This document discusses memory and learning. It defines learning as a change in behavior due to experience, and memory as the persistence of that change over time. It describes different types of memory, including sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. It also discusses ways to improve memory through mnemonic devices and techniques like acronyms, rhyming, and visualization. Finally, it notes that forgetting occurs over time and can be caused by interference from other experiences.

1. MEMORY & LEARNING BY:
ISHAQ SALIHU LUGGA
SULEIMAN SALIHU LUGGA
YASIR ALIYU

2. INTRODUCTION:
Of all the animal species that inhabit the planet, humans are
truly exceptional. Their uniqueness finds expression in many
ways: such as use fire, build machines, demonstrate animals
and cultivate crops, communicate through spoken and written
language, legislate social controls, visit such inaccessible
places as the surface of the moon and the floor of the sea, and
alter the face of the earth itself.

3. Central to all these accomplishments is our great flexibility-
the human’s unparalleled capacity to change their behavior.
Underlying flexibility of human behavior are processes called
learning and memory (Hintzman, 1988).
DEFINITIONS:
Learning is a change in an organism, due to experience, which
can affect the organism’s behavior. Memory is the persistence
of that change over time (Hintzman, 1988).

4. Memory is a process or device which encode, store and
retrieve information.
Encoding refers to the initial perception and registration of
information.
Storage is the retention of encoded information over time.
Retrieval refers to the process involved in using stored
information. (Roediger, 2012).

5. TYPES OF MEMORY
 Sensory Memory: refers to the initial momentary recording of
information in our sensory systems.
 Short-Term or Working Memory: refers to the ability to hold
information in mind over a brief period or time.
American Psychologist George Miller concluded that people
could hold an average of “ seven, plus or minus two” items in
short-term memory.
People remember the words at beginning and end of the series
better than those in the middle. This phenomenon is called the
serial position effect

6.  Long – Term Memory: describes a system in the brain that can
store vast amount of information on a relatively enduring basis.
There seems to be no finite capacity to long term memory. People
can learn and retain new facts and skills throughout their lives.
most researchers distinguish three long term memory systems:
episodic memory, semantic memory, and procedural memory

7. Declarative memory
(stores memories of events facts )
Procedural memory
(stores the memory for knowing how
to do something)
Semantic memory
(stores facts and knowledge)
Episodic memory
(stores memories of events and
personal episodes)
Long-Term Memory

8. ENCODING AND RECORDING
Each of us has a unique background and sets of
experiences that help or hinder us in learning new
information. For example, a simple digit, such as 7, can
be recorded in many ways: as the word seven, the roman
numeral VII, a prime number, the square roof of 49 and
so on.
Recording is sometimes called chunking, because separate bits
of information can be grouped into meaningful units or chunks.
For example, the five letters e, t, s, e and l can be rearranged
into “Steel” and one work remember instead of five individual
units.

9. ART OF MEMORY
It is any of a number of a loosely associated principles and
techniques used to recognize memory impressions and improve
recall. It includes:
1. Visual sense and spatial orientation;
2. Order
3. Limited Sets
4. Association
5. Affect
6. Repetition
7. Techniques

10. WAYS TO IMPROVE MEMORY
Memory improvement techniques are called mnemonic devices
or simply mnemonics.
Mnemonic device is any learning technique that aids
information retention. Mnemonics aim to translate
information into a form that the brain can retain than
its original form.
Mnemonics include acronyms, acrostics, pegword, loci,
keyword, rhyme and song, narrative chaining, mind
mapping, and PQ4R method.

11.  Acronyms – words formed out of the first letter of a
series of words. For example, NASA is an acronym for
(National Aeronautics and Space Administration).
 Acrostics – the first letter of each word is a cue to
retrieve another word which begins with the same
letter. For example, (I) (A)m (A) (P)erson (Indian,
Arctic, Atlantic, Pacific).
 Pegword Method – also sues imagery or visualization
to recall information to be remembered is hung on
mental “peg”. For example, One is a bun, Two is a
shoe, Three is a tree, and so on.

12.  Loci – associating a segment of information to be
remembered with mental picture. For example, to
accommodate each Eriksonian stage, trust could be the
trusting baby playing in your driveway, autonomy could
be a toddler running away to live in your garage,
initiative could be a youngster knocking on your front
door selling Girl Scout cookies, and so forth.
 Keyword – making a phonetic link connecting a to-be-
learned word with a similar-sounding keyword. For
example, the medulla regulates the autonomic activity of
your heart and lungs. Picture medals over your heart and
lungs .

13.  Narrative Chaining – a story is created around the
words to be remembered, linking the words in a specific
order. For example, to remember following list: Cat,
baby, chair, book, fire, clock, cupboard, and bed,
you might create a story: ‘There was a cat and a baby
sitting on a chair reading a book in front of the fire. The
clock on the cupboard said time for bed.’
 Rhyme and Song – using rhymes and songs to remember
information. You probably all time without realizing. For
example, ‘thirty days hath September, April, June and
November’ in order to work out how many days in that
month.

14.  Mind Mapping – creating a one-page map which summarizes
information. For example:

15.  PQ4R Method – the PQ4R method is a mnemonic technique
used for remembering test material. The name is itself a
mnemonic device for the steps involved (Preview; Question;
Read; Reflect; Recite; Review).

16. MEMORY RETRIEVAL
 Two general principles govern the effectiveness of retrieval cues :
the encoding specificity principle and distinctiveness principle.
 The encoding specificity principle stated that stimuli such as
pictures, words, color, mood, sounds or smells may act as retrieval
cues.
 Distinctiveness principle stated that specific one or few items of
information may act as retrieval.

17. WHY PEOPLE FORGET
 German philosopher Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) initiated
the scientific study of human memory to measure
forgetfulness.
Ebbinghaus found that after an hour approximately 50% of the
information is forgotten. The rate of forgetting then seems to
level out and by the 31st day after learning, 28% of the
information is retained. However, if the information holds
meaning for the learner or is complex, the rate of forgetting is
not as great.

18.  An experiment conducted in 1924 by two American
psychologists, John Jenkins and Karl Dallenbanch shows
that the students forget significantly more while they
were awake than while they were asleep. What seemed to
cause forgetting was interference from activities and
events occurring over time.

19. SUMMARY
 Learning is a change in an organism due to experience.
 Memory is any device that can store, encode and retrieve
information.
 Memory can be improved using the ‘Art of Memory’
 Forgetting is caused by time or by interference.