Running Head: EMISSIONS OF AUTOMOBILES IN AMERICA PAGE 5 EMISSIONS OF AUTOMOBILES IN AMERICA Emissions of Automobiles in America: A Controlled Investigation Name Here Psychology 315 October 8, 2059 Mr. Avery Emissions of Automobiles in America: A Controlled Investigation A growing body of research by leading industry experts shows an alarming rate of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere throughout the lower 48 contiguous United States and Canada. Harmful emissions from automobile tailpipes and engine compartments contribute to the rising rate of hydrocarbons released into the atmosphere each year. Preston (2005) indicates an average atmospheric increase of 3.8% in hydrocarbons each year since 1999. He estimates that a 50% reduction in automobile emissions will lower the overall level of harmful hydrocarbons in the air by 23%. Engineers from the Oppenheimer Group, a leading manufacturer of emissions control products, produced an emissions control device that can be retrofitted to any automobile exhaust system through the tailpipe, and modified to fit in the engine compartment of most cars and trucks. The Oppenheimer Group installed its emissions control device in the exhaust system of 36 randomly selected cars from across the country. Industry standards reveal that automobiles not equipped with the Oppenheimer Group’s emissions control device emit an average of 100 pounds of pollutants per year into the atmosphere with a standard deviation of 15. The Oppenheimer Group predicts that cars equipped with their emissions control device will differ from cars not equipped with their emissions control devicein the number of pounds of pollutants released into the air. H1: m ≠ 100 and H0: m = 100. Method Participants Forty drivers and their respective cars were recruited to participate in the emissions control test from various cities across the country via a radio, newspaper, and billboard advertisement campaign which lasted 60 days prior to the beginning of the investigation. Four participants withdrew before the study began due to prior commitments that would interfere with their ability to complete all 30 days of the study. Drivers ranged in age from 18 to 59 years with a mean age of 34.12. Nineteen participants were female (52.78%); seventeen were male (47.22%). Twenty-nine participants were married (74.36%). The remaining seven were single or divorced (19.44%). The average education level for all participants was 11.63 years. Average income reported for all participants was $39,700 per year. For all 36 participants, the average number of miles driven per month was 1,140.18. Eight of the participants were unemployed at the beginning of the study (22.22%). All others had one or more jobs. A 25 dollar inducement was offered to those participants who completed the investigation. Apparatus The Oppenheimer Group’s emissions control device was retrofitted into the tailpipe of all 36 automobiles by Oppenheimer’s tech.

1. Running Head: EMISSIONS OF AUTOMOBILES IN AMERICA
PAGE
5
EMISSIONS OF AUTOMOBILES IN AMERICA
Emissions of Automobiles in America: A Controlled
Investigation
Name Here
Psychology 315
October 8, 2059
Mr. Avery
Emissions of Automobiles in America: A Controlled
Investigation
A growing body of research by leading industry experts shows
an alarming rate of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere throughout
the lower 48 contiguous United States and Canada. Harmful
emissions from automobile tailpipes and engine compartments
contribute to the rising rate of hydrocarbons released into the
atmosphere each year. Preston (2005) indicates an average
atmospheric increase of 3.8% in hydrocarbons each year since
1999. He estimates that a 50% reduction in automobile
emissions will lower the overall level of harmful hydrocarbons
in the air by 23%. Engineers from the Oppenheimer Group, a
leading manufacturer of emissions control products, produced
an emissions control device that can be retrofitted to any
automobile exhaust system through the tailpipe, and modified to

2. fit in the engine compartment of most cars and trucks. The
Oppenheimer Group installed its emissions control device in the
exhaust system of 36 randomly selected cars from across the
country. Industry standards reveal that automobiles not
equipped with the Oppenheimer Group’s emissions control
device emit an average of 100 pounds of pollutants per year into
the atmosphere with a standard deviation of 15. The
Oppenheimer Group predicts that cars equipped with their
emissions control device will differ from cars not equipped with
their emissions control devicein the number of pounds of
pollutants released into the air. H1:
m
≠ 100 and H0:
m
= 100.
Method
Participants
Forty drivers and their respective cars were recruited to
participate in the emissions control test from various cities
across the country via a radio, newspaper, and billboard
advertisement campaign which lasted 60 days prior to the
beginning of the investigation. Four participants withdrew
before the study began due to prior commitments that would
interfere with their ability to complete all 30 days of the study.
Drivers ranged in age from 18 to 59 years with a mean age of
34.12. Nineteen participants were female (52.78%); seventeen
were male (47.22%). Twenty-nine participants were married
(74.36%). The remaining seven were single or divorced

3. (19.44%). The average education level for all participants was
11.63 years. Average income reported for all participants was
$39,700 per year. For all 36 participants, the average number
of miles driven per month was 1,140.18. Eight of the
participants were unemployed at the beginning of the study
(22.22%). All others had one or more jobs. A 25 dollar
inducement was offered to those participants who completed the
investigation.
Apparatus
The Oppenheimer Group’s emissions control device was
retrofitted into the tailpipe of all 36 automobiles by
Oppenheimer’s technicians who flew to each participant’s city
to install the device. The device was place at both ends of the
catalytic converter; that is, the exhaust fumes traveling from the
engine first passed through the emissions control device before
passing through the catalytic converter and then through a
second emissions control device prior to being released through
the tailpipe into the air.
Materials
All participants were given Truman’s (1999) questionnaire of
driving habits that included questions about driving infractions
and/or tickets over the past five years. Those drivers who
indicated 3 or more traffic tickets within the past year, and/or 1
or more DUI and DWI infractions within the past 5 years were
excluded from the study in the interest of maintaining a high
degree of integrity within the investigation.
Procedure
Drivers were instructed to maintain their normal driving routine
throughout the 30 day trial. Exhaust emissions were measured
on 20 of the 30 days (Monday – Friday) during the study by

4. inserting an emissions meter into the tailpipe and also by taking
emission readings from each automobile’s engine compartment.
Emissions per car were totaled and the totals for each
automobile were added together at the end of the study. Yearly
totals were estimated from the monthly totals at the end of the
30 day trial.
Results
A “Z” test was the statistical procedure chosen to determine the
significance or non-significance of the hydrocarbons released
into the air by the emissions control device. The Oppenheimer
Group tested their emissions control device using a two-tailed
test @ .05 alpha. The average amount of hydrocarbons released
into the air by all cars not equipped with the emissions control
device was 100.00 pounds per year with a standard deviation of
15.00.
All thirty-six automobiles in the test group released an average
of 99.00 pounds of hydrocarbons into the air per year. The
standard error of the mean was 2.50. That is, the population
standard deviation of 15.00 divided by the square root of N
where N = 36 yielded the standard error of the mean of 2.50.
The resulting “Z” test yielded an obtained value of –0.40
against a two-tailed critical value of –1.96. The obtained value,
indicated below, was not significant. The mean pounds per year
for the sample (M = 99.00, SD = 4.31) dropped slightly from the
pounds per year for the population (M = 100.00, SD 4.54).
Z = -0.40, p > .05.
Discussion
The present study attempted to demonstrate that the

5. Oppenheimer Group’s emissions control device released less
pollutants into the air from cars on which the device was
installed vs the pollutants released into the air from automobiles
on which the emissions control device was not installed. After
the 30 day trial, no significant difference was found between
those automobiles on which the emissions control device was
installed compared to those automobiles on which the device
was not installed.
Hydrocarbon pollutants were an inherent part of this study and
will continue to be released into the air at no less than Preston’s
estimated 3.8% per year until effective measures can be put in
place to reduce the level of harmful emissions released from
automobile exhaust systems.
This study was limited in that only 36 participants and their
automobiles volunteered to participate. A broader scope of
participants from a wider geographical area would be desired.
Also, global implications can scarcely be discussed since the
present trials were conducted entirely within the United States
where the level of atmospheric hydrocarbons is at minimum 3
times greater than other industrialized nations (Jennings, 2004).
Similar research in regions outside the U.S. may have achieved
different results.
Future research should include more participants with a broader
range of automobiles to include small, medium, and large
privately owned trucks. Further, trials should be conducted in
all of the various climatic regions in the country and at multiple
elevations. Moreover, the researchers feel that a longer study
would produce more accurate data instead of estimating yearly
emission totals from one 30 day study. Lastly, each emissions
control device was installed new on each of the 36 automobile

6. in the study. Even if results had been significant, the research
team would want to know if the emissions control device would
continue to reduce the level of harmful pollutants into the air
and for how long until it needed to be replaced. Perhaps further
research can answer these important questions.
References
Jennings, W.R (2004). Filling our air with poisons: A case
study of pollutants in
our air. Hydrocarbon Quarterly, 34, 165-184.
Preston, H.G. (2005). Hydrocarbons and the Air: The Poisoning
of America.
New York: McGraw Hill.
Truman, J.C. (1997). Driving Habits: Integrity of the American
Driver. Journal of
Automobile Engineering and Science, 15, 125-133.
_1253984606.unknown
_1253984843.unknown
Grading Guide: Hypothesis Testing Paper
PSY/315 Version 5
1
Grading Guide
Hypothesis Testing Paper
This assignment is due in Week Five.
Content

7. 60 Percent
Points Earned
X/9
· Describes the selected research issue, problem, or opportunity.
· Formulates a hypothesis statement concerning the selected
research issue, problem, or opportunity.
· Determines a population and describes which sampling method
would be used to generate the sample.
· Describes how data would be collected, the level of
measurement of the data, and which statistical technique would
be used to analyze the data, and why.
Comments:
Organization and Development
20 Percent
Points Earned
X/3
· The paper is 1,400 to 1,750 words in length.
· The paper is clear and organized; major points are supported
by details, examples, or analysis.
· The tone aligns with the assignment’s purpose and is geared
toward the appropriate audience.
· The paper provides relevant and sufficient background on the
topic.
· The paper is logical, flows, and reviews the major points.
Comments:
Mechanics and Format
20 Percent
Points Earned

8. X/3
· The assignment file is presentable and functional.
· Rules of grammar, usage, and punctuation are followed;
spelling is correct.
· The paper—including the title page, reference page, tables,
and any appendices—is consistent with APA guidelines.
Comments:
Additional Comments:
Total Earned
X/15
Copyright © 2014 by University of Phoenix. All rights reserved.
Sheet1ParticipantBeforeAfter1151724936321214171452115625
25720228563891619103131112833124439133529144841153231
163727174521182927192832203420.
&CDependent Samples "t" test
for Repeated Measures
Sheet2
Sheet3
Running Head; How To Determine Your Body Calorie Needs 1
How To Determine Your Body Calorie Needs 2

9. How to Determine Your Body Calorie Needs
A calorie is a unit of energy measured by the amount of
energy provided by food to the body. For the body to function
properly it needs calories. The amount of calories that is
contained in food gives you energy, nutrients, carbohydrates,
proteins and fats that fuels the body. When you eat food, the
body turns the food into fuel which is burned to produce
calories or energy.
A calorimeter is an equipment that is used to obtain the
amount of calories in a product. When food is being tested, it is
placed on the calorimeter and burnt. The calorimeter is able to
measure the amount of heat that is released by the food.
Therefore the energy density from the calorimeter can be
converted to calories. Since there are some energy that is lost
during digestion, the final number is multiplied by 89% to make
up for the calorie lost.
Seventy five percent of the patients who went through the
treatment plan responded positively and the treatment proves to
be effective. Most of the patients lost two hundred to two
thousand four hundred calories during the treatment. Those who
never responded to the treatment added a few calories. The
general result shows that the treatment was effective to most
patients. The calculations for finding the correct caloric intake
are very simple and are mostly estimate to give one a starting
point. Patients are required to monitor their progress closely for
changes by keeping track of your entire calorie intake,
bodyweight and the body fat percentage.
Patients on the treatment program must observe their

10. bodyweight and body fat percentage to see how they respond to
treatment. If they don’t see the results they expect then they can
adjust their caloric intake and exercise levels accordingly. It is
always advisable not to reduce calories to very low levels in
order to lose fats. In fact, the more calories one consumes the
better, as long as there is deficit either through exercise or diet.
It is important for one to know the amount of calories that they
burn ina day and how much calories you consume in a day for it
to be easy to calculate if you are losing or gaining weight.
Calories come from food sources such as proteins, fats and
carbohydrates. A gram of proteins and carbohydrates contains
four calories and a gram of fats contains nine calories which is
almost twice the amount of proteins and carbohydrates. When
one is at a desirable body weight and have plenty of energy that
means that there calorie intake is okay. However when one is
gaining weight and feels tired most of the time, they should
consider counting their intake of calories on food and changing
daily diet because when extra calories are ingested, the body
will convert them the excess energy to body fats.
The body has approximately three thousand five hundred
calories in pound that is stored as body fats. So if one creates a
three thousand five hundred calorie deficit through exercise,
diet or a mixture of both, at the end of the program they would
have lost one pound body weight which is about seventy five
percent. Calorie deficit can be accomplished by calorie
restriction alone, diet or exercise.
A combination of diet and exercise is the most effective
and best weight loss. Sustainable weight loss could be difficult
without consistent exercise. If one wants to lose fat, the best
way of doing this is by lowering your calorie intake by at least
five hundred but not more than one thousand which is below the
body maintenance level.
Another way of computing a safe minimum calorie intake level
is by referencing to your current body weight by reducing
calorie intake by fifteen to twenty five percent below the daily
calorie upkeep need is a useful start. A good treatment plan is

11. one that calculates how many calories you burn in a day, your
total daily energy expenditure which is the number of calories
that the body expands in a day including the daily activities and
is also known as the maintenance level. In treatment programs it
is important to know your maintenance level which will be the
reference point of starting your diet.
When it comes to determining the caloric maintenance
level there are many formulas that can be used taking into
account the factors of sex, weight, age, lean body mass and
activity levels. Most formulas that take into account the lean
body mass will give one the most precise determination of one’s
energy expenditure but still without the lean body mass one can
get a reasonable close estimation. Our body does not require a
lot of calories to function but our body will function poorly if
we consume too few calories. The basal metabolism rate is the
amount of energy one needs when resting. Depending on the
physical activities you engage in.
Dietary data collection is meant to provide a representation
of intakes of certain types of food and diet supplements that
will be used to show accurate and reliable nutrient intake
estimation. When collecting data, intake of foods is used to
craft dietary regulation determining the risks that can be
associated with this intake.
Food collection data may be collected at the national,
household and individual level. When collecting food supply
data at the national level, you should provide gross estimate of
the national accessibility of food supplies. National food data
are useful when it comes to evaluating individual devotion to
dietary reference values and also it could be useful to show the
population risk of insufficient nutrients intake.
When it comes to data collection at household level,
information regarding the availability of food can be collected
the data used to compare with different communities,
geographic areas and socioeconomic groups. The data could

12. also be used to track changes in diet in the total population and
also within population subgroups. The data collected do not
provide information on the distribution of foods among
individuals members of a household.
When it comes to collecting data for individuals there are
various ways of assessing dietary intake for individuals.
Individuals can fill food diaries where they enter all the food
and beverages that they have consumed for a specified period of
time. when it comes to nutrient calculation the consumption
amount should be accurate and amounts should be determined
by weight or by estimating their volume. Secondly, data on
individuals can also be collected through food a frequency
questionnaire which consists of planned listing of individual
food grouping. On each food group, one is asked the frequency
of consumption.
Thirdly, individual data can be collected through diet
histories, the meal based diet history is intended to assess
individual food intake. The diet histories consist of detailed
entry of the types of food and beverages consumed at every
eating occasion over a specified period of time. food habit
questionnaire are designed to collect specific or general
information such as individual perception, beliefs, food likes
and dislikes views on supplements etc this information is used
in rapid assessment methods. Different types of diet assessment
methods can be combined to improve accuracy on dietary data.
When it comes to the converting of data to nutrients intake
it requires both a food arrangement database and preferably
computer programs for nutrients calculation. Developing a food
composition database may be very expensive due to the costs of
chemical analysis for the different foods and nutrients.
Therefore the number of calories you burn is the sum of your
basal metabolism rate plus all the calories that are burned in the
activities you engage in.
A healthy rate of losing weight is losing about one to two
pounds every week depending on the amount of fat that one has.
This will correspond to burning around five hundred to one

13. thousand calories a week. If you are trying to lose weight, the
best method is to exercise frequently, adjusting our diets and
get calories from nutritious sources and maintaining a healthy
rate or weight loss. Therefore if you eat more calories than you
burn you going to gain weight and if you burn more calories
than you eat you going to lose weight but if you are eating the
same amount of calories that you burn your weight will not
change.
References
Cassidy, S. B., & Allanson, J. E. (2011). Management of
Genetic Syndromes. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.
Duggan, C., Watkins, J. B., & Walker, W. A. (2008). Nutrition
in pediatrics : basic science, clinical application. Hamilton: BC
Decker.
Duggan, C., Watkins, J. B., & Walker, W. A. (2008). Nutrition
in pediatrics : basic science, clinical application. Hamilton: BC
Decker.
Wadden, T. A., & Stunkard, A. J. (2011). Handbook of obesity
treatment. New York: Guilford Press.