremophiles, are complex
organisms that feed off the minerals emitted from the vent in a process called

Space Debris
Richard Xu
ESS102 AD
4/13/17
Research Paper RD
Topic: Space Debris
As Earth becomes more technologically innovated and crowded, space has become the answer of many of our problems. Over the past couple of
decades, we have launched numerous contraptions into space such as satellites in which many currently orbit the Earth. These contraptions can be used
for reconnaissance, communications, weather, search and rescue, navigation, exploration, television, and much more. Not a day passes by where we
do not make use of these contraptions in our lives. However, as we progress towards the future, more and more of these satellites will be launched into
orbit and as the fate of technology, they are bound to fail at some point and often get abandoned. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Despite the rapidly increasing amount of space junk, planning of the clean–up of this junk is underway.
Every year, the amount of debris orbiting the Earth grows, creating an increasingly hazardous zone for satellites and even astronauts. Although some
objects or shrapnel look small, their destructive force is greatly magnified by the hostile conditions of space. According to NASA, pieces as small as
softballs can be traveling at an astonishing 17,500 miles per hour. Due to these enormous orbital speeds, any of these objects have the potential to
damage or destroy the satellites that we depend on. In fact, even a tiny paint fleck has caused enough damage to the windshields of spacecraft that the
windows had to be replaced (Space Debris and Human Spacecraft). In addition to damaged windows, images show that even objects less than half an
inch in diameter can puncture through the structure of the space shuttle Endeavour (Trouble in orbit: the growing problem of space junk). The fact
that such puny pieces of junk can cause such severe damage upon space shuttles suggests that spacecraft are mere inflated balloons to space due to the
high velocities objects are travelling. This only makes situations worse for humans as there is no really protected inside or

This is an essay I did on explaining how gravity works as...
Introduction
"Gravity is a force of attraction that exists between any two masses, any two bodies, any two particles. Gravity is not just the attraction between
objects and the Earth. It is the attraction that exists between all objects". (NASA gravity 2000) Gravity is a very essential part of life on earth. We are
in the exact position in the sun's gravitational field to keep us in orbit and keep life ongoing on our planet. Gravity is a downward force on any body
of mass, the larger the mass of the body, the stronger the gravitational force. On earth the force is 9.8 N/Kg (Newton's per Kilogram) roughly,
depending on where you are on earth.
Gravitation
The original idea of gravity was discovered by Sir Isaac Newton (Jacob 1999). It is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In fact, both orbit about their common center of mass, which is within the Earth but not at its center. This rotation causes an upward centrifugal force
on the oceans, which is proportional to the rotational speed and the distance from the center of mass. This force is greater on the far side then the near
side" (Gravity and Tides 2000)
When you add this to the moons gravitational force, they equal. This causes both sides of the ocean to bulge as illustrated in the diagram above
causing 2 high tides, about 12h and 25 minutes apart.
Relatively the same idea applies to the effects of the Sun on Earth, though the centrifugal force on the near side of earth is downward, not upward. As it
turns out, the force of the sun is about half the force of the moon. We get the high spring tides when the Earth, Sun and Moon are in a straight line and
their forces are combined. After 7 days when they are at right angles to each other they cancel each others forces giving the low neep tides. A very
important factor about tides that is not included in the above, is the height of the ocean floor. Different heights can cause funneling of the tidal flow,
heaping the tides up in shallow water and causing even more complex effects where flows meet.
Conclusion
Gravity is an essential to life. It is also one of the four key physical forces which are, Gravity, Electromagnitivity, Strong Nuclear Force and Weak

Nuclear Force (Physics for a Modern World 1986). It

R1 Ariane Research Paper
R1– Ariane is a disposable rocket, that carries charges for low altitude orbits (300km to 2000km altitude), it can carries from 6 to 9,5 tons,
depending on the orbit of the charge (lower more, higher less), the company responsible for the production is the EADS SPACE transportation, this
company is supervisioned by ESA, and the rocket is operated by the company Arianespace. The rocket Ariane 5, on June of 1996, exploded 40
seconds after launch, on an altitude of 3.7 km, the debris of the rocket felt in an area of 5x2.5 km^2, in an area of hard access, because of it, not all
the parts of the rocket were found, the sequence that originated the explosion was: – 22 seconds after the hour zero (H0) there was a variation of 10Hz
in the hydraulic pressure in... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Later in the analysis of the data about the accident, is was found that the same system used in the rocket Ariane 5, was used in the rocket Ariane 4, the
cause for the system failure was an error in a subroutine in the computer responsible for the Inertial Reference (SRI), the error was an "operand error",
which happened when a 64–bit floating point couldn't be converted to 16–bit signed integer, the value was too large to be converted, and caused the
software exception, and the code wasn't ready to handle this type of error (exception handling). The software used in the Ariane 4 was clearly not
suitable for the Ariane 5, the variation of behavior between the two launchings was too big, the alignment function was operative based in the data of
the Ariane 4, where the system operable for the first 40 seconds of flight could handle the data (based on acceleration), this characteristics was valuable
only for this rocket, but not usable in Ariane 5, due this rocket had higher initial acceleration (5x more), it made the system stop working
(OperandError), and resulted in the chain of occurrences, causing malfunction and subsequently the

Moons Of The Terrestrial Planets
Moons of the Terrestrial Planets
2.2.Moons of Mars
2.2.1Introduction
Mars orbits at a distance of 1.52 AU from the Sun. Mars has two natural satellites, discovered by Asaph Hall in 1877. The innermost of these, Phobos,
is about 22.2 km in diameter (27.0Г—21.6Г— 18.8) and orbits the planet with a period far less than Mars 's period of rotation 7.7 hr. (only one quarter
that of Deimos), causing it to rise in the west and set in the east(Born & Duxbury 1975). Thus, it makes more than 3 orbits in a single Martian day.
As it orbits, it slowly spirals in towards the Martian surface. Phobos is drawing closer to Mars by 2 meters every one hundred years, and it is
predicted that it will collide with the planet /or destroyed in the atmosphere. Phobos has a semi–major axis 9376 km (2.76 Mars radii), eccentricity
0.0152 and orbit mean inclination 1.1o (relative to Mars' equator).
The outer satellite, Deimos, is about 12.6 km in diameter (15.0Г—12.2Г— 11.0) and orbital period about 30 hr. In fact, Deimos is the smallest known
moon in the Solar System. Like our own Moon, Deimos orbits far enough away from Mars that it is being, slowly pushed farther and farther away
from the planet. Deimos has a semi–major axis 23463.2 km (6.92 Mars radii), eccentricity 0.0003 and orbit mean inclination 2.4o (relative to Mars'
equator).
Both Deimos and Phobos have very circular orbits, which lie almost exactly in Mars 's equatorial plane. They are both small, irregular objects
comparable in size to the

Essay on Johannes Kepler
Johannes Kepler was a German astronomer and mathematician who lived between 1671–1630. Kepler was a Copernican and initially believed that
planets should follow perfectly circular orbits ("Johan Kepler" 1). During this time period, Ptolemy's geocentric theory of the solar system was
accepted. Ptolemy's theory stated that Earth is at the center of the universe and stationary; closest to Earth is the Moon, and beyond it, expanding
towards the outside, are Mercury, Venus, and the Sun in a straight line, followed by Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the "fixed stars". The Ptolemaic system
explained the numerous observed motions of the planets as having small spherical orbits called epicycles ("Astronomy" 2). Kepler is best known for
introducing three... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
His first law states, "The orbits of the planets are ellipses, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse." As shown in Figure 1, The Sun is not at the focus
of the ellipse, but is instead at one focus [usually there is nothing at the other focus of the ellipse]. The planet then trails the ellipse in its orbit, which
implies that the Earth–Sun distance is continually changing as the planet goes around its orbit. Kepler's second law states, "The line joining the
planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times as the planet travels around the ellipse." As shown in Figure 2, an imaginary line from the
center of the sun to the center of a planet sweeps out the same area in a given time. This means that planets move faster when they are closer to the
sun. Kepler's third and final law states, "The time taken by a planet to make one complete trip around the sun is its period. The ratio of the squares of
periodic times for two planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of their mean distances from the sun." Kepler's third law indicates that the time taken
by a planet to orbit the Sun increases quickly with the radius of its orbit ("Johannes Kepler: The" 1–4). Kepler's laws challenged Aristotelean and
Ptolemaic astronomy. His statement that the Earth

The Life of Johannes Kepler Essay
The Life of Johannes Kepler
HIS LIFE
Johannes Kepler was a German astronomer and mathematician ho discovered that planetary motion is elliptical. Early in his life, Kepler wanted to
prove that the universe obeyed Platonistic mathematical relationships, such as the planetary orbits were circular and at distances from the sun
proportional to the Platonic solids (see paragraph below). However, when his friend the astronomer Tycho Brahe died, he gave Kepler his immense
collection of astronomical observations. After years of studying these observations, Kepler realized that his previous thought about planetary motion
were wrong, and he came up with his three laws of planetary motion. Unfortunately, he did not have a unifying theory for ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Each interior angle of an equilateral triangle is 60В°, therefore we could fit together three, four, or five of them at a vertex, and these correspond to
the tetrahedron, the octahedron, and the icosahedron. Each interior angle of a square is 90В°, so we can fit only three of them together at each
vertex, giving us a cube. The interior angles of the regular pentagon are 108В°, so again we can fit only three together at a vertex, giving us the
dodecahedron.
That makes five regular polyhedra. However, what would happen if we had a six–sided figure? Well, its interior angles are 120В°, so if we fit three of
them together at a vertex the angles add up to 360В°, and therefore they lie flat. For this reason we cannot use hexagons to make a Platonic solid. In
addition, obviously, no polygon with more than six sides can be used either, because the interior angles just keep getting larger.
The Greeks, who had to find religious truth in mathematics, found the idea of exactly five Platonic solids very compelling. The philosopher Plato
concluded that they must be the fundamental building blocks of nature, and assigned to them what he believed to be the essential elements of the
universe. He followed the earlier philosopher Empedocles in assigning fire to the tetrahedron, earth to the cube, air to the octahedron, and water to the
icosahedron. To the dodecahedron, Plato assigned the

What is a satellite? How can they help us daily / what is...
What is a satellite?
A satellite is a small thing orbiting or circling a larger thing. The complete path it follows is called an orbit. The moon is a example of a natural
satellite of the earth. Manmade, or artificial satellites are placed into orbit by rockets or space shuttles.
After World War II, the former Soviet Union successfully launched Sputnik I, the first artificialsatellite in 1951, into space. In 1958, the United States
launched its first artificial satellite Telstar I intoorbit. Since then, many more satellites were made by different countries and launched into space.
How can they help us daily / what is the purpose with satellites
It has been helping scientists find answers to the unknown, and assisting tourists finding ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The closest point a satellite comes to the Earth is called its perigee. The farthest point is the apogee. The time it takes a satellite to make one full orbit
is called its period. The slope is the angle the orbital plane makes when compared with the Earth's equator.
Isaac Newton's First Law of Motion sounds like this any given object there is in motion will stay in motion unless something pushes or pulls on it.
Without gravity an Earth–orbiting satellite would go off into space along a straight line. With gravity it is pulled back toward the Earth. There is a
constant tug–of–war between the satellites tendency to move in a straight line, or momentum, and the tug of gravity pulling it back.
An object's momentum and gravity have to be balanced for an orbit to happen. If the forward momentum of one object is too great, it will speed past
the other one and not enter into orbit. If momentum is too small, the object will be pulled into the other one and crash. When these forces are balanced,
the object is always falling into the planet, but because it's moving sideways fast enough, it never hits the planet.
Escape velocity is the speed an object must go to break free from a planet?s gravity and enter into orbit. Escape velocity depends on the mass of the
planet. Each planet has a different escape velocity. The object?s distance from the planet?s center is also important. The escape velocity from the Earth
is

The Is Low Earth Orbit : Relevance Of The Science Fiction...
Commercializing Low Earth Orbit
Relevance to the Science fiction article. My chose to complete my Sci–fi paper as a collection of journal entries from a business man who has to travel
to a meeting on the moon. The journals each speak of a different leg of his journey, from the journey up, the accommodations, the meeting, and the
return flight. His company deals with satellite orbit altitude rights, and must cooperate with a company based on the moon, who has its own satellites
orbiting the moon. In this way, I will be able to discuss many topics; possible space travel sustainability options, long–term living on the moon, return
to earth's atmosphere, space weather and effects on travel, and the low–orbit rights and commercialization dilemma. For the purpose of this research
paper, I will focus on the question of low–orbit satellites.
Introduction.
it is inevitable that the private industry will introduce a space economy in the commercial world of current times. This is most effective and lucrative at
low Earth orbit. However, the lower you orbit, the less space there is as the surface area of an orbital path drops off as a squared function with the
altitude. The obvious problem is this– How do we control the risk factors with "crowded skies," while making sure that the market develops in a
healthy, non–monopolistic way? NASA's Commercial Orbit Transportation Services (COTS) program, managed by the Commercial Crew and Cargo
Program Office (C3PO) is attempting to start the

9/11 English Creation Story
"Go somewhere where we don't have to deal with you." Gassed the Sun's mother. So, the sun floated away without a goodbye or a smile.
The Sun's sorrow overtook him, and he cried for many orbits. He cried and cried, of he cried so much, until out of nowhere a rainbow stone
appeared. The stone had a heart as strong as a vampire's golden heart, a heart so rare, that had not a single ounce of darkness. The Sun had cried himself
a friend. The Sun played with the rainbow stone, everyday injecting them both with the power of friendship. One day the rainbow stone cracked and a
heavy white ball that glowed eye hurting bright yellow, hatched. He was an angry little Moon! He even went as far as declaring war on Sun! Didn't take
a significant amount ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
I turned my head to see the night sky. The ocean was so calm that it appeared as though a mural of stars were in front of me, as though I could leap
forward into the black blanket of white sparkles. A star that shined yellow grew bigger as time went on. I imagined it was a firefly floating over the
ocean just a short distance away. Oddly enough the firefly was moving closer to me somehow. The firefly started to appear as a small cat walking
down from the sky.
"Don't be afraid, I am not here to harm you but, to help you. Well actually I am here for a purpose. You are not aware of, and because of that I shall
not tell you. I am Moon. It is nice to speak to you Stormy." Moon smiled and waved his tail for me to come sit next to him.
"How did you know my name?" I asked curiously. Some crazy fire fly cat descends from the heavens and expects me to be all cool about it like "Oh
hey how was the weather up there?"
"I am the Moon." Moon pointed with his tail towards the gigantic rock that orbited the world in a unpredictable pattern. Actually made a lot more sense
that the rock had a conscious rather then a scientifically respective pattern that anyone could figure

Solar System and Gravity
The Effects of Gravity
There are some people who worry that when they 're outside, if they don 't keep a
good grip on the ground, they 'll just go flinging off into space. They needn 't really worry
about this, because gravity generally keeps that sort of thing from happening. The thing is,
no one is really sure what causes gravity, but the effects have been studied by many
physicists and astronomers. Three of the more obvious effects of gravity are things falling
down, weight, and the the moon and planets staying in their orbits.
Things fall down. People have generally grown to accept that if one lets go of
one 's prized and valuable textbook when walking through a mud puddle, the book will
invariably ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
So, too, the moon continuously falls around the Earth, and
the planets fall around the Sun. Each of these objects balances the Sun 's force of gravity
with its own momentum, that is, with its innate tendency to keep moving in the same
direction at the same speed. Take away the Sun 's force of gravity, and the planets would

sail into space, in whatever dircetion at whatever speed they happen to have. Take away a
planet 's momentum, perhaps with a giant hand that stops it in orbit, and it would head
straight for the Sun, drawn by the Sun 's gravitational force. But, because both gravity and
momentum are at work, the planets "fall", not down, but around, forever as they move in
elliptical, but nearly circular, orbits.
Working with insight that has never been exceeded since, Isaac Newton showed
that by making one simple assumption, that all objects in the universe attract one another
in accordance with a simple relationship, he could explain the fall of objects to the ground,
the moon 's orbit around the Earth, and the planets ' motions around the Sun. The
relationship Newton conceived was this: Every object attracts every other object with an
amount of force that varies in proportion to the product of the two objects ' masses, and in
inverse proportion to the square of the distance between the centers of the objects. It is
plain to see that gravity is quite important. The

Nt1310 Unit 9 Lab Report
Go to http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=My_Solar_System and click on Run Now.
1. Move the slider all the way to accurate, click on the tape measure and the grid.
2. Click the radio button for 4 objects and run the simulation until the purple planet (body 2) has made one complete orbit (one year).
3. After the first orbit (year), turn off the traces (show traces box) and watch another orbit (year) of the purple planet (body 2).
Question One:
Is blue moon (body 3) circling the yellow sun (body 1) or the purple planet (body 2)? Explain your answer.
Using the trojan asteroids setting it looks like all 3 bodys are orbiting the yellow sun
4. Increase the mass of the sun (body 1) to 400 and allow the simulation to run ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Why?
When the mass of the sun is 1000 and the planet is 10. Because the mass of the sun is 10x larger than the planet.
Question Five:
What makes the length of the year increase and decrease? Why?
The closer to the sun a planet is the shorter the year and the farther away it is the longer the year.
Question Six:
A planet in a circular orbit would always be the same distance from the sun. What do you notice about orbits with the shortest years? Why? Shorter
year = closer to the sun. The closer it is to the sun the more of a pull the gravity has on it which causes it to orbit quicker.
8. Choose the ellipses preset from the pull–down menu.
9.You may move the slider bar about 2/3 of the way towards fast for this simulation.
10. Run the simulation until the green planet (body 4) returns to its starting point (one planetary year)
PlanetTime of One Orbit (planetary year)Closest Distance to Sun (perihelion)Farthest Distance to Sun (aphelion)
Purple Planet (body 2)2.2s5484
Blue Planet (body 3)7.6s54250
Green Planet (body 4)14.7s54419
11. Change the y velocity of the blue planet (body 3) to 90 and the green planet (body 4) to 70.
12. Run the simulation again until the green

Satellite Motion Lab Answers
Dana Chernysheva
1A
Satellite Motion Lab
1.8)
1.9) A circular orbit means that the magnitude of velocity is constant. In a circular orbit, the radius is the same at all points on the orbit. If the radius
is the same, then the object is always the same distance away from the central body, so the gravitational pull is the same because a= v^2/r, and v and r
are the same at any given point. An elliptical orbit would have changing velocities at certain points. An ellipse does not have one constant radius. This
means that the object comes closer to the central body at certain points and further away at other points as it travels along the orbit; when it gets closer
to the central body the object goes faster because there is a greater gravitational ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Earth revolves around the sun due to the gravitational force between them, so the Earth is pulled by the gravitation between it and the Sun. The
Sun moves in an orbit as well due to the same gravitational force between it and the planet, which is the same as in real life. Also, the Moon revolves
around the Earth like the moon revolves around the planet. It can be observed that the moon moves faster when the planet (Earth) is closer to the sun.
This can be confirmed using Kepler's Second Law (Equal Areas) because it states that the speed of the planet constantly changes and becomes faster
when it is closer to the sun because it is in an elliptical

Persuasive Essay On Space Travel
No one wants to die. That is a fact of life and apart of human nature. Unfortunately, humans are the main source for increasing pollution rates,
deforestation, a large contributor for climate change, and the overall destruction of our planet. This is not a local issue, a state issue, or even an issue
subjected to just one country. This is a global issue that will effect everything. Our witheringplanet is why space travel is important for our society.
Earth is our home. In fact, it's home to over 7.5 billion people. All of those people using gas, eating food, producing waste: biological and material, in
need of clothes, and reproducing. With current trends in population growth, many analyst speculate that the world population will expand to 10 billion
people in 2050. Humans typically cannot fathom numbers larger than the thousands, as a local point of reference, a very obnoxiously crowded
Cowboy's Stadium can hold a maximum of 100,000 people, now imagine that number times 100,000. David Criswell, a physicist from the
University of Houston, claims "We are already well beyond what the biosphere can provide. We have to go outside to get something else". Earth has
reached its threshold. It can barely support 7.5 billion people, we have a pollution crisis we are already trying to deal with, another 2.5 billion people
will probably cause us to suffocate in our own man–made waste. NASA sums it up perfectly, the only logical thing left to do is establish a space colony.
The issue

Astronomy Quiz
% Ernesto Robles
% Csci 130 Final clc clear all fprintf(' This program revolves around planetary motion and gravity. n It comes with the ability to view a simulation of
orbit patterns... n r ')
Answer=menu ( 'Would you like to view a planetary simulation?','Yes!', 'No. =('); if Answer== 1 disp(' At the top of the pop
–up screen please select
"simulation" and then "start". ') disp(' When you are satisfied please exit from both pop–up windows and run the next section ') vrplanets elseif
Answer==2 disp(' Very well then. Please run the next section. ') end %% global G M R a ms Vnew ALT
G=6.67e–11;
% Here is a menu created that will prompt user to select a planet in which
% we will be using for our calculations. After chosing a planet from the
% menu they will ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
n' ) while or < 0 disp(' This value must be positive ( a satelite can''t orbit at an altitude less than a planet''s radius )') or=input(' Please select a new
value for orbit radius ') for or = 0 disp(' This value must be greater than zero ( a satelite can''t orbit at a planet''s radius )') or=input(' Please select a
new value for orbit radius ') end end fprintf(' Given the altitude above the planet''s surface (radius of planet + desired orbit height (or)) n we can then
calculate the initial velocity of the satelite.') a=R+(or*1000) % a is the altitude and is dependent upon user input
Vinitial=sqrt((G*M)./a);
fprintf('Initial velocity of the satelite is:%5.0f m/s n r', Vinitial) %Using the initial velocity we can now calculate the orbital period of the
%satelite and use this to find how long it takes to make one

Johannes Kepler's Research Paper
Kepler's Discoveries "I much prefer the sharpest criticism of a single intelligent man to the thoughtless approval of the masses." Said Johannes Kepler
in deep thought. He developed smallpox when he was three, which left him partially disabled and with poor vision. Even though he was disabled he
still was a straight A student who scored well in math. His dream was to enter the ministry, but the economy forced him to pursue mathematics, which
later he realized was Gods leading.
The First Law of Planetary Motion, which is The Law of Ellipses, states that The path of the planets around the sun is elliptical in shape, with the
center of the sun being located at one focus. It took five years of measuring the motion of Mars across the sky for

Low Earth Orbit Essay
Thomas Kern
ESS102
Research Paper
Space Debris in Low Earth Orbit
An unfortunate consequence of man exploring off planet has been the steady growth of junk from derelict and unused spacecraft. According to NASA
there are over half a million pieces of junk in low earth orbit. Because these pieces of junk travel at orbital speeds of around 17,500 miles per hour,
they posses tremendous amounts of energy and are capable of doing substantial damage (NASA). Most of the dangerous hard to track debris comes
from collisions (NASA). When old satellites are allowed to orbit on a collision free path they are relatively easy to track, and avoid. However,
problems arise once these satellites are involved in collisions. Collisions can break apart ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A variety of techniques are being developed to try and put this principle into use, for constructing all sorts of things in low earth orbit. A proposed
method of recycling satellites is to tow old satellites out to mars where the materials could be used by future colonies. Tom Markusic CEO of
startup firefly systems, has a plan to do just that (Howell). Firefly systems plans to use solar powered craft to slowly and efficiently move things
from earths orbit to mars. Once there they could be broken down by colonists in orbit for their nuts bolts and various other components (Howell).
This could actually create a much needed market for supplies if space travel becomes commercialized. If part is needed part way through a mission
and it can be found on a derelict satellite, Tom Markusic's company could be the missing link that could retrieve a bolt or solar panel and bring it to
whoever needs it eliminating the need for an expensive launch from the earths surface.
Another potential way of recycling space craft is increasing their longevity. Often times only a single component fails taking down all of a satellite's
systems. If they are designed modularly then satellites would only require a simple part replacement to be working again. DARPA is currently
researching a craft that would dock with satellites, assess damage, and potential make repairs (Howell). Having

Interplanetary Dust and Orbital Debris
INTERPLANETARY DUST AND ORIBITAL DEBRIS
Introduction
The interplanetary dust particles are sized in between few cm to molecules. The dust particles are charged with +ve charge due to solar wind. The
positive charge helps in reacting to the Lorentz force. The interplanetary dust grain population mainly originates in the main asteroid belt that is located
between 2 to 4 astronomical units (AU) from the Sun. Dust forms in collisions between bodies of diп¬Ђerent sizes and energies or may be carried in
by comets. 10 % of the dust formed by collisions in this area is transported towards the Sun via the Poynting–Robertson drag. The remaining 90 %
leave the solar system hyperbolic orbits as newly formed interstellar dust. Dust grain orbits are mainly inп¬‚uenced by gravity. Their orbital motion is
Keplerian. Most of the dust grains stemming from the asteroid belt orbit the Sun with low eccentricities and, thus, near–circular orbits.
Material properties of IDP
The Most of the dust in the inner solar system is assumed to originate from parent bodies orbiting in the Main Asteroid belt .the materials are divided
into 3 main Chrondrites 60%,Achrondrites 10% and Irons 30%. Chrondrites contains Mg, Al, Si, S, Ca, Cr, Mn, Fe and Ni.
IDP motion dynamics
The dynamics of interplanetary dust particles are determined by a variety of forces that
Can change the parameters of a dust grain's orbital motion. Very small IDP has perturbation by other forces. The P–R effect (pointing–Robertson effect)

Kepler's Laws Essay examples
Kepler's Laws
In today's world, we have very advanced technology. There have been many new technological and medical advancements as we entered the new
century. The Internet allows us to shop, talk, and find valuable information on very scarce topics, and even check stocks with a simple click of a
button. Medical advancements had recently been discovered on "The Human Genome Projects," the first gene was mapped and within a short period
of time we will have mapped out all the genes in a human chromosome. This is absolutely amazing because we will now be able to reveal the many
causes of serious deadly diseases. Throughout the years, we have gained the technology to send astronauts into space to gather new information about
our ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Brahe did not trust Kepler and worried that Kepler would surpass him and become more well known than him. So Brahe assigned him the job of
understanding the orbit of Mars because it gave Brahe much difficulty, and would keep Kepler occupied while Brahe worked on his theory of the
solar system. Brahe also kept other data from Kepler hoping that he would be the one to discover the orbits of the planets before Kepler did. In 1601,
when Brahe died Kepler received all of Brahe's data. Whether he obtained this data legally or not is still in debate today, however, it is fortunate that
he obtained this data. (Silverberg, 160)
When Kepler first began his work on the orbit of Mars he was under the assumption, as many scientists were, that the planetary orbits were circular,
and that the Sun was at the center of the orbits. This type of system is called a heliocentric system. Also at this time only six planets were known.
When Kepler obtained Brahe's data he discovered that the orbits were not perfect circles, but instead were ellipses that were only slightly flattened.
The reason nobody else realized this was because the orbits were so slightly elliptical that extensive investigation and data would be needed to show
this. It also turned out that the reason the orbit of Mars was very difficult to understand was because its orbit was more eccentric than the other planets
that Kepler and Brahe had data about. To understand a lot of Kepler's work you must first

The Growing Threat Of Space Debris Elimination Through...
The Growing Threat: Space Debris Elimination through Robotics
An over statement of the importance of the use of the Earth's orbital space is not possible. It is very apparent that we as the human race, while broken
up into many different countries, have grown accustom to the comforts, knowledge, and safety provided by the technology we launch into space.
Examples of the benefits are cellphones, GPS for direction, environmental studies, weather forecasting, defense, and much more. However, with every
placement of advanced technology into orbit the continuation of the ability to launch additional assets are at risk. The thousands of articles left
behind following the launch of spacecraft or vehicles generate that risk. Over the past fifty plus years, the risk has increased exponentially. Donald
Kessler, a NASA astrophysicist, shared his perception of such risk in 1978 (LaVone, 2014). Mr. Kessler theorized a self
–sufficient event capable of
eradicating viable assets within the condensed orbital space encompassing Earth. Mr. Kessler noted that the collision of defunct satellites or other
objects left behind in space are capable of ensuing a chain reaction of epic magnitude. The focus of Kessler's theory projected beyond the larger size
debris but "emphasized the imminent danger of small debris in orbit" (LaVone, 2014). At the time only theory, but now more than likely possible. The
preservation and continuation of space exploration have compelled other agencies,

The Concept Of Transfer
by calculating the cost, instead, it determines the optimality using the NC [12]. The NC allows a mission planner to analyze whether a transfer is
optimum or non–optimum by evaluating the primer vector pro le along the transfer trajectory and see if it satisfy the NC. Transfer trajectory refers to
the trajectory of the spacecraft from orbit around the departure planet to the orbit of around the destination.
In case of non–optimum trajectory, one can alter the trajectory by modifying the orbital velocity vector as such to satisfy the NC of optimality [13].
The modi cation of the velocity vector is achieved through implementation of DSM. A linear method to optimize a transfer based on the gradient of the
cost functional was rst proposed by ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Solving primer vector equation using state transition matrix is the most common approach in the trajectory optimization. Since this approach relies on
the numerical integration of the STM and the primer vector, the computation time becomes a disadvantage. With the rapid advancement in computer
technology, the issue of computation time is not as significant as in the past. However, the numerical approach using STM did not give an insight to
the optimization problem. In the paper by Iorfida, it is presented how the analytical solution to the out of plane case can be explored to nd the influence
of the transfer orbit parameters to the optimality.
There are numerous works which have been conducted to derive the analytical solution to the primer vector equation. Russel, in his paper, [25]
presented an analytical solution to the primer vector equation for the low thrust transfer case. His method is based on the analytical derivation of the
state transition matrix. Other work by Huang [26] also studied a low thrust transfer and proposed an analytical solution for circular case transfer.
For an impulsive transfer case, there are several works, which focused on finding an ana–lytical solution to the primer vector equation. In 1669,
Prussing published his work on the analytical solution of the out of plane component circular rendezvous problem [27]. In 1991, Carter published his
studies of the xed time linearised impulsive rendezvous

Psysics Behind Changes in Planetary Orbit
Physics behind changes in planetary orbit
April 07,2014
"Oh no, a small field of asteroid the size of Pluto is heading towards Earth on a direct collision course!" The Earth and all of its inhabitants are now
facing certain extinction. What are the Earth's inhabitants to do? Is it possible to move the planet out of the way in time? Fortunately for humanity,
there are many ways to actually change the Earth's orbit both plausible and unrealistic, but one must completely understand the physics behind each
option so that no mistakes are made and we fully avoid suffering any consequences. First background information on our planet needed, Earth has
been around for 4.54 billion years, it has a mass of 5.98x10^24 kg, a diameter of 12756 km, a velocity of about 67000 mph, and is about 149,597,890
km away from the Sun. To most this doesn't sound like a simple task, not knowing the trick is using Earth's orbit. An orbit is the gravitationally
curved path of an object around a point in space, for example the path of a planet around the center of a star system, like in our Solar System
(Encyclopedia). In order to change the orbit of a planet, one must consider the difference forces that can influence the planet's orbit: direct contact,
gravitational assistance, solar sails, and the possible but not exactly plausible forces.
The thought of an object coming on a collision with Earth is quite frightening, but surprisingly it could lead to our salvation. If an object of equal mass

Parallax, Star Brightness, And Kepler's Laws Of Planetary...
I chose Proportional Scales in the Solar System, Examining Parallax, Star brightness, and Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion because I understood
each section better than the other ones. Honestly I had some corrections to make in each assignment but in the end they were almost perfect. My first
reaction was to choose topics that were the easiest to write about. But I thought about it and I chose the topics that I best understood. I enjoyed these
activities the most and if I had to choose my favorite thing I've ever learned in Science a couple of those would be on the top of my list.
I chose the four assignments because I did my best job on them. Proportional Scales in the Solar System deals with proportionality, obviously. The first
thing ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The biggest thing that stands out to me when I read that question is the Parallax assignment. When we started that assignment I was so confused,
and lost I just didn't understand it. But when we were done with it I took the most out of that assignment than any other one. My first example is
the answer to the question we answered at the beginning, and I had no idea what to put so I answered with one word, again hoping out of pure
luck I would be right. If you were to ask me "what is parallax?" I would probably stare blankly with no idea what it was, and at the end of the
assignment I could tell you almost anything about it. My second example is how well my parallax summary turned out, and even my graph. I
completely understand how when the distance to an object increases the observed parallax decreases. I think the moment I understood everything was
when I held up my thumb straight out in front of me, closed one eye and then the next. I know, it sounds dumb but that intrigued me into the
assignment, when a little part of me finally understood it. My notebook helped me have everything right in front of me opposed to searching for
multiple papers. Being a visual learner scared me going into high school until I had the opportunity to see everything at once. In all honesty the one
thing that would improve my notebook would be motivation to myself. If I don't want to answer those questions we were assigned to do, or even write
a summary that

Rough Guide To Exoplanets
Alex's Rough Guide to Exoplanets
Intro
By exploring outer space, astronomers have found distant planets, called exoplanets. Properties of these planets can be determined by using various
techniques and technology.
The definition of an exoplanet is a planet that orbits a star outside our solar system. The first exoplanet was discovered in 1995.
Nowadays techniques are becoming more refined and by using them predictions can be made based on the many data points that we have for these
planets. For example the presence of certain elements can be detected via spectroscopy and then that data can be used to aid a prediction into a planet's
climate. Because there are so many factors that determine properties such as climate the more data gathered ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This is because for a planet to be detected it must have an orbit that transits between the observation point and the star. This means that the planet
must orbit in a very specific plane and that the plane becomes smaller for planets that orbit at a greater distance from their host star. So planets that
are detected using the transit method are usually planets known as "Hot Jupiters". To break down this description it means that these planets are
comparable to Jupiter because of their size and density, and are described as being hot due to their closeness to their host star (usually between 0.015
and 0.05 AU) and the high surface temperature that comes with that closeness. Also if the host star is small such as a neutron star then the size of the
plane that a transit is visible in is also reduced.
Another drawback is that the amount of false positive candidates is higher than many other methods and it's thought that, in some cases, as many as
35% of detected planets from Kepler are false. This means that in some cases follow up investigation is required before a planet can be confirmed. A
common source of false positives is caused by fluctuations in the star's brightness which are not caused due to a transiting planet but are often hard to
differentiate and so they can cause false negatives

Speech As A Speech To Isaac Newton's Speech
Greeting Earthling, this is your captain speaking, Haleigh DePalmer. I wish I had moon boots to commemorate this occasion, I hope these boots
will do. Either way I'm shaking in them. My second time up here and I'm still imaging each one of your eyes shooting out space lasers of
judgement. So this is one of the rare occasions where I can honestly say it's you and not me. Kinda ironic, musician, John Mayer use to experience
stage fright as well, while performing some of his major hits like his song "Gravity." Oh? You don't see the irony then maybe I should start my
speech. Ladies and Gentlemen, for your safety I'm going to have to ask you to hold onto your hats and tie yourself tightly to your seat to prevent you
from floating to the... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is assumed Isaac Newton witnessed an apple fall from a tree thus beginning a thought process only someone with an estimated IQ level of 190 would
take the time to think about. He began thinking that the force which caused the apple to be attracted to the Earth couldn't be any different from the
force which causes the moon to be attracted to the earth; remaining in orbit. Both objects are being pulled towards the earth, however the moon,
unlike the apple isn't crashing into our home planet. The moon is moving sideways so quickly that it's missing our planet completely which is what
is keeping it in orbit. Next time I get pulled over, I'm going to have to tell the police officer, that if the moon speeds to avoiding crashing into
something on earth, so am I. Newton realized that however this gravitational force worked, any other object with mass would probably behave the
exact same way, whether it be another planet, the sun, or you falling into bed after a long day. Newton's Law ofGravitation directly states "any two
bodies attract each other with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them." Wow, that's a mouthful. Leave it to the professionals. All we need to know is what goes up must come down, and yes that includes that
missing balloon from your fifth birthday. Newton's scientific revolution changed the way people thought about the world. In his book, he

Leaving The Orbit

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

More from Darlene Hernandez

More from Darlene Hernandez (6)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Leaving The Orbit