Can you write the Annotation one for me, please? I choose Energy source of Children This is my topic. You have to put work cited first and after that you have to write 150 words summary and after that you have to write your opinion for gust one to two lines. After that you have to write Two questions about that summery no yes or no. You can choose two questions of How, What,Where, Why, When. this is my order. You have to read this essay I will put to you because you have to read this resoerc. I took these information from my college website and these are four pages you have to read. You will see the file with work cited and I put some explain to you. T h e J o u r n a l o f D e v e l o p i n g A r e a s Volume 48 No. 4 Fall 2014 INTERACTIONS AMONG POVERTY, ACCESS TO MODERN ENERGY SOURCES, AND GENDER IN NIGERIA Fidelis O. Ogwumike University of Ibadan, Nigeria Uche M. Ozughalu University of Nigeria, Nigeria ABSTRACT This study examines the interactions among poverty, access to modern energy sources and gender in Nigeria. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression technique are used. The 2010 Nigeria Living Standard Survey data set obtained from the National Bureau of Statistics is used. The findings of the study show, among other things, that contrary to what happens in many countries of the world, both incidences of poverty and lack of access to modern energy sources are more pronounced among male-headed households than among female-headed households. The logistic regression estimates show, among other things, that poverty reduces the odds in favor of having access to modern energy sources and while female headship of household reduces the odds in favor of being in poverty, it increases the odds in favor of having access to modern energy sources. The forgoing should serve as invaluable guide to the Nigerian government and policy makers. JEL Classifications: D10, I32, J16, Q43, R20 Keywords: Poverty, Modern Energy Sources, Gender, Logit Model, Nigeria Corresponding Author’s Email Address: [email protected] INTRODUCTION A major socio-economic problem plaguing Nigeria is poverty. In recent times poverty has become pervasive in Nigeria. Associated with the poverty problem in Nigeria is the gross inadequacy in access to modern energy sources. Most Nigerian households use inferior/environmentally harmful sources of energy for cooking and lighting (National Bureau of Statistics, 2005). The use of such inferior sources of energy - like firewood, charcoal, crop residue, animal waste and sawdust - causes environmental pollution which ultimately leads to reduction in health status and productivity. Both poverty and access to energy sources have gender dimension. Women are said to be more vulnerable to poverty than men. Despite the great role women play in nation-building, they do not receive commensurate economic reward. It is noteworthy that the great role women play in the development process is clearly ref.

1. Can you write the Annotation one for me, please? I choose
Energy source of Children This is my topic.
You have to put work cited first and after that you have to write
150 words summary and after that you have to write your
opinion for gust one to two lines. After that you have to write
Two questions about that summery no yes or no. You can
choose two questions of How, What,Where, Why, When. this is
my order. You have to read this essay I will put to you
because you have to read this resoerc.
I took these information from my college website and these are
four pages you have to read. You will see the file with work
cited and I put some explain to you.
T h e J o u r n a l o f D e v e l o p i n g A r e a s
Volume 48 No. 4 Fall 2014
INTERACTIONS AMONG POVERTY, ACCESS TO MODERN
ENERGY SOURCES, AND GENDER IN NIGERIA
Fidelis O. Ogwumike
University of Ibadan, Nigeria
Uche M. Ozughalu
University of Nigeria, Nigeria

2. ABSTRACT
This study examines the interactions among poverty, access to
modern energy sources and gender in Nigeria. Descriptive
statistics and logistic regression technique are used. The 2010
Nigeria Living Standard Survey data set obtained from the
National Bureau of Statistics is used. The findings of the study
show, among other things, that contrary to what happens in
many countries of the world, both incidences of poverty and
lack of access to modern energy sources are more pronounced
among male-headed households than among female-headed
households. The logistic regression estimates show, among
other things, that poverty reduces the odds in favor of having
access to modern energy sources and while female headship of
household reduces the odds in favor of being in poverty, it
increases the odds in favor of having access to modern energy
sources. The forgoing should serve as invaluable guide to the
Nigerian government and policy makers.
JEL Classifications:
D10, I32, J16, Q43, R20
Keywords:
Poverty, Modern Energy Sources, Gender, Logit Model, Nigeria
Corresponding Author’s Email Address:
[email protected]
INTRODUCTION
A major socio-economic problem plaguing Nigeria is poverty.
In recent times poverty has become pervasive in Nigeria.
Associated with the poverty problem in Nigeria is the gross

3. inadequacy in access to modern energy sources. Most Nigerian
households use inferior/environmentally harmful sources of
energy for cooking and lighting (National Bureau of Statistics,
2005). The use of such inferior sources of energy - like
firewood, charcoal, crop residue, animal waste and sawdust -
causes environmental pollution which ultimately leads to
reduction in health status and productivity.
Both poverty and access to energy sources have gender
dimension. Women are said to be more vulnerable to poverty
than men. Despite the great role women play in nation-building,
they do not receive commensurate economic reward. It is
noteworthy that the great role women play in the development
process is clearly reflected in many time-budget studies. These
studies, in general, show that women do not only do heaver
work but also work relatively longer hours than men.
Unfortunately, women, in general, do not earn adequate income.
Women’s income earning potentials are significantly
constrained by their exclusive pre-occupation with
unremunerated household production, nurturing and social
production (Afolabi, 1999). Women constitute a greater
proportion 226
of the world’s poor (Olowe, 2002). The number of women living
in poverty continues to increase even with the increasing wave
of globalization. In analyzing the feminization of poverty it has
been observed that various conditions prevailing locally and
globally aggravate the vulnerability of women and consequently
lead to continuous increase in the number of females within the
poverty bracket. These conditions include lack of or limited
access to education, discriminatory socio-economic and
political practices, outbreak of civil wars, civil strifes/natural
disasters, migration of heads of households, death leading to
widowhood, and job discrimination (Eghobamien, 2000). There
is evidently greater burden of lack of access to modern energy

4. sources among the female population in the world than among
the male population. Partly due to limited income earning
opportunities/lack of adequate income, an overwhelming
proportion of the female population in the world cannot afford
modern energy sources (Kohlin et al, 2011; Danielsen, 2012).
There is evidently a strong interaction/correlation between
poverty and access to modern energy sources; poverty is a major
impediment to access to modern energy sources. Also, both
poverty and lack of access to modern energy sources affect men
and women differently. Given that gender concerns have not
been adequately taken care of in energy studies in Nigeria and
interactions among poverty, access to modern energy sources
and gender in Nigeria have not been sufficiently studied, this
study is motivated to adequately focus on these issues. The rest
of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 focuses on some
conceptual and methodological issues associated with poverty,
access to energy sources, and gender while Section 3 contains
some theoretical issues and empirical literature. Section 4
contains the methodology of the research while Section 5 deals
with empirical analysis of interactions among poverty, access to
modern energy sources and gender in Nigeria. And Section 6
contains conclusion.
CONCEPTUAL AND METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES
Conceptual and Methodological Issues on Poverty
Poverty is a concept that does not have a universally accepted
definition. This is partly because the phenomenon affects
virtually all aspects of human condition. However the
commonest practice is to conceptualize the phenomenon in
absolute terms (Ogwumike, 1991; Ajakaiye & Adeyeye, 2001).
Absolute poverty refers to a situation that is characterized by
gross inadequacy of income, consumption or expenditure,
among other things. In general, it refers to lack of adequate
resources to afford a commodity basket

5. 1
that guarantees the attainment/maintenance of an objective
minimum acceptable standard of living (Olowononi, 1997). It is
instructive to note here that it is very difficult to determine
what to include in the so-called objective minimum and it is
also very difficult to set minimum standards for basic needs
such as clothing and transportation which largely depend on
taste/preferences as well as on the prevailing socio-economic
conditions within a given society (Afonja & Ogwumike, 2003).
Despite the foregoing difficulties, conceptualizing poverty in
absolute terms could provide a sustainable starting point for
policies and programs that are aimed at reducing the
phenomenon. Suffice it to say that absolute poverty is evidently
the most easily recognizable aspect of poverty. It is indeed the
most detestable aspect of poverty for it degrades human dignity
most. 227
Poverty can also be viewed in relative terms. Relative poverty
refers to a situation when certain regions, households or
individuals in a society do not earn adequate income to satisfy
their basic needs like their better off counterparts (UNDP,
1997). A major merit of the relative poverty definition is that it
reflects changing perceptions of acceptable minimum standards
of living (Odusola, 1997). However, the approach is too much
of a moving average and it has been severely criticized for this.
As indicated in Afonja & Ogwumike (2003), relative poverty is
very difficult to alleviate and it is virtually impossible to access
the effectiveness of transfer programs when relative poverty
concept is adopted. Besides, the setting of relative poverty line
is highly arbitrary.
There are also material and subjective poverty. Material poverty
refers to lack of ownership and control of physical assets such
as land, machinery, and animal husbandry (UNDP, 1997).
Subjective poverty conceptualization, on the other hand,

6. requires individuals (the poor inclusive) to define what they
consider to be a decent or minimally adequate standard of
living. As noted in Afonja & Ogwnmike (2003), the concept of
subjective poverty is difficult to apply because of the
divergence in responses due to differences in individual utility
functions and circumstances.
Poverty can be chronic (structural) or transient. Transient
poverty refers to the contribution of consumption variability to
expected poverty over time whereas chronic poverty is the
poverty that remains after inter-temporal variability in
consumption has been smoothed out (Ravallion, 1988; Jalan &
Ravallion, 2000). Chronic poverty means persistent or
permanent socio-economic deprivation and is linked to various
factors such as limited productive resources, lack of
education/skills for gainful employment and endemic socio-
political and cultural factors. Transient poverty, on the other
hand, is transitory or temporary and is linked to natural or man-
made disasters such as wars, flood, conflagration, ill-health and
loss of jobs (Ajakaiye & Adeyeye, 2001; Ozughalu, 2010).
To analyze poverty, it is customary for economists to begin by
choosing an indicator of well-being. This may be based on
consumption, expenditure or income (Ravallion, 1996).
Thereafter a cut-off point, called "the poverty line," will be set.
This is a measure of the minimum acceptable standard of living
or welfare and it separates the poor from the non-poor
(Anyanwu, 1997). Poverty lines can posses the attributes of
specificity (or relevance) and comparability (or consistency).
Specificity (or relevance) of a poverty line across space at a
particular time implies that the poverty line reflects the specific
characters of a region/place under study. A poverty line should
take into account various aspects of human condition in a
region/place such as life pattern, culture, social condition and
norms prevailing in the region/place (Asra & Santos-Francisco,
2001). Consistency (or comparability) of poverty lines, on the
other hand, refers to when poverty lines indicate the same
standard of living. (Wodon, 1997; Asra & Santos-Francisco,

7. 2001).
The construction of poverty lines is relatively subjective and
depends to a large extent on the individual researchers’
preferences and dispositions. Nevertheless, the literature reveals
that there are basically four approaches used in the setting of
poverty lines; these are Direct Calorie Intake (DCI) method,
Food-Energy-Intake (FEI) method, Cost-of-Basic Needs (CBN)
approach and Arbitrary- Choice-of-Index (ACI) method (Onah,
1996; Ravallion,1998; Asra & Santos-Francisco, 2001). 228
After the setting of poverty line(s), the next line of action will
be to measure poverty. There are certain axioms that a good and
desirable poverty measure must satisfy. These include
monotonicity, transfer and focus axioms (Sen, 1976; Anyanwu,
1997). The monotonicity axiom states that given other things, a
reduction in income (or expenditure) of a person/household that
is below the poverty line must increase the poverty measure.
The transfer axiom states that given other things, a pure transfer
of income (or expenditure) from a person that is below the
poverty line to anyone that is richer must increase the poverty
measure. The focus axiom requires that the poverty measure be
dependent only on the incomes (or expenditures) of the poor;
thus the incomes (or expenditures) of the non-poor and any
changes therein are irreverent.
There are many poverty measures but four of them are
commonly used namely: the Head Count Ratio, the Poverty Gap
Index, the Sen Index and the Foster-Greer- Thorbecke (FGT)
Index. The Head Count Ratio is simply the proportion of poor
people/households in a population. It is the commonest and
simplest of all existing poverty measures. It pinpoints variations
in the percentage of the people living in poverty. However, it is
not sensitive to the severity of poverty and to changes below the
poverty line. The Poverty Gap Index measures the difference

8. between the poverty line and the mean income or expenditure of
the poor expressed as a ratio of the poverty line. It takes
account of the extent to which households fall below the
poverty line thus it is a good measure of the depth of poverty.
However, it is not sensitive to the distribution of standard of
living among the poor. The Sen Index is a composite measure of
poverty. It shows the degree of impoverishment and the
distribution of income among the poor as well as the number of
the poor. It incorporates the Head Count Ratio, the Poverty Gap
and the Gini Coefficient
2
. The Sen Index satisfies the monotonicity, transfer and focus
axioms. But a major demerit of the index is that it is more
responsive to improvements in the Headcount than it is to
reductions in the Income Gap or to improvements in the
distribution of income among the poor; thus it gives the
impression that the best way to reduce poverty is to help the
least needy first and the neediest last. This is repugnant to
equity and good conscience; it is not in line with moral justice.
The FGT index is apparently the most popular/most widely used
poverty measure because apart from satisfying the major axioms
for a desirable poverty measure, it has an added advantage of
being additively decomposable among population subgroups.
The index is a composite measure that contains the Headcount
Ratio, the Poverty Gap Index and a measure for poverty
severity. The FGT index ( )is based on the following formula.
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Annotation 1