Migraine Case Study: CGRP Role in Pathophysiology & Treatment

Migraine Case Study
Introduction: Migraine is a chronic disorder of the brain with significant morbidity, as well as personal, familial and socioeconomically impact. It
affects about 12 percent of the general population and affects three times more women than men. Migraine disability is related to the severity of attacks
together with the number of attacks and number and type of coexisting morbidities. Migraine is a serious and widespread health problem and is
considered the sixth highest cause of disability worldwide, while medication overuse headaches follow at eighteenth. By adding these two conditions
together, headache becomes the third most common cause of disability worldwide. All migraineurs require acute care treatment, and up to 40 % of
episodic migraineurs could benefit from preventive treatment; but few undertake it. All patients with chronic migraine should... Show more content on
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CGRP is a potent vasodilator neuropeptide with long–lasting effects. The rise in CGRP levels during acute migraine, the fall in levels during effective
treatment of an attack and the ability of CGRP infusion to trigger a migraine in migraineurs alone alludes to the role of CGRP in migraine
neurobiology. CGRP seems integral to the clinical expression of migraine process at several sites and has led to the investigation and development of
anti–CGRP drugs for the treatment of migraine. CGRP as a treatment target in migraine: –The gepants: Six small molecule CGRP receptor antagonists
(Olcegepant, Telcegepant, MK3207,BI44370, BMS–927711) have been developed and five of them have demonstrated clinical efficacy in acute
migraine. –Monoclonal Antibodies:( ALD403, LY2951742, AMG334, LBR
–101) These agents are therapeutically useful as they are specific against
the receptor they are formulated against and have a long half–life which means that they can be used in chronic conditions and disease relapse
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Stress Fracture Research Paper
Good Morning Mz athlete,
You have experienced a stress fracture. Stress fractures are caused by repetitive force and weakened bones due to an condition such as
osteoporosis[1]. Repetitive force on your bone due to running has caused your bone to crack[2]. Your bones may also have been weakened due to a
variety of factors such as lack of calcium or vitamin D[3], lowered calcitriol levels[3], lowered estrogen levels[4], and insufficient resting time[1].
These factors can cause cells in your bones called osteoclasts to reabsorb calcium into blood by releasing hydrochloric acid to dissolve the calcium
phosphate in the bone[3].
Calcium or vitamin D deficiency can lead to weakened bones. Many parts of your body need calcium to function such as ... Show more content on
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It increases the activity of osteoblasts the cells that build bone[3] and decreases the activity of osteoclasts the cells that reabsorb bone[5]. An decrease
in estrogen levels can weaken bones leading to osteoporosis. Postmenopausal women are at a higher risk of developing osteoporosis due in part to this
phoma[6]. Lowered bone density due to decreased estrogen levels may contribute to stress fractures in female athletes
Repetitive force without adequate recovery time can lead to an decrease in bone density[1] Repetitive force stimulates the replacement of bone. The
old bone is absorbed then new bone is formed when at rest[1]. If sufficient time is not left between workouts for new bone to develop the body will
resorb more bone during workouts then it can replace during limited resting times leading to bone fatigue[1]. Bone fatigue combined with repetitive
force can lead to cracks in the bone which can become stress factors like the one you are experiencing[1].
Calcitonin is a hormone produced by the thyroid that regulates the production of bone[3] The parathyroid glands also produce hormones that regulate
the reabsorption of calcium[3]. An imbalance in calcitonin and parathyroid hormones could contribute to weakened

Essay On Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is the disease process by which bone remodeling is altered. This alteration is when old bone is insufficiently replaced by new bone
(Cosman et al, 2014). New bone growth peaks in the early 20's and after this age bone mass is lost faster than generated. The lack of new bone
replaced can lead to fractures and deformed skeletal architecture. This alteration occurs with menopause, increased age, or long term use of
corticosteroids (Cosman et al, 2014) Often the first sign of osteoporosis is a bone fracture and early stages remain undetected (Mayo Clinic[MC],
2017). Other symptoms of osteoporosis are a stooped posture, height loss, pain in the back from a fracture or collapse vertebral body. There are several
risk factors that can lead to osteoporosis. Increase age can cause bone loss and as a person ages it is important to incorporate adequate vitamin D,
calcium, and strength training to prevent osteoporosis (WebMD, 2017). Women are four times more likely to get osteoporosis than men. Men over
50 have a greater risk of osteoporosis. Individuals with a family history of osteoporosis are at an increased risk. Smaller body frames have less bone to
lose and have greater chance of getting ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Diet recommendations should include increase protein intake because protein is a building block of bone tissue. Increased calcium intake is
needing to make bone. After age 50, 1200mg of calcium are needed daily. Vitamin D is need to absorb calcium and may be need to be taken as a
supplement. Maintaining a healthy body is encouraged because being underweight encourages bone loss. Quit smoking to prevent bone loss. More
than two drinks of alcohol per day can decrease bone formation. Prevent falls by wearing low heeled shoes, keep rooms brightly lit, installing grab
bars, removing rugs and tripping hazards, and ensure the patient can get in and out of bed easily (MC,

The Piece On Osteoporosis About Marissa 's Grandmother By...
SUMMARY:
The case at hand is what sounds like a common occurrence in the older generations. The piece on osteoporosis about Marissa's grandmother by Lisa
Rubin highlighted the main concerns and questions of the diagnoses. After Marissa had learned of the new diagnosis for her grandmother after she
visited her doctor with pain in both her hip as well as her wrists, soon following a DEXA (bone density) scan had showed a large amount of bone loss
making her osteoporotic. Lifestyle plays a large role in the on the strength in ones bone density. Marissa is very unfamiliar to this diagnosis with many
questions such as a better understanding of it as well as her own potential to develop osteoporosis as well as prevention.
BACKGROUND:
Osteoporosis is a medical condition in which the bones become brittle from the loss of tissue, generally as a result of specific changes. Risk
factors that take part in the disease are things such as unchangeable risks like sex, age, race, family history and the size of the individual. Other risk
factors include hormone levels and medication as well as dietary factors and life choices. Life choices that play a role are sedentary lifestyle these are
people who spend a lot of time sitting have a higher risk of osteoporosis than do their more–active counterparts, weight–bearing exercise is beneficial
for your bones to ensure the bone remolding cycle ensures them to grow strong (MayoClinic, 2013). Common symptoms that one should take into

The Ailment, Diagnosis, And Treatment Of 72 Year Old...
In the following case study I will discuss the ailment, diagnosis, and treatment of 72 year old Margaret Donavan. In her case she was brought into the
emergency room after suffering from a fall. After the fall she was unable to get herself up but only suffered injury to her right hip. She was also very
alert and responsive at the scene. She had no previous history of any health issues besides hypertension which she was taking medication for.
1.What is it meant by a "complete, comminuted, intertrochanteric fracture of the right hip"?
After being taken care of by physicians Margaret Donavan was diagnosed with a complete, comminuted, intertrochanteric fracture of her right hip. In a
complete fracture, it means that the bone is broken ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When a femur becomes osteoporotic, it is the outer layer of the bone around the epiphyses and diaphysis, which begins to thin. This is the compact
bone. In the distal and proximal epiphyses there would also be a loss of the cancellous bone. This is where the spongy bone is. When a bone is
osteoporotic, a person becomes more susceptible to suffering from a bone fracture. On an x–ray, an osteoporotic femur doesn't look as dense as a
normal femur x–ray. In some of them you can see the larger spaces that are made in the trabeculae of the bone. This is the part that has a spongy
appearance. In a normal femur the spaces in the spongy bone are smaller and dense. In the osteoporotic bone, the spaces are larger, which makes the
bone more fragile. It doesn't have as strong of a structure as a normal bone would.
4.Describe the microscopic features of osseous tissue that normally help long bones withstand lateral stress without breaking.
When lateral stress is placed on the femur there are two different types of impact. The first one causes compression of the bone on the side of the bone
during impact. The second one causes stretching on the opposite side of the bone during impact. When these two actions work together they actually
cancel each other out which takes away the need for compact bone in the middle area of the femur. With this action, the middle area of bone

Functions Of The Endocrine System
Unlike plants, humans require organs and systems to produce hormones. One of the major systems we need is the endocrine system. The endocrine
system is the collection of glands of an organism which secrete hormones directly into the circulatory system, which then distributes the hormones to
specific organs. The main endocrine glands include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands,
pancreas, gonads(testes, ovaries) and thymus. Each have specific operations that they complete which make us function properly. The study dealing
with the endocrine system and its diseases is endocrinology, and many people don't know the endocrine system, like the nervous system is an
information signal ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(TRH) stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release thyroid–stimulating hormone. (GHRH) and (GHIH) work to regulate the release of growth
hormone –– (GHRH) stimulates growth hormone release, (GHIH) inhibits its release. (GnRH) stimulates the release of follicle stimulating hormone
and luteinizing hormone while (CRH) stimulates the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone. The last two hormones–oxytocin and antidiuretic
hormone–are produced by the hypothalamus and transported to the posterior pituitary, where they are stored and later released.
The pituitary gland, also known as the hypophysis, is a small pea–sized lump of tissue connected to the inferior portion of the hypothalamus of the
brain. Many blood vessels surround the pituitary gland to carry the hormones it releases throughout the body. Situated in a small depression in the
sphenoid bone called the sella turcica, the pituitary gland is actually made of 2 completely separate structures: the posterior and anterior pituitary glands.
Posterior Pituitary: The posterior pituitary gland is actually not glandular tissue at all, but nervous tissue instead. The posterior pituitary is a small
extension of the hypothalamus through which the axons of some of the neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus extend. These neurosecretory cells
create 2 hormones in the hypothalamus that are stored and

Calcium Intake Lab Report
Calcium Intake Lab
Calcium is a mineral that is regulated in the blood by the thyroid. According to the Medline Plus website (2018), Calcium is important for balancing a
body's pH, contracting and relaxing muscles, building strong bones, blood clotting, sending and receiving nerve signals, and keeping a normal
heartbeat (Medline Plus, 2018). When our diets lack in calcium, our body has to work twice as hard and takes from calcium stores in our bones. As
stated in option three, a food journal was kept to keep track of my calcium intake for two days and compared to a USDA website. These are my findings.
The diet was not varied too much, but it was also a time right before groceries were bought so there was some junk food binge eating. On the ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Edward Group (2015, para. 3–10), Calcium Orotate is the most effective form of a calcium supplement and is great for supporting calcium levels.
Other forms of calcium are calcium carbonate, calcium citrate, oyster shell calcium, calcium gluconate, calcium lactate, calcium phosphate, and
calcium citrate malate, (Group, 2015, para 3–10). This means that there are several different kinds of calcium supplements but they are all not created
equal. Some calcium supplements are more bioavailably effective than others. Other calcium supplements should be avoided. "Calcium carbonate is
not high in bioavaility and requires the production of extra stomach acid to be absorbed. It is also one of the cheapest and most prevalent forms of
calcium supplements sold today", (Group, 2015, para. 3).
In conclusion, having an adequate intake of calcium in important for many functions of the body. Keeping a journal of daily food intake can help a
person to be aware of missing nutrients that are important for proper functioning of the body. If a person is low on their calcium intake then eating or
drinking foods with dairy will allow a person to increase their calcium, because dairy has the best bioavailability. However, lactose intolerant people
may need to take a calcium supplement in order to get adequate amounts of calcium.

Osteoporosis and Bone
Dorothy Nicoll
A & P 171
Izy Grooms
Osmosis: Marissa, Jeremy, and Eleanor
Question on front of packet
Calcium helps to keep bones strong but just drinking milk doesn't mean that you won't get osteoporosis. You may be genetically inclined to get it even
though you drink milk every day. There are also many other things that contribute to getting osteoporosis, like not eating enough calcium, doing steroids
causes bones to become weak and look like sponges when looking at it under a microscope. Scenarios A,B, and C help to explain that it's not just the
calcium that can cause osteoporosis
Scenario A:
1. The skeleton is a metabolically active organ that undergoes continuous remodeling throughout life. Bone remodeling involves the removal ... Show
Scenario B:
1. It is essential for muscle contraction, but also essential to the structure and health of bones. Bones are continually remodeling and reforming and
calcium is a vital part of this process. Without calcium bones can become very thin. Bones are structured to provide strength, protection, and
movement. In addition the structure allows the bones to serve as a reservoir for several minerals including calcium because calcium can quickly move
between the bone and the blood.
2. Foods high in calcium consist of spinach, kale, okra, collards, soybeans, white beans, some fish (such as sardines, salmon, perch, and rainbow trout),
some orange juice, oatmeal and breakfast cereal.
3. Vitamin D promotes calcium absorption in the gut and maintains serum calcium and phosphate concentrations to enable normal mineralization of
bone and to prevent hypocalcemia tetany. It is also needed for bone growth and bone remodeling by osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Without significant
vitamin D bones can become brittle, thin, or misshapen. Vitamin D sufficiency rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults. Together with calcium
and vitamin D also helps protect older adults form osteoporosis.
4. Men and women have different allowances such as men : 19–50 1,000mg 51–71 1,000mg 71– older 1,200mg
Women
19–50 1,000mg 51–older 1,200mg
And there are also supplements Calcium carbonate (40% of elemental calcium) Calcium citrate (21% elemental

Bone Remodeling Essay
Bone remodeling is required to repair old the bone and to prevent the aging effects and its consequences. This process requires balance between bone
formation and bone resorption and direct communication among different bone cells. Cells of the osteoblast lineage (osteoblasts, osteocytes) and
bone–resorbing cells (osteoclasts), together with their precursor cells, are organized in specialized units called bone/basic multicellular units (BMU)
(145). We have already detailed the origin of osteoblasts, responsible for bone matrix synthesis and its subsequent mineralization, and
osteoblasts–derived osteocytes. On the other hand osteoclasts are large, multinucleated giant cells formed from the fusion of mononuclear progenitors
of the monocyte/macrophage ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Along with IGF–I, PTH induces Receptor Activator of Nuclear factor ОєB Ligand (RANKL) and Macrophage Colony–Stimulating Factor (MCSF)
from mature osteoblasts to promote osteoclastogenesis (150). PTH elevates cAMP levels and inhibits Mef2–stimulated Sost promoter activity in
osteocytes, leading to decreased expression of sclerostin and an elevated bone formation rate (151). Vitamin D3 stimulates osteoblastogenesis via
differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells to osteoblasts (152). Calcitonin suppresses bone resorption by inhibiting the activity of osteoclasts (153).
Estrogen inhibits bone resorption by directly inducing apoptosis of the bone–resorbing osteoclasts (154). Androgens can also indirectly inhibit
osteoclast activity and bone resorption via effects on osteoblasts/osteocytes and the RANKL/RANK/OPG (OPG: Osteoprotegerin) system (155, 156).
In addition to systemic hormonal regulation, it is known that growth factors such as Insuline Growth Factors (IGFs), TGF–ОІ, FGFs, Epidermal
growth factor (EGF), WNTs, and BMPs play significant roles in regulation of physiological bone remodeling

Osteoarthritis Research Paper
DiseaseOsteoporosisOsteomalaciaRheumatoid arthritisGoutOsteoarthritis
PathophysiologyA metabolic bone disorder in which a reduction in bone mass and density can combine with the loss of bone matrix and
mineralization. During the bone remodeling process, bone resorption exceeds bone formation which leads to thin, breakable bones that may fracture
easily.A disease from a deficiency ofvitamin D and phosphates. An autoimmune disorder causing chronic systemic inflammatory disease. The disease
often starts with symmetric involvement of the small joints such as the fingers, followed by inflammation and destruction of additional jointsThe
articular cartilage, o is damaged and lost through structural fissures and erosion resulting from extreme

Pulmonary Drug Delivery of Peptides and Proteins
Pulmonary drug delivery of peptides and proteins is highly desirable because of many advantages such as rapid and predictable onset of action, high
relative bioavailability and non–invasive mode of administration which improves patient compliance. In the current study the effect of sugar carrier
type (trehalose as non–reducing and maltose as reducing sugar), hydroxy propyl–ОІ–cyclodextrin concentration (0%, 0.02% and 0.04%) and adding
tween 80 as surfactant on physicochemical stability and aerosol performance of spray freeze dried salmon calcitonin was investigated.
High–performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis indicated that cyclodextrin concentration had the most important effect on powder's
chemical stability and by increasing the concentration of cyclodextrin stability of the formulations increase dramatically. Based on the chemical
stability data four formulations (chemical stability over than 90% ) was selected for further examinations. Fluorescence spectroscopy and circular
dichroism data suggest that these chemically stable formulations are structurally stable too. Aerosol performance data shows that surfactant–free
formulations produce higher fine particle fraction (approximately 70%) than surfactant containing formulations (approximately 50%). It may be due to
the more cohesive structure of surfactant containing formulations.
KEY WORDS: salmon calcitonin, inhalation, spray freeze drying, hydroxypropyl–ОІ–cyclodextrin, surfactant, stability, INTRODUCTION

Why Is Osteoporosis Important
Calcium and Osteoporosis
Calcium is the most plentiful mineral found in the human body. The teeth and bones contain the most calcium. Nerve cells, body tissues, blood, and
other body fluids contain the rest of the calcium. Calcium is one of the most important minerals for the human body. It helps form and maintain healthy
teeth and bones. A proper level ofcalcium in the body over a lifetime can help prevent osteoporosis.
Osteoporosis means "porous bone." If viewed under a microscope, healthy bone will look like a honeycomb. When osteoporosis occurs, the holes and
gaps in the honeycomb are bigger, and larger than in healthy bone. Osteoporotic bones have lost density or mass and contain abnormal tissue
structure. As bones become less dense, they weaken and are more likely to break. In very serious cases the bones could break from sneezing or minor
bumps. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
We all know that milk is a great source of calcium, but you may be impressed by all the different foods you can eat to reach your daily recommended
amount of calcium. Some foods that are high is calcium, are Collard greens, Oranges, Sardines, canned with bones, Salmon, canned with bones, and
Shrimp. These are only some of the food you could eat to increase your calcium.
When you are eating your smoked salmon with a side of collard greens be careful that you don't overdo your calcium intake. If you have to munch
calcium in your body you could end up with Hypercalcemia. The condition Hypercalcemia makes it hard for the body to carry out its normal functions,
but extremely high levels of calcium can be life–threatening. Some symptoms of hypercalcemia Headaches, excessive thirst, vomiting, and even
abnormal heart beats. These are only some symptoms that could happen the list goes on but I didn't feel like typing them

Homeostasis: A Negative Feedback System
Webster's dictionary defines homeostasis as "The tendency of an organism to maintain a uniform and beneficial physiological stability within and
between its parts; organic equilibrium. Homeostasis is the condition in which our body's internal environment remains relatively constant. They are
controlled by the nervous system and endocrine system. The nervous system detects imbalance and sends messages via nerve impulses to the organs
that can correct the imbalance. Such as the raise or lowering of our body temperature. The endocrine system corrects imbalances by secreting hormones
into the bloodstream.
A negative feedback system is the process in which part of the output of a system is returned to regulate further output. A negative feedback... Show
Calcium is an essential mineral in our body needed for the maintenance of strong bones and teeth. Calcium also helps other parts of our body such as
regulating muscle contractions, including our heartbeat. Making sure our blood clots properly and sending/receiving nerve signals. The normal range
of calcium in our blood ranges from 8.5 to 10.2 mg/dL. Some of the consequences for having decreased calcium levels in our blood include:
confusion/memory loss, muscle spasms, numbness in parts of our body and depression. It can also cause seizures in some severe cases.
The parathyroid glands are responsible for maintaining the calcium levels in our body. When our blood calcium levels are low the parathyroid gland
releases the parathyroid hormone (PTH) which regulates our blood calcium levels. These calcium levels must be maintained between the narrow
range for our body to function properly. Two hormones in our body work together (the parathyroid hormone and calcitonin) to ensure our body
maintains the right level of calcium. The parathyroid hormone as previously mentioned releases calcium from our bones into the blood when our
levels are low. Whereas Calcitonin slows down the release of calcium into the blood when our levels are too high. This way our body remains

Case Study Osteoporosis
Case Study 1. What is meant by a "complete, comminuted, intertrochanteric fracture of the right hip"? A. Complete – refers to a fracture completely
through the bone: B. Comminuted – refers to a fracture in which the broken bone has shattered into several smaller pieces: C. Intertrochanteric – refers
to a fracture located between the greater trochanter and lesser trochanter of the femur: 2. Draw a picture of what you think Margaret's fracture looks
like. 3. The radiologist reported signs of osteoporosis. Describe the characteristics of an osteoporotic femur as seen on an X–ray. (How does it differ in
appearance from a normal femur?) Osteoporosis is marked by a decreased bone volume. Loss of spongy ("cancellous") bone is greater than... Show
cartilage–forming cells) and lay down a fibrocartilage splint (i.e. soft tissue callus)| C. bony callus(starting 3 to 4 weeksafter the injury)| – osteoblasts
begin to replace the fibrocartilage splint with spongy and compact bone, forming a bulge that is initially wider than the original bony shaft| D. bone
remodeling| – as the patient starts to use (or bear weight on) the bone, the bone starts to remodel along lines of maximal stress (this remodeling
process requires the activity of both osteoblasts and osteoclasts| 7. During her long recovery, Margaret is advised by her physician to begin
weight–bearing as soon as she can. How does weight–bearing influence the process you described in question #6? (Be specific in your answer and
describe what weight–bearing does to bone at the microscopic level.) The most popular hypothesis regarding the effect of weight–bearing on bone
remodeling is called Wolff's law . Wolff's law states that bone grows and remodels in response to the mechanical stresses placed upon it (e.g. from
muscle pull or gravitational pull). Thus, bone is laid down along lines of maximal stress. This is presumably why: A. long bones are the thickest
midway down the diaphysis, where the stresses are the greatest. B. curved bones are the thickest where they are most likely to buckle (e.g. note the
thick greater

Explain The Three Mechanisms Of Action Of Calcitriol...
1. Describe the pathway of calcitriol formation.
Calcitriol is form when epidermal cells called keratinocytes use UV radiation from the sun to convert a steroid 7–dehydrocholesterol to previtamin D3.
Then over the course of 3 days, the warmth of the sunlight on the skin converts previtamin D3 to vitamin D3. Vitamin D3 binds to a transport protein
that carries it in the bloodstream. The vitamin D3 moves to the liver and the liver add a hydroxyl group to the 25th carbon of the molecule and coverts
the vitamin D3 to calcidiol. The calcidiol moves to the kidneys through the bloodstream and another hydroxyl group is added to the first carbon thus
converting calcidiol to calcitriol.
2. Describe the three mechanisms of action of calcitriol.
One of the mechanisms of action calcitriol uses to increase calcium and phosphorus absorption is by increasing the adsorption by the small intestine. It
also increases the calcium and phosphorus released from the bones and does this by binding to osteoclasts. The osteoclasts release a chemical
messenger called osteoclast stimulating factor. This causes precursor cells to change into osteoclasts and the osteoclasts break down thebone, thus
releasing calcium and phosphorus into the blood. Lastly, it also promotes reabsorption of calcium ions by the kidneys and less calcium is excreted in
the urine.
3. Where is calcitonin produced? Describe how calcitonin lowers blood calcium levels.
Calcitonin is a hormone secreted by C cells of the thyroid

Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide ( CGRP )
Calcitonin Gene–Related Peptide (CGRP) Introduction: CGRP belongs to calcitonin family of peptides which are of two types, О±–CGRP
(extensively studied) and ОІ–CGRP. Alfa–CGRP is a 37–amino acid peptide that is produced from alternative splicing (1) of CGRP gene located on
chromosome number 11. Beta–CGRP changes in 3 amino acids and encoded by a separate gene.(2) Synthesis: There are two forms of CGRP found,
one is alfa CGRP and other is beta CGRP. Alfa CGRP contrast only by 3 amino acids but share related homology. (3,4,5 ) Alfa CGRP is the main
form and is present in the CNS and PNS while Beta CGRP is mainly present in enteric nervous system.(6,7) They are synthesizes from genes at
different location on chromosome number 11. (8) The CALC1... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(16) CGRP binding to CLR is brought about by RAMP 1 that is a small single transmembrane protein. (17–19) Binding of CGRP to its receptor results
in increase level of cyclic AMP. (4, 16) Regulation Mitogen activated protein kinases signaling pathway [MAPK] (20), cytokines (e.g. TNF
–alfa) (21)
and inducible nitric oxide synthase ( iNOS)(22) control the regulation of calcitonin gene–related peptide. CGRP Release вћў In TMJ disorder,
migraine, cardiac failure, hypertension and sepsis CGRP levels were found to be increased. вћў Norepinephrine causes release of CGRP. вћў Ankyrin
1 (TRPA1 ) releases CGRP вћў CGRP level increases in pregnant woman. вћў High levels of CGRP found in postmenopausal women.. вћў In
medullary thyroid carcinoma flushing episodes, may be result from high CGRP levels. вћў During kidney dialysis CGRP concentration may increases.
вћў Increased amount of CGRP released at night CGRP has role in circadian rhythm. вћў Administration of the angiotensin 2 to normotensive humans
may result in dose–dependent increase in plasma CGRP levels, in parallel with a high blood pressure induced by Angiotensin 2. вћў During exercise
CGRP levels may increase. вћў Sumatriptan, increase intracellular calcium, which cause decreases in CGRP promoter activity. вћў Botulinum toxin
type A decreases CGRP release вћў Telcagepant (Receptor blocker) reduces the effects of CGRP SITES OF CGRP PRODUCTION: вћў Trigeminal

Osteoporosis Research Paper
Louisiana Pharmacists Association Educates Patients on Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a disease of the bone that makes a person's bones weak and more likely to break. It is often known as a silent disease because you
can't feel your bones getting weaker. About 10 million Americans haveosteoporosis and another 44 million have low bone density, placing them at
increased risk. Studies suggest that approximately one in two women and up to one in four men age 50 and older will break a bone due to
osteoporosis. A woman's risk of fracture is equal o her combined risk of breast, uterine, and ovarian cancer. A man is more likely to break a bone due to
osteoporosis than he is to get prostate cancer. If you're age 50 or older and have broken a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In some cases, you may even be able to improve bone density and reverse the disorder to some degree. Getting enough calcium and vitamin D are
essential to bone health. There are also medications available to reduce the risk of broken bones. There are two categories or osteoporosis medications:
antiresorptive medications that slow bone loss and anabolic drugs that increase the rate of bone formation.
Antiresorptive medications include bisphosphonates, calcitonin, denosumab, estrogen and estrogen agonists/antagonists. They slow the bone loss
that occurs in the breakdown part of the remodeling cycle. When people first start taking these medicines, they stop losing bone as quickly as
before, but still make new bone at the same place. Therefore, bone density may increase. The goal of treatment with antiresorptive medicines is to
prevent bone loss and lower the risk of breaking bones. There is only one anabolic drug to rebuild bone that is approved by the FDA. Teriparatide, a
form of parathyroid hormone, increases the rate of bone formation. The goal of treatment with teriparatide is to build bone and lower the risk of
breaking

Procalcitonin
Procalcitonin, a 116–amino acids peptide, was firstly reported in the literature by Moya et al. in 1975 who reported the existence of a biosynthetic
precursor of calcitonin in ultimobranchial glands of chicken, the equivalent of thyroid gland in mammals.(1) Procalcitonin is encoded by the CALCA
gene (calcitonin–related polypeptide alpha; Gene ID: 796) which is located in the short arm of chromosome 11 in the 11p15.2 locus. At physiological
state, the expression of CALCA is restricted to thyroid C cells and neuroendocrine pulmonary cells and leads to pre–procalcitonin.(2) Pre–procalcitonin
has a peptide sequence of 141 amino acids and the first 25 N–aminoacids are cleaved in endoplasmic reticulum, leading to procalcitonin.(2)
In healthy individuals, a very low blood concentration of procalcitonin, usually less than 0.1 ng/mL, is observed.(3) In 1993, Assicot et al. showed that
the serum concentration of procalcitonin was correlated with the severity of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer in men (746,000 cases) and the second in women (614,000 cases) worldwide.(12) Sporadic
colorectal cancers, with mutation of APC, activating mutations of KRAS and inactivating mutations of TP53 account for 95% of all colorectal cancers
and are associated with several risks factors including western lifestyle, high consummation of red or processed meat, excess body mass index, low
physical activity, and smoking.(13) In a large population–based study, a strong association between plasma procalcitonin concentrations and the risk of
both all–cause and cancer mortality was found.(14) The authors suggested that procalcitonin might reflect the chronic inflammatory status underlying
tumor initiation and progression.(15, 16) From a mechanistic point of view, procalcitonin could be linked with colorectal cancer through several
mechanisms (Figure 1): 1) proinflammatory cytokines; 2) reactive oxygen species (ROS); 3) Wnt canonical pathway; and 4) alteration in DNA

broken hip with answer 4
Chief Complaint: 72–year–old woman who fell on her right hip.
History: Margaret Donovan, a 72–year–old white female, was brought to the emergency room by her son–in–law after falling in her bathtub. She was
previously in good health, despite leading a relatively sedentary lifestyle and having a 30–pack–year history of cigarette smoking. The only medication
she currently takes is Inderal (propranolol) for mild hypertension. She fell upon entering the bathtub when her right leg slipped out from under her;
she landed on her right hip. There was no trauma to her head, nor does she complain of right or left wrist pain. However, she reports severe pain in the
right hip and upper thigh, and was unable to get up after her fall. An injection ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Given the above considerations, Margaret's osteoporotic femurs are vulnerable to fracture because of (A) the loss of spongy bone in the epiphyses and
(B) the thinning of the bony collar in the diaphysis.
6. Describe the changes that a broken bone undergoes as it is healing. The bony collar of long bones helps them withstand compressive stress by the
mechanism described in #4A above (i.e. hydroxyapatite, weight–bearing pillars). In addition, long bones also withstand compressive forces by virtue of
the spongy ("cancellous") bone in the epiphyses. The interlocking network of bony plates (called "trabeculae") found in spongy bone help to distribute
the weight of the body out to the tough bony collar of the diaphysis. In this way, bony plates act much like the trusses or struts in old–time railroad
bridges which distribute the weight of the train evenly over the entire bridge.
7. During her long recovery, Margaret is advised by her physician to begin weight–bearing as soon as she can. How does weight–bearing influence the
process you described in question #6? (Be specific in your answer and describe what weight–bearing does to bone at the microscopic level.) The most
popular hypothesis regarding the effect of weight–bearing on bone remodeling is called Wolff's law . Wolff's law states that bone grows and remodels
in response to the mechanical stresses placed upon it (e.g. from muscle pull or gravitational

Paget's Disease
Osteitis deformans or as we all know it as Paget's disease, was first described in the year 1876 by an English surgeon named Sir James Paget. This
disease results in enlarged or deformed bones due to excessive breakdown and formation of bone tissue (ReumatologГa ClГnica). Since there is a
disturbance in the bone remodeling stage, the bones may look enlarged but it is brittle, softer, and weaker which leads to fractures and deformities
(MedicineNet). This disease is a chronic bone disorder, which means that it is long term and cannot be prevented or cured by medications. Also, this
disease is mostly asymptomatic meaning it does not produce or show any symptoms, which is quite terrifying. It is mostly detected when patients get
an x–ray for something else. This is most commonly located in the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Another treatment is calcitonin as a nasal spray or injection, which is involved in bone metabolism. Another treatment is bisphosphonates, which
help control bone remodeling and resorption. Bisphosphonates were founded in the year 1970 and is now the preferred treatment because of its
better efficacy and safety profile compared to the use of calcitonin (Mayo Clinic). Researchers say that Paget's disease occurs in three different
phases. The first phase is called the lytic stage. During this phase, the rate of bone turnover is increased as to twenty times the normal rate. The
second stage is called the mixed phase. In this phase, the osteoblasts increase because it is trying to keep up with the bone resorption by making
new bone. As these two phases (osteoclasts and osteoblasts) repeat, a high degree of bone turnover happens. The final phase of Paget's disease is
called the sclerotic phase. During this stage, the bone formations over rule the bone resorption causing the bone to look abnormally larger and
deformed. Even though the bone appears to look larger, the bone is weaker because the way of laying down the bone is in a disorganized pattern
making it less dense

Endocrine System
What does the Endocrine System do for my body? Among the Endocrine system is seven glands that secretes a specific hormone throughout the body
for its regularity. WIth that being said the hypothalamus, in the brain, is in charge of theses secretions through the pituitary gland or hypophysis. The
pituitary gland consists of the anterior portion and the posterior portion. Both of these portions have different functions and secretions of hormones. In
the posterior part of the pituitary, the hormones secreted are oxytocin and the antidiuretic hormone. Oxytocin is responsible for the contractions during
delivery of a newborn and also produces the breast milk needed for the newborn. The anterior portion, on the other hand, has quite a few different
hormones that are secreted to the body such as, the thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle stimulating...
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Then there is the Pineal gland, or the "sleepy" gland. It produces melatonin which helps in sleep cycles. The thyroid gland releases 3 different
hormones that are beneficial to the body. These hormones are calcitonin, triiodothyronine, and thyroxine. Triiodothyronine and thyroxine cooperate in
regulating the body's metabolic rate. Whereas, Calcitonin works to absorb calcium in the blood and sends it to the bone matrix. The parathyroid gland
is actually located at each corner of the thyroid gland. This gland produces the parathyroid hormone and it regulates the calcium levels in the blood and
in the bones. Now, the adrenal glands consist of two separate parts that sit on top of the kidneys, the medulla and cortex. The medulla portion produces
the hormones, epinephrine and norepinephrine. These hormones are how the body reacts in a stressful situation. The cortex is the secondary part of
the adrenal glands and its function mainly regulates blood pressure and blood sugar levels by breaking down the proteins to produce glucose.

Medullary Thyroid Cancer Essay
Medullary thyroid cancer is 3% to 4% of all thyroid cancers. These tumors usually present in the form of mass in the neck or thyroid associated with
lymphadenopathy and they may be diagnosed through screening family members. MTC can be diagnosed by fine–needle aspiration biopsy method.
Cytology reveals hyper cellular tumors with spindle–shaped cells and poor adhesion. Medullary carcinoma of the thyroid is cancer of the thyroid gland
that starts in cells and releases a hormone known as calcitonin. These cells are also known as "C" cells. The thyroid gland is located inside the front of
the lower neck. The cause of medullary carcinoma of the thyroid is unfamiliar. Surgery is required for treatment to remove the thyroid gland and
surrounding lymph nodes. As this is an unknown tumor,... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The doctor can tell more about these if it is required .Medullary thyroid cancer is the third most common type of thyroid cancer. The common
medullary thyroid cancer symptoms and treatments as well as medullary thyroid cancer diagnosis and prognosis can be discussed. Characteristics of
Medullary Thyroid Cancer: Occurs in 4 clinical settings associated with other endocrine tumors, it is more common in females than males, Regional
metastases which spread to neck lymph nodes occurs early in the disease, Spread to distant organs (metastasis) which occurs late and can be to the
liver, bone, brain, and adrenal medulla, it is not related with radiation exposure, and mostly originates in the upper central lobe of the thyroid, Poor
prognostic factors include mean older than 50 years old, distant spread (metastases), and due to MEN II–B syndrome seen in patients with other
endocrine tumors, other residual disease or recurrence can be detected by measuring calcitonin. Medullary carcinoma of the thyroid (MTC) is a
distinct thyroid carcinoma that originates in the Para follicular C cells of the thyroid gland. These C cells produce

Spinal Canal Stenosis Case Study
Background: one of the most common causes of low back pain and disability is Spinal canal stenosis . Its management varies from surgical to
conservative, and the indications for ideal management are not clearly determined.
Objectives: This study was convoyed to evaluate the effect of mixing calcitonin to local anesthetic and corticosteroid in epidural injection for patients
complaning from degenerative lumbar spinal canal stenosis.
Study Design: Randomized double–blind clinical trial.
Setting: Hospital outpatient clinic setting.
way of study: One hundred thirty–two patients with degenerative stenosis of spinal canal were randomly allocated into 2 groups. Group I received
under C–arm epidural injection ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These beneficial effects continued in calcitonin group for one year.
Limitations: The present study patients would be graded as having mild or at worst moderate stenosis. So, the present study did not examine the
efficacy of epidural calcitonin in severe spinal canal stenosis and did not stratify the results according to degree of stenosis which would also have
been useful in determining the validity of calcitonin in different degrees of stenosis. Conclusion: mixing calcitonin to epidural local anesthetic and
steroid injection looks to be more effective than epidural steroid and local anesthesia alone in treatment of spinal canal stenosis regarding better
Oswestry scale increased, walking distance and decreased pain intensity and feeling of paresthesia, and less analgesic use, all the above mentioned
benefits continued to up one year. So, epidural calcitonin is considered as a new modalitity therapeutic way in the management of pain in spinal canal

Hyperthyroidism Research Paper
The thyroid gland is an organ located in the neck on either side of the trachea. It secrets thyroxine, triiodothyronine, and calcitonin. It releases hormones
that control your metabolism, breathing, heart rate, nervous system, weight, body temperature, and many other functions in the body. Hyperthyroidism
is a condition in which the thyroid gland is overactive and the body's processes speed up and you may experience anxiety, nervousness, hand tremor,
rapid heartbeat, excessive sweating, weight loss, and sleep problems. Hyperthyroidism has a number of causes. The most common cause is the
autoimmune disorder Grave's disease. Grave's disease runs in families and is more common in women. Hyperthyroidism can also be caused by lumps
or nodules

Homeostatic Controls Essay
Homeostatic Controls Essay Monday morning, tired as ever, I roll over and look at my clock to my surprise it's 8:00am. In that instant my first
reaction is you hurry. I stand up and go to my closet, hitting my big toe on the side of my bed and causing a lot pain. I scraped off the top layer of
my skin which is called the epidermis. I instantly felt pain in my big toe thanks to the cutaneous receptors. (1) The receptor sent a message to my
brain telling me that I should probably keep my toes away from the corner of my bed because that will cause pain. In the hurry to leave my house I
didn't have time to go to the bathroom. So by the time I got to school and into my class my stretch receptors were telling me it was about that time
to go and take a leak. I ask Mr. Butler if I could use the restroom and to my astonishment he said "No!". As I sit there in his class becoming nervous if
I can hold it until the end of class. I start sweating uncontrollably. My temperature had risen from the rise of nervousness. My hypothalamus of my
brain had noticed my temperature increasing and activated my negative feedback mechanism in order to maintain the good 'ol body temperature of
98.6ВєF (what goes up, must come down (and vice versa)). My body starts fighting back by dilating blood vessels to give off heat by sweating. (2) To
my relief the bell rang for next class, I wait in line to use the restroom. As I get to my stall I drop my pants and to make this day greater

Bone Growth Research Paper
The process of bone development and bone growth, as well as maintaining healthy bones, is dependent upon several hormones produced in the body.
The hormone Calcitriol, which is produced in the kidneys, plays a key role in the absorption of calcium and phosphate ions within the digestive
system. The pituitary gland is responsible for the Growth hormone. It causes the building up of the bones, producing bone growth. The development of
the hormone Thyroxine comes from the thyroid gland. Thyroxine prompts the cells metabolism and it increases the activity of bone growth. Together
the Growth hormone and Thyroxine help maintain the normal growth of bones at the epiphyseal plate until the time of puberty. Upon reaching puberty
there is a significant rise in the Sex hormones, estrogen and androgen. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Estrogen and Androgen production at this particular time cause a huge increase in bone production, triggered by the osteoblasts building up the bones.
On average, men are typically larger and taller than women. The epiphyseal plate in women will form faster because of the Estrogen causes a woman
to stop growing sooner than a man. Another important hormone is Calcitonin that supplied from the thyroid gland. It aids the kidneys in slowing down
the release of calcium in the bloodstream. In contrast to Calcitonin, the parathyroid glands produce the Parathyroid hormone which promotes the
increase of calcium in the bloodstream. Actively working together the Parathyroid hormone and Calcitonin foster a homeostatic balance of the calcium
and phosphate levels that are present in the skeletal

Increase Blood Calcium Levels
When blood calcium levels drop below normal, the body, in order to maintain its homeostatic calcium level, responds in various ways to increase
those levels again. The body does this with the help of three hormones. The first one, PTH or parathyroid hormone, is secreted by the parathyroid
gland. The only function of the parathyroid gland is to keep calcium within a certain range in the blood. The parathyroid gland consists of 4 tiny
glands that are attached to the thyroid gland located in the neck. When blood calcium levels drop, the parathyroid gland, which has receptors that
sense that drop, produces PTH in the chief cells and releases it into the blood. PTH then travels to bone and the kidneys. In bone, PTH binds to
receptors on osteoclasts and causes them to release... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is derived from cholesterol, which in the skin is converted to 7–Dehydrocholesterol. Once the skin is exposed to the sun, 7–dehydrocholesterol is
further converted to cholecalciferol. This is an inactive form of vitamin D, which circulates to the liver for its first activation. Once there, the enzyme
25 hydroxylase attaches a hydroxyl group (OH) to the 25th carbon on the molecule and now it becomes 25–cholecalciferol. Once it leaves the liver,
25–cholecalciferol goes to the kidneys. When blood calcium levels are low, PTH activates another enzyme in the kidneys called 1 hydroxylase. This
enzyme adds another hydroxyl group (OH) to the 1st carbon of 25–hydroxycalciferol that becomes the activated form of vitamin D known as
1,25–dihydroxycalciferol or calcitriol. The action of calcitriol is twofold. First, it decreases the kidney's excretion of calcium. Second, it increases the
reabsorption of calcium from the renal tubules. This in turn increases the amount of calcium in the blood. Calcitriol also plays another role in
maintaining calcium. Like PTH, it stimulates the intestines to absorb more calcium from

Characterizing Amylin and Salmon Calcitonin Receptors in...
Background Amylin and Salmon Calcitonin belong to the calcitonin family of peptides and have high affinity binding sites in the rat spinal cord. The
aim of this study was to functionally characterize receptors for Amylin and Salmon Calcitonin in the spinal cord of rats. We assessed the expression of
c–fos in response to intraplantar formalin in the lumbar regions of spinal cord in conscious rats.
Methods:
Amylin (0.05nmoles) or Salmon Calcitonin (0.005nmoles) were administrated intrathecally) 10 min before the start of formalin test. Antagonists were
injected intrathecally 10min before the administration of either of the peptides.
Results:
Two hours after formalin stimulation, rats pretreated intrathecally by either Amylin or Salmon Calcitonin showed lower numbers of c–Fos
immunoreactive nuclei in their lumbar spinal cord as compared to rats pretreated by saline. These effects were reversed upon co–administration of
either of the Amylin antagonists AC187 or rat amylin8–37, but not rat О±–CGRP8–37. Few cells with c–Fos immunreactivity were found in the lumbar
spinal cord of rats two hours after i.t. injection of saline, Amylin and/or Salmon Calcitonin. However, Fos like immunoreactivity was increased in the
lumbar spinal cord two hours after i.t. treatment of either of the antagonists AC187 and rat amylin8–37when compared to saline treated rats.
Conclusion:
Both Amylin and Salmon Calcitonin inhibit formalin induced c–Fos expression in the rat lumbar spinal cord when

Losing Bone Is Common Of The Ageing Process
Losing bone is common of the ageing process, but for some individuals it can lead to osteoporosis and a multiplied risk of fractures. Osteoporosis
("porous bone"), is a disease that intensifies the loss of bone mass and strength. It often advances without any symptoms or pain. Thus, osteoporosis is
not detected until weakened bones cause painful fractures typically in the back or hips. These brittle fractures result in serious morbidity and may have
lasting effects through associated depression, disability, and lower health–related quality of life. For example, two thirds of patients who suffer a hip
fracture never regain the level of function they had before the fracture. Approximately 20% of hip fracture patients die within a year of the fracture,
and were listed as the cause of death on 12,661 death certificates in 1999 Nine out of one hundred women with a hip fracture will die as a result of the
fracture. Fractures resulting from osteoporosis can lead to pain, decrease in height, inability to stand, and inability to walk. There are roughly 10
million people with osteoporosis, women are 80% of the sufferers. After the first few years of menopause, women experience bone loss rapidly.
Although, this disease also affects men, they usually have stronger, bulkier bones and do not lose their mass as naturally. In addition, men who actually
have from osteoporosis, often get it later in life than women, and at drastically lower rates.
Bones are dense and

The Function Of The Thyroid Gland
Hypothyroidism occurs when there is deficient thyroid hormone secretion by the thyroid gland. It is also referred to as an underactive thyroid. This
paper will discuss the function of the thyroid gland, as well as the causes, classification, risk factors, clinical features, laboratory values, diagnostic
imaging, and treatment of hypothyroidism.
The thyroid gland is located anteriorly in the lower neck, just inferior to the laryngeal prominence, which is also referred to as the Adam's apple. It
extends from the fifth cervical vertebra to the first thoracic vertebra. The gland varies in shape, ranging from an 'H' shape to a 'U' shape. It is formed
by two extended lateral lobes connected by a median isthmus.
The thyroid is an endocrine gland which functions to regulate metabolism in the body. Three hormones are produced: triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine
(T4), and calcitonin. T3 and T4 increase the basal metabolic rate in the body. These hormones also affect brain development, body temperature,
breathing, cholesterol levels, heart and nervous system functions, menstrual cycles, muscle strength, skin dryness, and weight (National Endocrine and
Metabolic Diseases Information Service, 2013). Calcitonin maintains calcium levels in the blood.
Thyroid hormones are produced by iodine metabolism. The thyroid–stimulating hormone (TSH) is produced by the pituitary gland and releases thyroid
hormones into the bloodstream when necessary. TSH is regulated by the

Bones Brittle Causes
It makes bones brittle and makes them more likely to break. It occurs when bones loses minerals like calcium, faster than they create it. Also when the
body doesn't have enough vitamin D because we need it to absorb calcium. It makes the bones much thinner and more hollow inside the bones which
makes them weaker.
В§ Not doing weight bearing activities and cause the bones to become weak and brittle. Also when running outside get vitamin D and helps absorb
calcium.
Drinking lots of alcohol – reduces calcium. Increases parathyroid hormone which reduces calcium.
Anorexia – Because no eating reduces things like calcium. Affects hormones like estrogen that controls bone health.
Cigarettes – Nicotine is toxic to bone cells. Interferes with calcium

The Physiological Effects And Prognosis Of Primary...
The Physiological Effects and Prognosis of Primary Hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) in Pregnant Women
According to Wenig (2008), primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) is characterised by increased concentrations of parathyroid hormone (PHT),
causing calcium levels in the blood to rapidly increase. Leppert and Howard (1997) state that PHPT rarely occurs in pregnant women, presenting 8
per 100,000 cases a year. Despite this, the condition can lead to severe pre–natal and post–natal complications (Leppert and Howard, 1997), such as:
the development of hypoparathyroidism in the foetus, hypercalcaemia and the formation of kidney stones (Belfort, 2010).
The aim of this report is to accurately examine these physiological effects and surgical treatments associated with primary hyperparathyroidism in
pregnant women. In order to undertake this, carefully selected journal articles, specialist textbooks and academic literature will be employed and
utilised.
The Parathyroid Glands and Primary Hyperparathyroidism
Located within the neck, the four parathyroid glands are positioned in the posterior side of the thyroid gland, superior to the trachea and inferior to the
larynx (Hillson, 2002): as shown in Figure 1. These glands are composed of specialised thyroid epithelial tissue and cells, which are arranged in
thyroid follicles, containing colloid: a "depot of thyroid hormone precursor" (Hillson, 2002, p.325). In addition to thyroid epithelial cells, parafollicular
cells produce calcitonin

Investigating The Three Hormones Involved During The...
"Identify and discuss the three hormones involved in the regulation of plasma calcium concentrations. Explain why it is misleading to state that
calcitonin lowers the plasma calcium concentration."
Calcium circulates in the plasma in three different forms: ionized calcium, protein–bound calcium and in complexes formed with anions found in the
blood. Although ionized calcium accounts for only half of the circulating levels of calcium, it is essential for several important cell functions, such as
muscular contraction, cellular signalling, exocytosis and bone composition. Therefore, it is necessary that the concentration of the ion in the blood
stream is kept within a considerably strict range.
Besides the dietary calcium intake, the human ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Due to its hydrophilic nature, the hormone produces its effects by binding to a surface receptor on target cells, PTH1R, which is coupled to G protein,
triggering the cAMP pathway. By doing that, PTH exerts rapid effects by stimulating calcium reabsorption in the kidneys, elevating resorption of
skeletal hydroxyapatite by osteoclasts and indirectly increasing intestinal calcium uptake by promoting calcitriol synthesis in the kidneys by
upregulating the activity of cytochrome P450 hydroxylases. Interestingly, it also stimulates osteoblasts to release RANKL molecules, which indirectly
results in an increased osteoclastic bone resorption. Moreover, PTH secretion induces a higher excretion of phosphate ions in the urine, recruiting part
of the calcium that is bound to anions in the blood.
Another hormone involved in the regulation of calcium levels is calcitriol. Differently from the other two hormones discussed in this text, vitamin D, as
it is also known, is a hydrophobic peptide hormone and thus acts via its nuclear receptor (VDR) in a slower, steroid–like mechanism. By activating its
receptor, this hormone regulates gene promotion via nuclear response elements (VDRE). This way, vitamin D stimulates the upregulation of calcium
transporters in the gastrointestinal tract, resulting in an increase in plasma calcium levels by raising the ion uptake. Moreover, it also induces a higher
renal reabsorption of calcium and promotes bone resorption, increasing

How Does Calcium Affect Rabbitss
Introduction
Calcium is essential in any mammal's development and maintenance. Most calcium is used for bone and teeth development while a small portion is
used for metabolic functions like muscle, heart rate, and impulse nerve contractions; and blood clotting (Redrobe, 2002; Exkermann–Ross, 2008;
Postman, 1998). Rabbits are unique, along with other rodents, in that their teeth continuously grow (Exkermann–Ross, 2008). Thus their teeth require a
larger amount of calcium throughout their life. Since calcium is important for not only the growth of rabbits but also the maintenance of their teeth and
metabolic functions, knowing how calcium impacts rabbits is important. Understanding how rabbits develop deficiencies or excesses of calcium is
essential ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Hay is essential for a rabbit's well–being because it aids in dental and gastrointestinal health (Clauss, 2012). Hay also provides a great source of
calcium and a balanced calcium and phosphorus ratio for rabbits (Clauss, 2012). If hay is provided in proper amounts calcium supplements should
not be needed. As with other feeds, calcium content varies on type of hay (Clauss, 2012). For example, alfalfa hay may be used to feed younger
rabbits but the calcium content is in the higher range for adult rabbits (Redrobe, 2002). Thus, feeding alfalfa hay may cause a rabbit's calcium level to
increase to an undesirable level, especially since calcium in hay is highly absorbable in rabbits (Rosenthal,

Osteoporosis Management
The management of osteoporosis patients start with the diagnosis by rolling out secondary causes and then confirm it by measuring bone mineral
density (BMD). After that, begin the treatment with lifestyle changes, pharmacological medications, and surgery for some fractures if needed. In this
essay I will cover generally the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of osteoporosis in five steps.
The first step in the diagnosis is doing laboratory studies to detect any secondary causes. These include serum chemistry levels of calcium, phosphate,
vitamin D, magnesium, PTH, and CBC (complete blood count). Detecting secondary causes is important because it will change the treatment plan.
Even though there might be some small fractures can't be seen ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Before starting pharmacological medication preventive measures should be taken. For example, weight–bearing exercise, calcium and vitamin D
intake, quit smoking and alcohol. After that start osteoporosis medication if it is primary, but if it is secondary treat the underlying cause first. These
drugs do not treat osteoporosis, but decrease further loss of BMD which include Bisphosphonates (Alendronate– Risedronate– Ibandronate– Zoledronic
acid), Raloxifene (Selective estrogen receptor modulators), Calcitonin (hormone decreases bone resorption by inhibiting osteoclast activity),
Denosumab, Teriparatid(Parathyroid hormone). The first drug used is alendronate because of its high efficacy in preventing fractures and low cost.
If the first line drug failed other bisphosnates or denosumab can be used. Ralaxofeine used as third line drug because it has a risk of developing blood
clot diseases, yet it decreases the risk of breast cancer . Calcitonin is used for those who are contraindicated to the previous drugs because of its low
efficacy. Teriparatid is the only drug that works by increasing BMD, but is the last drug used. It is taken for a maximum 2 years and expensive and
contraindicated in those who have history or having a bone cancer. For those patients who complain of sever back pain surgery might be suitable for
them as a last solution although the efficacy and safety

Symptoms And Treatment Of Thyroid Disorders
More than roughly 12 percent of the United States will be diagnosed with a thyroid condition in their lifetime. An estimated 20 million having some
form of thyroid disease, one of the most prevalent of these being hyperthyroidism. An estimated 60 percent are completely unaware that they have a
thyroid condition, which can put them at risk for certain conditions. The conditions can become severe with complications such as cardiovascular
disease or cancer. Majority of the thyroid conditions diagnosed are life–long and can be managed with the right medical attention. Through the use of
the correct imaging to diagnose the disease, most of them can be found early on. If found, the majority of thyroid disorders are manageable and treated
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This ligament connects the lobes of the thyroid gland to cricoid cartilage and the first two tracheal rings. The size of the thyroid can vary but a normal
thyroid gland in an adult individual will weigh roughly 15–25 grams (anatomy of thyroid from a surgeon). The function of the thyroid is very important
to the body and functionally quite amazing. The thyroid gland plays a huge role in the metabolism and growth of the body. It regulates many functions
of the body by releasing hormones at specific times into the bloodstream. Sometimes, the thyroid will even produce more when the body is in need
such as in times of cold, heat, stress, and pregnancy. The three hormones the thyroid gland produces areTriiodothyronine or T3, Tetraiodothyronine or
T4, and calcitonin. Iodine is the main component of T3 and T4 thus making it a hugely important substance for thyroid metabolism. Since iodine is so
scarce in the human body and not produced from within, it must be taken in with food consumption. Once an individual consumes food containing
iodine it is broken down into the bloodstream and eventually built into thyroid hormones in the thyroid gland. The third hormone, calcitonin, is
produced in the body by the C–cells. Calcitonin is largely important in calcium and bone metabolism. If the levels of any of these hormones are out of
balance then many thyroid related problems could arise, one of these

Osteoporosis And Bone Loss
Osteoporosis is a condition that affects bone strength. The word osteoporosis literally means "porous bones" (Kenny). Bone is made of tough, elastic
fibers and gritty, hard material minerals. It is a living tissue and contains cells that make, mold and take back up resorb bone. Initially, as a person
grow, the bone tends to form faster than it is resorbed (Kenny). But, as you get older, this reverses. Around the age of 35 you will start you start to
lose a certain amount of bone material overall. Your bones become less dense and less strong (Kenny). Although men can be affected byosteoporosis,
older women are usually affected also. It usually hit women who has past menopause. Bone loss becomes worse in women after menopause because of
the

Pseudopregnancy And Feline Essay
Pseudopregnancy is condition that can occur in both the canine and feline species. Since pseudopregnancy is most often seen in animals of breeding
age, it is most common seen by breeders and veterinarians. They are most common with this condition because they are exposed to a large quantity of
canines and felines daily. Knowing the signs, symptoms and treatment of pseudopregnancy can be important when it comes to the mental and
reproductive health of these animals. Even though pseudopregnancy is a natural occurrence in both the canine and feline, knowing what causes this
condition, and possible treatment options are important. Pseudopregnancy is a condition in which the canine or feline's body believes that pregnancy
has been achieved.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Pseudopregnancy will usually become visible in a canine approximately 6 to 12 weeks after estrus, while feline symptoms begin 4 to 8 weeks after
estrus. Often times, the symptoms are so intense that the owner even believes their pet has become pregnant. When the pet fails to produce offspring,
owners often think that they are suffering from dystocia, and transport them to a veterinary clinic for an emergency evaluation. Some of the symptoms
that may present themselves are: Change in appetite, abdominal distention, weight gain, nesting, mothering inanimate objects, restlessness, lactation,
aggression, vomiting, lactation and abdominal contractions. Each case if different and will need to be evaluated by a licensed veterinarian. The
diagnosis of pseudopregnancy in canines and felines, can actually be quite simple. The first step taken will be a full physical examination, history of
the pet and all signs and symptoms that are being exhibited. A complete blood count, biochemistry profile and urinalysis will be conducted to rule out
any other possible conditions. After that an x–ray or ultrasound can be conducted to establish if the pet is truly pregnant or suffering from
pseudopregnancy. Once it is established that the pet is going through a pseudopregnancy, no other tests will be

Calcium Homeostasis Essay
"Calcium Homeostasis"
Kayla Smith
Anatomy and Physiology I
BSC 1085C Ref# 82458
Calcium plays a very significant role in our bodies. Approximately 99 percent of the calcium in our bodies is stored in the teeth and bones. Calcium
generates about two percent of our total body weight. Calcium is crucial in bone formation, keeping strong bones and teeth and is known for helping to
prevent osteoporosis. Although calcium is mostly thought about in the bones and teeth, it also plays important roles throughout the body. The amount
of calcium outside the bones and teeth may be small in comparison to what is inside the bones and teeth, but is very useful in many functions in the
body. Calcium is required in functions such as the contraction ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Calcitriol moves to the nucleus of these cells and boost the role of proteins that carry calcium from inside the small intestine to the blood. Calcitonin
does the opposite of the parathyroid hormone and vitamin D. While the parathyroid gland and vitamin D raise the calcium levels, calcitonin decreases
it. Calcitonin is a hormone secreted by the C cell of the thyroid gland that lowers blood calcium levels by inhibiting bone resorption. (Lingohr–Smith,
2011). Having high and low levels of calcium in the body affects the body differently. Hypercalcemia is the medical term for high blood calcium.
Having too much calcium in the body can lead to an increased risk of kidney stones, constipation, nausea, and high blood pressure. People with
hypercalcemia may also have stomach, muscle and joint pain. Very severe hypercalcemia can cause symptoms of brain dysfunction such as
confusion, emotional disturbances, delirium, hallucinations, and coma. Irregularly low calcium levels in the blood are known as hypocalcaemia.
Your bones and teeth will begin to deteriorate because your body takes the calcium that is stored in your bones to carry out the functions that are
dependent on calcium. Hypocalcaemia can cause fragile bones, brittle nails and can cause frequent muscle cramps. It can also cause joint pain, and
put you at risk for bone disease as you age. Low calcium levels can put you at higher risks for high blood pressure or hypertension as well as poor

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