AIOU 8623

PROGRAM NAME: AIOU 1.5 YEARS
COURSE CODE: 8623
COURSE NAME: ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
SEMESTER: SPRING, 2022
ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q No 1: Elucidate the role of public and private sector in element education
Discuss the initiative of government of Pakistan in this context?

ANS) Education plays a pivotal role in the rise and fall of the nation’s especially in the 21st
century importance of education influence much to meet the fast-growing challenges. It is mainly
due to the emergence of global competition in education and technology. This competitive
environment is the core need for progress of any country.
Challenges for Public Sector and Private Sector- Pakistan Education
The Public and Private sectors have been able to provide good results of providing
quality education all over the country, however it needs to continue the struggle. Pakistan
has poor schooling system with poor standards due to changing of “National Education
Policies” in different decades throughout history. Currently, we have a big challenge of
increasing population ratio day by day and approx.75% people have low standards of living
all over the country. The elite families have full control over resources and nation’s wealth.
The nation has weak learning system due to having low GDP rate (2%) as compare to other
countries of South Asia. Keeping in mind above all issues, what should be the role of public
sector and private sector/community to improve our system/culture that is big question?
Role of public and private sector:
In Pakistan there are different types of institutions available like private and public institutions,
technical institutions, and madrasas (religious institutions). These institutes are having the
triangle of three main pillars; consisted of Teachers, Students, and parents. Our study focused
on two main types of schools in Pakistan that is public and private school system. Now a days

private schools are becoming more favorite and attractive for majority of the students due to
their better education systems, test criteria and knowledge creation and evaluation standards,
which comparatively very cheap but inefficient are losing their attraction. Parents prefer to send
their children in private schools and avoid public schools. The main objective of this study is to
investigate why people prefer high charging private schools over free public schools (That
charge nothing)? We use secondary data collected by ASER Pakistan through survey method
applied from the target respondents of private and public schools in random regions of
Pakistan. The results show that five main factors emerge as important determinants of private
school choice. These include the socioeconomic status of the household, the degree of a
school’s accessibility, the cost of schooling, parents’ perceptions of school quality, and their
perceptions of the available employment opportunities in the region. As we move forward
towards the recently adopted Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2030, this study is very
important to highlight the comparative issues in these two sectors to take the remedial
measures for ensuring quality education in the country.
A Brief Historical Overview of Pakistan’s Public Sector Educational Policy and
Planning:
Since Pakistan gained independence in 1947 the history of public education, planning and
policy making has been marked with good intention; but has failed to deliver a robust,
sustainable, cyclical and evaluative public education system for its population. Successive
governments (military and civilian) have developed an array of education policy and planning.
pathways as illustrated in the tables below: -

Ed. Policy & Commissions Main Aims Reasons for Failures
1st Ed. Conference, 1947 ✓ Education teamed with
Islamic values
✓ Free & compulsory
education in Pakistan
✓ Emphasis on science &
technology education
Could not be implemented
due to:
✓ Increased number of
immigrants
✓ Administrative
problems
National commission on
education, 1959
✓ 10 years compulsory
education
✓ Science and technology
education
✓ Elimination of illiteracy
✓ National language as
medium of instruction
✓ Religious education
compulsory in
secondary schools
Implementation challenges:
✓ Lack of resources
✓ Problems in resource
allocation
✓ Political instability
Education Policy, 1970 ✓ Emphasis on
ideological orientation
✓ Emphasis on science
and technology
education
✓ Decentralization of
education
administration
✓ Eradication of illiteracy
✓ Formation of national
education unit
Could not be implemented
due to:
India Pakistan war
Separation of Bangladesh
Collapse of the military
government
Education Policy, 1972 ✓ Promotion of ideology
of Pakistan
✓ Universal education till
year 10, free for all
✓ Curriculum based on
socio-economic needs
✓ Integrated technology &
science education
✓ Active participation of
teachers, students &
parents in educational
affairs
✓ Lack of planning
✓ Lack of financial
resources
✓ Buy in from the public
✓ Lack of clarity in goals

✓ Nationalization of
educational institutions
National Ed. Policy, 1979 ✓ Fostering loyalty to
Islam
✓ Creation of concept of
Muslim Ummah
✓ Promotion of science &
✓ Equal opportunity
✓ Merging madrasa &
traditional education
✓ Effective participation
of community in
literacy programs
✓ Segregation of
on basis of gender
✓ Fostering loyalty to
Islam
✓ Creation of concept of
Muslim Ummah
✓ Promotion of science &
✓ Equal opportunity
✓ Merging madrasa &
traditional education
✓ Effective participation
of community in
literacy programs
✓ Segregation of
on basis of gender
✓ Lack of planning
✓ Lack of financial
resources
✓ Foreign pressures from
external funders
National Education Policy,
1992
✓ Promotion of Islamic
values
✓ Improvement in
Women’s education
✓ Range of general &
technology education at
secondary level
✓ Demand oriented
curriculum
✓ Could not be
implemented due to
✓ change in political
scenario and
✓ resultant political
instability.

National Education Policy,
1998
✓ Quranic principles &
Islam practices an
integral part of the
curriculum
✓ Universal primary
education
✓ Equal opportunity of
higher education
✓ Emphasis on
diversification
✓ Curriculum
development a
continuous process
✓ Introduction of in-
service teacher training
programs
✓ Expansion and
emphasis on technology
and science education
✓ Upgrading quality of
‘deeni madrasa’
✓
✓ Communication gap
between the policy
✓ implementers and
policy beneficiaries
✓ Weak administrative
machinery at the grass
✓ root level
✓ Poor policy evaluation
mechanisms
✓ Inadequate financial
resources
✓ Inefficient bureaucratic
structure
✓ Failure of
decentralization
measures
✓ Lack of political will &
corruption
Education reforms and
education policy, 2009 to 2017
✓ Development of
National testing service
✓ Cater to social, political
and spiritual needs of
individuals and society.
✓ Teaching to revitalize
ideology of Pakistan
within Islamic ethos
✓ Inculcate a sense of
unity and nationhood
✓ Promote the desire to
create welfare State for
the people of Pakistan
✓ Lack of political
planning
✓ Lack of inter-provincial
conferences and
✓ collaboration
✓ Limited implementation
structures and lack
✓ of evaluation
framework
✓ Poor quality of
education
✓ Poor quality of teaching
✓ Budgetary constraints
✓ Weak governance
✓ Cultural issues related
to school enrollments
All countries including Pakistan have different school systems but when we divide them, we
find two major categories of school systems: private and public schools.

In Pakistan, private schools are getting more acceptance today to ensure sustained progress
of the country. During 1990s and 2000s, private sector emerged as a key provider of education
services in Pakistan both in absolute terms and relative to the public sector. Private educational
institutions are playing key role not only in eliminate illiteracy but also enhancing the level of
students as well as teachers by providing better academic environment. Private sector
contributed significantly in removing illiteracy in the emerging economies. If private schools are
properly managed, they can uplift educational standard in Pakistan as well. The educational
landscape of Pakistan has gone through numerous transformations in the past two decades.
Enrollment levels and gender parity index have been on the rise. The changes in the education
sector that have been taking place in Pakistan have created an environment with numerous
opportunities as well as challenges in terms of policy development. Even though the enrollment
in government schools is much bigger than any other sector, the declining trend in favor of non
–state providers is significant. Education, especially primary education is mostly considered a
public service which should be provided to the citizens without discrimination, irrespective of
affordability and mainly as the government’s responsibility. This ideology was behind the
nationalization of all education institutions in 1972, which severely interrupted the role of the
robust private sector particularly at the post elementary level. However, like other services
provided by the government, education provision has been severely constrained by
governance, quality and effectiveness. After the end of nationalization in 1979, Pakistan has
witnessed an exponential increase in the role of private sector service providers. The negative
experiences of government schools have instigated parents to shift children from government
to private schools. Private schools no longer remain an urban or elite phenomenon, but rather
poor households also use these facilities to a large extent, due to their better locations,
reasonable fees, teachers’ presence and better-quality learning, especially in the fields of
mathematics and language. Even though private schools started off as an urban phenomenon,
more recently they have mushroomed in rural areas as well. Several characteristics are
responsible for making private schooling more attractive to parents compared to government
schools; these include better test scores, better physical infrastructure, and lower rates of
teacher absenteeism. Even if we disregard the debate of whether the learning levels are better
in private or government schools, the fact remains that the learning levels for both types of
institutes remain poor in an absolute sense. The private school’s advantage over the public

schools is marginal up if we look at the problems of education in the country holistically
speaking. Therefore, the policy developers should cater to supporting and improving both the
sectors and not either of the two. The outcomes of private versus public schools’ debate may
be a popular discourse, however, at a policy level it is essential to understand that the current
education emergency in Pakistan cannot be confronted with just a single player in the education
sector. Multiple players, other than the government alone are required in the process to combat
the problems. The government needs private sector’s help to contest the challenges. Various
other challenges including the flood, security issues and dislocations of citizens due to the
regional conflicts in the country also pose major concerns that the households and state need
to plan around in the future. The need of the hour is a collective action by all the stakeholders,
including the households, government, private sector and the civil society. It can be a better
option if the government uses its resources not on increasing the number of schools but rather
on the quality of existing schools. Increasing access to education for children by increasing the
number of schools should be a policy left for the private sector and the government itself should
concentrate on improving the quality of physical facilities and teachers in the existing schools.
By doing this, the benchmark for the private schools will also increase, thus increasing both
access to, and quality of education.
There has been much talk and debate regarding quality education in Pakistan. Ironically, they
all revolve around mostly the types, sources and content of education instead of stages,
particularly the most crucial and decisive stage i.e., elementary education.
There has been little progress in recent years in developing new and existing programmed for
adolescent learners in government schools at elementary level. Exploratory programmed,
counseling programmed and health and physical education programmed are being cut back
in government schools. The education has been narrowed down to teaching of rote-skills and
transmission of knowledge. This mere imitation and content-centered elementary education
has shortchanged the area of personnel development of the learners. This fact of failure of
government elementary education has been put in the back burner in the face of doing what
is easier and less costly, but the negation of various ongoing sustained social changes
experienced by the emerging learners has become the practice of the day.
The elementary level is comprised of the students with most impressionable age group where
various social changes make indelible prints on their minds. These years represent the last

chance for the students to master basic skills, lasting attitude towards learning and assertion
of self and individualistic differences. Success at elementary school, or the future life, can be
determined and predicted for this age group.
The associations such as The National Middle School Association, Pakistan Montessori
Council, and Pakistan Elementary Teachers Association are striving for a balanced
elementary curriculum by organizing frequent conferences and workshops for the educators
who are engaged in imparting basic education. However, the government should patronize
the associations and educational organizations by allocating a large part of budget. Moreover,
the government educationist and administrative authorities should make sure that the content
is cognitive learning oriented.
It must be diversified and exploratory based on real life situations and indigenous experiences.
Consequently, it could enhance the development of problem-solving skills and reflective
thinking process among the students. This would also help the students to acknowledge and
appraise their own interests and talents. The areas of curriculum concerned with basic skills
logical, sequential and analytical — should be taught through an entertaining pedagogy. Other
areas of curriculum like social, moral, emotional, and physical should be developed through
integrative approach towards prevalent social issues and factors.
Conclusion:
The elementary level education and knowledge must mirror the immediate culture, ethnicity,
ideology and local socio-economic groups so that the students can relate themselves and
concretize their knowledge coupled with critical sense. Besides, this will assist the student to
comprehend what he is and help him realize his concepts, responsibilities, identities,
abstractions and attitude towards society. Instead of departmentalization of subjects there
should be coordination and inter-disciplines trend among them.
Doubtlessly the teacher’s role is indispensable in modern pedagogy where the teacher is more
a personal guide, a facilitator of learning, and a coordinator. The teachers should be trained
to practice the methods of instruction which involve open and individual directed learning by
accentuating modernly designed arrangements, collaborative work, and respecting individual
differences among the students. The list of dos and don’ts is long. However, the ground reality
demands more implementation than mere suggestions, planning, revising, and updating the
aspects of elementary education.

For implementation the primary parameter is the following statement: “The elementary
education should be projective.”
To have insightful understanding of this projective learning, some factors are inevitable. The
very first is involvement. In Pakistan the planning regarding elementary education takes place
without involving those who will be most directly affected by its activation: students, teachers,
parents, and the community. Unluckily, the assumption which resists this involvement is that
the member/actors of education are unaccustomed to the jargons related to educational
policies and are unfamiliar with the trends in educational programs. But the fact is that the
elementary education cannot be affectively implemented and maintained unless it involves
the above-mentioned strata. Their involvement in initial analysis of student’s needs (social,
financial, emotional, physical), in drafting the documents and in providing rationale for
effective elementary education is a must.
The second factor for ensuring implementation is commitment and dedication on the part of
the teachers. A problem witnessed in many schools is that teachers’ behaviors are traditional
patterns if sufficient attention from every perspective not maintained. Teachers’ goes and
energy will understandably high if they receive such attention.
Thirdly, other important factors are budgeting/funding and resources. The observable
phenomenon in elementary education is its failure due to absence of substantial finances.
This stage of education, owning to the foundation, requires more energy and money to
implement productively. For the low budget schools, the private school system could be the
inspiration which partially run-on funding by the rich families. If the community has the chance
of involvement in the planning process, it definitely is going to participate in funding process.
Moreover, by doing this the allocation of vast resources could be ensured as the common
pitfall in realizing the implementation is exclusively relying upon the teacher made material,
overlooking a consumable material budget and less updated material acquisition. Making no
provision in this regard is in fact to doom the elementary education. These major factors if
operated well can eliminate the causes of the failure of the elementary schools.
Q. 2 describe in the light of Piaget’s theory the cognitive and intellectual development
of a child at different level?

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four
different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how
children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence.
Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little
scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As
kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon
existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information.
Piaget was born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and was a precocious student, publishing his
first scientific paper when he was just 11 years old. His early exposure to the intellectual
development of children came when he worked as an assistant to Alfred Binet and Theodore
Simon as they worked to standardize their famous IQ test.
Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children was inspired by his
observations of his own nephew and daughter. These observations reinforced his budding
hypothesis that children's minds were not merely smaller versions of adult minds.
Up until this point in history, children were largely treated simply as smaller versions of
adults. Piaget was one of the first to identify that the way that children think is different from
the way adults think.
Instead, he proposed, intelligence is something that grows and develops through a series of
stages. Older children do not just think more quickly than younger children, he suggested.

Instead, there are both qualitative and quantitative differences between the thinking of young
children versus older children.
Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults,
they simply think differently. Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so simple only a
genius could have thought of it."
Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive development
involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget's view, early cognitive
development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses to changes in
mental operations.
Piaget's stages are:
• Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years
• Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
• Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
• Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up
1) The Sensorimotor Stage (Ages: Birth to 2 Years)
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
• The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
• Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping,
looking, and listening
• Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen.
• They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
• They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them
During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge
through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience at the
earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses.
It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of dramatic growth and
learning. As kids interact with their environment, they are continually making new discoveries
about how the world works.

The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively short
period of time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to perform
physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also learn a great deal about language
from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also broke this stage down into a number of
different substages. It is during the final part of the sensorimotor stage that early
representational thought emerges.
Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the understanding
that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an important element at
this point of development.
By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an existence of
their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin to attach names and
words to objects.
2) The Preoperational Stage (Ages: 2 to 7 Years)
• Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent
objects.
• Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the
perspective of others.
• While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about
things in very concrete terms.
• The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous
stage, but it is the emergence of language that is one of the major hallmarks of the
preoperational stage of development.
• Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development,
yet continue to think very concretely about the world around them.
At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point
of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of constancy.
For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and
then give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is
rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since the

flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece even though the
two pieces are exactly the same size.
3) The Concrete Operational Stage (Ages: 7 to 11 Years)
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
• During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
• They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a
short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
• Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
• Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a
general principle
While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in development,
they become much more adept at using logic. The egocentrism of the previous stage begins
to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other people might view a situation.
While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it can also
be very rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract and
hypothetical concepts.
During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other
people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to understand
that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their
thoughts, feelings, and opinions.
The Formal Operational Stage (Ages: 12 and up)
• At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason
about hypothetical problems
• Abstract thought emerges
• Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political
issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
• Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific
information

The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive
reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, people become capable of
seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the world
around them.
The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the formal
operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for the future
and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this
stage.
It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a
quantitative process; that is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their
existing knowledge as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is
a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process through these four
stages. A child at age 7 doesn't just have more information about the world than he did at age
2 there is a fundamental change in how he thinks about the world.
Q.3 Personality development occurs early in life but later years provide an opportunity for the
modification of previously developed trends. Discuss?
ANS: Personality development is the development of the organized pattern of behaviors and
attitudes that makes a person distinctive. Personality development occurs by the ongoing
interaction of temperament, character and environment.
Description:
Personality is what makes a person a unique person, and it is recognizable soon after birth. A
child’s personality has several components: temperament, environment, and character.
Temperament is the set of genetically determined traits that determine the child’s approach to the
world and how the child learns about the world. There are no genes that specify personality traits,
but some genes do control the development of the nervous system, which in turn controls
behavior. A second component of personality comes from adaptive patterns related to a child’s
specific environment. Most psychologists agree that these two factors—temperament and
environment—influence the development of a person’s personality the most. Temperament, with

its dependence on genetic factors, is sometimes referred to as “nature,” while the environmental
factors are called “nurture.”
While there is still controversy as to which factor ranks higher in affecting personality
development, all experts agree that high-quality parenting plays a critical role in the development
of a child’s personality. When parents understand how their child responds to certain situations,
they can anticipate issues that might be problematic for their child. They can prepare the child for
the situation or in some cases they may avoid a potentially difficult situation altogether. Parents
who know how to adapt their parenting approach to the particular temperament of their child can
best provide guidance and ensure the successful development of their child’s personality.
Finally, the third component of personality is character—the set of emotional, cognitive, and
behavioral patterns learned from experience that determines how a person thinks, feels, and
behaves. A person’s character continues to evolve throughout life, although much depends on
inborn traits and early experiences. Character is also dependent on a person’s moral
development.
In 1956, psychiatrist Erik Erikson provided an insightful description as to how personality
develops based on his extensive experience in psychotherapy with children and adolescents
from low, upper, and middle-class backgrounds. According to Erikson, the socialization process
of an individual consists of eight phases, each one accompanied by a “psychosocial crisis” that
must be
solved if the person is to manage the next and subsequent phases satisfactorily. The stages
significantly influence personality development, with five of them occurring during infancy,
childhood, and adolescence.
Infancy:
During the first two years of life, an infant goes through the first stage: Learning Basic Trust or
Mistrust (Hope). Well-nurtured and loved, the infant develops trust and security and a basic
optimism. Badly handled, the infant becomes insecure and learns “basic mistrust.”
Toddlerhood:
The second stage occurs during early childhood, between about 18 months to two years and

three to four years of age. It deals with Learning Autonomy or Shame (Will). Well-parented, the
child emerges from this stage with self-confidence, elated with his or her newly found control.
The early part of this stage can also include stormy tantrums, stubbornness, and negativism,
depending on the child’s temperament.
Preschool
The third stage occurs during the “play age,” or the later preschool years from about three to
entry into formal school. The developing child goes through Learning Initiative or Guilt (Purpose).
The child learns to use imagination; to broaden skills through active play and fantasy; to
cooperate with others; and to lead as well as to follow. If unsuccessful, the child becomes
fearful, is unable to join groups, and harbors guilty feelings. The child depends excessively on
adults and is restricted both in the development of play skills and in imagination.
School age:
The fourth stage, Learning Industry or Inferiority (Competence), occurs during school age, up to
and possibly including junior high school. The child learns to master more formal skills:
relating with peers according to rules progressing from free play to play that is structured by
rules and requires teamwork (team sports) learning basic intellectual skills (reading, arithmetic)
At this stage, the need for self-discipline increases every year. The child who, because of his or
her successful passage through earlier stages, is trusting, autonomous, and full of initiative, will
quickly learn to be industrious. However, the mistrusting child will doubt the future and will feel
inferior.
Adolescence:
The fifth stage, Learning Identity or Identity Diffusion (Fidelity), occurs during adolescence from
age 13 or 14. Maturity starts developing during this time; the young person acquires self-
certainty as opposed to self-doubt and experiments with different constructive roles rather than
adopting a negative identity, such as delinquency. The well-adjusted adolescent actually looks
forward to achievement, and, in later adolescence, clear sexual identity is established. The
adolescent seeks leadership (someone to inspire him or her), and gradually develops a set of
ideals to live by.

The Child Development Institute (CDI) rightfully points out that very little knowledge is available
on the type of specific environment that will result, for example, in traits of trust being more
developed in a person’s personality. Helping the child through the various stages of emotional
and personality development is a complex and difficult task. Searching for the best ways of
accomplishing this task accounts for most of the research carried out in the field of child
development today.
Renowned psychologist Carl Rogers emphasized how childhood experiences affect personality
development. Many psychologists believe that there are certain critical periods in personality
development—periods when the child will be more sensitive to certain environmental factors.
Most experts believe that a child’s experiences in the family are important for his or her
personality development, although not exactly as described by Erikson’s stages, but in good
agreement with the importance of how a child’s needs should to be met in the family
environment. For example, children who are toilet trained too early or have their toilet training
carried out too strictly may become rebellious. Another example is shown by children who learn
appropriate behavior to their sex lives when there is a good relationship with their same-sex
parent. Another environmental factor of importance is culture. Researchers comparing cultural
groups for specific personality types have found some important differences. For example,
Northern European countries and the United States have individualistic cultures that put more
emphasis on individual needs and accomplishments. In contrast, Asian, African, Central
American, and South American countries are characterized more by community-centered
cultures that focus on belonging to a larger group, such as a family, or nation. In these cultures,
cooperation is considered a more important value than competitiveness, which will necessarily
affect personality development.
Theories of personality development:
i. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development: also known as a developmental stage theory was
created by the Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980). It is a
comprehensive theory about the nature and development of human intelligence and deals with
the nature of knowledge and how humans acquire, construct, and use this knowledge. Piaget
believed that, cognitive development was an organization of mental processes that result from
biological maturation and environmental experience. Children develop an understanding of the
world around them, experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they

discover in their environment and then adjust their ideas accordingly. He claimed that cognitive
development is at the center of the human organism, and language is contingent on knowledge
and understanding acquired through cognitive development. Piaget develops four important
stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2), preoperational stage (age
2 to 7), concrete-operational stage (ages 7 to 12), and formal-operational stage (ages 11 to 12,
and thereafter). Child-centered classrooms and "open education" are direct applications of
Piaget's theory.
ii. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development Lawrence Kohlberg started as a developmental
psychologist and then moved to the field of moral education. Kohlberg believed that people
progressed in their moral reasoning through a series of six stages which could be more
generally classified into three levels.
iii. The first level of moral thinking is that generally found at the elementary school level. In
the first stage of this level, people behave according to socially acceptable norms because
they are told to do so by some authority figure (e.g., parent or teacher). This obedience is
compelled by the threat or application of punishment. The second stage of this level is
characterized by a view that right behavior means acting in one's own best interests. 65 The
second level of moral thinking is that generally found in society, hence the name
"conventional." The first stage of this level (stage 3) is characterized by an attitude which seeks
to do what will gain the approval of others. The second stage is one oriented to abiding by
the law and responding to the obligations of duty. The third level of moral thinking is one that
Kohlberg felt is not reached by the majority of adults. Its first stage is an understanding of social
mutuality and a genuine interest in the welfare of others. The last stage is based on respect
for universal principle and the demands of individual conscience. While Kohlberg always
believed in the existence of Stage 6 and had some nominees for it, he could never get enough
subjects to define it, much less observe their longitudinal movement to it. Kohlberg believed
that individuals could only progress through these six stages one by one. They could not "jump"
stages. According to Kohlberg, it was important to present individuals with moral dilemmas for
discussion which encourage their development in that direction. In this way moral development
can be promoted through formal education.

Q ,3 Explain the inter relation language skills. How does the class room environment
affect them?
ANS: Concept of language skills
There are four skills of language
1. listening,
2. speaking,
3. reading and
4. writing.
Listening Skills
One of four language skills
Involves sender, message and a receiver.
It is a psychological process and it involves
1. Receiving message
2. Constructing meaning from it
3. Responding to (spoken/non-verbal) messages.
Process of listening: -
(a) Hearing: -
• It is sound waves simulating the sensory receptors of ears.
• It is a physical response.
• Hearing is the perception of sound waves; you must hear to listen but you need not
listen to hear.
• Brain screams stimuli and permits only a select few to come into focus and these
selective perceptions are known as attention.
• Attention is an important requirement for effective listening.
(b) Understanding:
• Understanding is taking out the meaning from previous associations and successful
interpretation of the message being received.
• For successful interpersonal communication, the listener must understand the intended
meaning and context assumed by the sender.
(C) Remembering:
• Remembering or memorizing is an import part of the process of listening.
• It means the individual who is receiving the message has received the message,
interpreted
• It and added it to the mind’s storage bank.

• While listening our attention might be selective so what we rambler might be quite
different from what was originally Sean or heard.
(d) Evaluating: -
• Only active listeners participate at this stage of listening.
• In this step active listeners
1. Weight evidence
2. Sort out facts from opinion
3. Determines the presence and absence of bias in the message.
• The listener should start evaluating message only after listening to the message, not at
the beginning of the message.
(e) Responding: -
• In this step individual receiving the message sends verbal or non-verbal feedback to
the speaker (or sender)
• This step allows the speaker to determine if a message has been received or not.
• Through feedback, the sender may determine the degree of success in transmitting the
message.
•
Speaking Skills
• The main goat of teaching speaking skills is to achieve efficiency in communication.
• Learners should be able to make themselves understand, using their current level of
proficiency.
• They should try to avoid confusion in the message due to wrong pronunciation,
grammar or vocabulary.
• Teachers can help learners develop their speaking skills by wing balanced activities
that combine language input, structured and communicative output.
• Language input comes from teacher talk, listening, reading passages and language
heard or read outside the class.
Reading Skills
• Reading is the most challenging skill to be introduced to children.
• It is the most difficult and exciting skill to introduce.
• Reading is not a simple skill as it involves a combination of many skills and cognitive
abilities.
• There is no single, foolproof method of teaching how to read, as every method has its
own limitations.
• Once a child has been introduced to reading books successfully there is no end to what
a child can accomplish.
• ‘Sound reading skills’ means the child is able to associate meaning with written or
printed language:

• Unless a child can make sense of what he or she reads, or relate it to something else
that he already knows, we cannot call its reading sound.
• In a nutshell, we can say that Reading is a process of finding written words
Writing Skills
• We mainly write to communicate with someone when often he is not present in front
of us.
• We do a lot of writing simply to preserve something i.e., a piece of information, an
idea, or a memory.
• A teacher introduces young children to how to write as, by the time they start
schooling for the first time, they are already capable of talking with confidence with a
variety of people on various topics.
Classroom environment has a positive impact on students’ academic achievement, as by provision of
physical facilities like furniture, electric supply, painted walls, drinking water, models, charts, overhead
projector and other ICT related instructional material, students take much interest in classroom
activities which help them to get high marks in examinations. Teachers use various teaching methods
like lectures, discussion in classrooms for making teaching and learning process effective and more
productive. Discussion method is process of students talking about a specific topic, helped them to
share their ideas openly which develops them confidence building habit and improves their learning.
Activity-based method is another teaching method helped teachers to engage students by their active
and physique participation in learning activities. In this method students’ learning ratio improved by
their doing practically. Classroom environment contained on proper lighting system, bright atmosphere,
use of ICT instructional technologies, cupboards and shelves, electric power supply, air coolers or
ceiling fans, audio-visual aids in classrooms play active role in improving students’ achievement.
Whereas, un-conducive classroom environment consists on small classroom size, in-appropriate
ventilations, high classroom temperature, lack of ICT instructional teaching aids, in-appropriate desks,
improper seating arrangements, lack of fresh air and overcrowded classrooms prove negative impact
on students’ performance Provision of sufficient physical and instructional facilities in classrooms are
the major factors found to have positive impact on improving students’ learning , as it is necessary for
uplifting students’ learning outcomes. Use of teachers’ better communication skills and a variety of
teaching methods in classrooms are major factors to improve students’ learning. Relaxed and friendly
learning environment is important for enhancing students’ learning.

Q.5 Differentiate between role –play and simulation. Discuss the use of each for
making teaching learning process effective at elementary level.
There is a difference between simulations (where students act out real-life
situations, for example the student checks in at “the airport”, but students do play
themselves) and role plays where students take on different characters. In a role play, for
example, one student may be asked to take on the role of “an angry landowner” in a role
play which is concerned with discussing the possible construction of a new road. Another
may be asked to play the role of the “road company representative”. Role plays will thus
require more “imagination” on the part of the student to be able to get “into” the role.
Some students will find being asked to play a different person in a role play quite liberating.
Some students who are normally quite shy can open up considerably in a role play lesson.
The teacher, though, must attempt to maintain the “pretend” part of the simulations and role
plays: i.e., the students ARE in an airport and not the classroom. Teachers can aid this
process by use of realia and other props. Students who don’t enter into the ‘fantasy world’
can ruin it for everyone else.
Teacher intrusion must be kept to an absolute minimum during role plays and
simulations…. preferably, zero. We use role plays to allow students to test out learnt
language in as realistic a situation as possible. They are, in a sense, a halfway house between
a sterile classroom practice activity and the often-frightening reality of the real world for
students. Students can thus feel free to experiment with their language in a safe
environment. Teacher intrusion is possible if the participating students, for example, are not
understanding at all what they should be doing. Otherwise, teacher input should be left for
the post-activity feedback session.
Feedback on what students have just done is vital. The role-play or simulation could be

videotaped or recorded for example, which would allow a more detailed and thus useful
analysis of their performances. Students need to see this as an important part of self-
evaluation. If students can learn to appreciate the weaknesses of their performance, they
will only benefit. A student who says “he asked me about the ticket prices and I tripped up
over the numbers again – I need to focus on that” is one who is well aware of where future
performance needs to improve. The priority in the mind of the teacher, though, should
remain communicative efficacy. Long feedback sessions of the mistaken use of the present
perfect during the role play can be left for another time.
The more natural setting of a well set-up role play can also be used to introduce the
unpredictability which makes communicating in the real world so daunting for many foreign
language learners. This can be done either with the teacher playing “rogue” characters or
handing out a couple of unusual role cards to other students. Teachers should seek to mix
things up if you feel the simulations and role-plays are becoming too predictable for the
class. As we said before, the safe environment offered by role plays means a few surprises
can quite safely be thrown at students to see how they cope.
The Role of the Teacher
The teacher must first of all be convinced of what she is doing. She must have the
conviction that drama can be an effective tool in language teaching. She must have clear
objectives as to her role and the use of dramatic activities in achieving her goals. She is
the one who sets the mood of the class. She must change her attitude towards her role in
the classroom. In the drama classroom she needs to be less domineering and gradually
withdraw. Her main function should be that of an initiator controlling but not directing the
situation. Her rapport with the students is important. The students should feel at ease and
relaxed in the classroom. Certain warming activities can help to achieve this. This will be
discussed later.

Although the teacher is to slowly withdraw from the main scene, she still needs to be in
control of all that is going on in class. She can still do this without appearing domineering
if she has clear objectives and has prepared herself thoroughly. She must give clear
instructions to the students to carry out their various tasks. She must also have close control
of time so that her plans can be carried out accordingly. Thus, do not be over ambitious in
the aims of the lessons.
For lower level or weaker classes, there is a need for language preparation before the class.
Lists of words, phrases, functions and sentence types, which are relevant to the activities to
be carried out, have to be prepared beforehand1. These have to be presented to the students
before the activities so that they can use them as aids/tools in their tasks.
Role of the Learner
In recent years there has been a move towards the “whole-person approach. The learner
thus becomes the center of focus and at the center of the language learning process. This is
influenced by the “effective humanistic approach” to language teaching. With this in
mind, language learning must therefore appeal to the language learner intellectually and
emotionally. Stick (1980), states that language learning must appeal to the creative,
intuitive aspect of personality as well as the conscious and the rational part.
Drama activities provide opportunities for active student participation. The activities
involve the student’s whole personality and not merely his mental process. Effective
learning takes place as the student involves himself in the tasks and is motivated to use the
target language. As he uses the language, he becomes more aware of his ability to use the
language and this will hopefully increase his motivation to learn.

In drama activities, the student is encouraged to discuss, evaluate and describe the activities.
He has to explain, interpret and make decisions. The student thus has little time to be idle
or daydream for he is an active participant in the lesson. Students may take some time to
get used to this active role and the teacher may have to slowly but firmly initiate this change
in the role and even attitudes.
Purpose of Role-Playing:
Role play involves imagination, and “Imagination is more important than knowledge.
For knowledge is limited to all we now know and understand, while imagination
embraces the entire world, and all there ever will be to know and understand.” Albert
Einstein
When children do role plays, they naturally become someone or something else. Role
play stimulates their imagination and “enhances their social development, encourages
friendship through cooperation, listening and turn taking”. Therefore, role play is a vital
activity for our children.
Our children can learn many skills and attitudes during role play, and learn how to be
co-operative and be empathetic with others. They can learn to express all their feelings.
They also can learn about other cultures and improve their language and movement skills.
During role plays children can experience school activities like literacy and numeracy. In
the playing shop, children can “encompass all the aspects of the curriculum”. They can
learn about money, about politeness and the right way to ask questions and respond etc.
Role play can help children to make sense of their world.
“Imaginative play not only aids intellectual development but also improves children’s
social skills and their creativity. In addition, it gives children a chance to play out events
that they have observed or experienced in real life.” And this means also situations they

might have some problems to deal with. In fact, role plays can help to “explore moral issues
and problems safely”.
It is very interesting to see and hear children when having role plays that imitate a grown
up, saying the things we use to tell them. By interiorizing our roles, they become little adults,
and by playing, they get to understand us better.
Also, by getting into the future or the past, the role plays permits to visit or re-visit places
and moments our children need to handle. They can travel anywhere, in the real world or in
a very fictional one, where people have special powers or things which are not normal.
Role play: with adults and children:
When teachers are involved in the play, they have the opportunity to understand different
points of view simply by acting.
If you play the role of a baby or a child and one of your children plays a parent or a teacher,
you relive how it feels to be the “little one”. And sometimes we adults get to know what our
children retain from what we teach them, how they feel about the way we talk to them.
During these role plays, when our children play our part, it’s like we were looking in a
mirror. These role plays are very helpful as you get to know what bothers 168 your children,
what they are afraid of or what they are particularly proud of. They have the opportunity to
express their fears and needs without being judged. Role play gives us the unique chance to
meet our children in an imaginary world.
Principles for Effective Role Playing:
As a teaching technique, role playing is based on the philosophy that meanings are in
people, not in words or symbols. If that philosophy is accurate, we must first of all share the
meanings, then clarify our understandings of each other’s meanings, and finally, if
necessary, change our meanings. In the language of phenomenological psychology, this has
to do with changing the self-concept. The self-concept is best changed through direct
involvement in a realistic and life-related problem situation rather than through hearing
about such situations from others. Creating a teaching situation which can lead to the change

of self-concepts requires a distinct organizational pattern. One helpful structure for role
playing follows:
1. Preparation
a. Define the problem
b. Create a readiness for the role(s)
c. Establish the situation
d. Cast the characters
e. Brief and warm up
f. Consider the training
2. Playing
a. Acting
b. Stopping
c. Involving the audience
d. Analyzing the discussion
e. Evaluating
It is important to note that all of them focus on group experiences rather than on
unilateral behavior of the teacher. The group should share in the defining of the problem,
carrying out the role-playing situation, discussing the results, and evaluating the whole
experience. The teacher must identify the situation clearly so that both the characters and
the audience understand the problem at hand. In casting the characters, the wise teacher
will try to accept volunteers rather than assign roles. Students must realize that acting
ability 169 is not at stake here but rather the spontaneous discharge of how one thinks
the character of his role would react in the defined situation.
It is important to evaluate role playing in the light of the prescribed goals. Categorizing
behavior is often overdone and gets in the way of the learning process. Evaluation should
proceed on both group and personal levels, raising questions concerning the validity of
the original purpose.

Throughout the entire process it will be necessary to deal with certain problems which
arise in role playing situations. The backward, silent member must be encouraged to
contribute. Create an atmosphere in which he is unafraid to share ideas, confident that
no one will laugh at his contributions or harshly criticize his conclusions.
The overbearing monopolize must be curtailed in the discussion phase of role playing
lest he dominate the group and thereby quash the dynamic, solving this problem may
require some personal counseling outside of class. Tension and conflict in the group may
not always be bad. Sometimes these elements act as a stimulant to thinking. There is
such a thing as “creative tension,” and it is frequently found in a role-playing situation
as group dynamic emerges.
At the end of the discussion time the group should collectively measure its effectiveness
in reaching solutions to the role problem posed at the beginning. The techniques of role
playing afford another approach to involving students in their own learning process
toward the clarification of self-concepts, evaluation of behavior, and aligning of that
behavior with reality.
Basic Role-Playing Procedure:
Procedures for the role- play
1. Prepare class for the role-play:
• Present an artificial problem, situation or event that represents some aspect of reality.
• Define the problem, situation and roles clearly.
2. Give clear instructions
• Determine whether role-plays will be carried out using student volunteers in front
of the class (the teacher may or may not play a role), in partnerships/small groups with
every student playing a role, or in small groups with role-players and observers.
• Divide students into groups, if appropriate.
• Model the skill with a scripted role-play.

3. Act out role-plays
• Students follow the procedure outlined by the teacher to act out role-plays.
• Unless the teacher is playing a role, it is helpful to walk around the room and observe
how students are experiencing the role-play and offer coaching to students who are stuck.
Discussion (small group and whole class)
• Begin by allowing players to communicate feelings experienced during the roleplay.
• Have students identify sexual health skills that were demonstrated during the role-
play.
• Determine actions that strengthen or weaken these skills (i.e., body language).
• Discuss how this role-play is or isn’t similar to real life.
• Identify ways of using identified sexual health skills in real life situations. Alternatives
to Traditional Procedure
• Have students write role-plays as scripts.
• Have students write down responses and then role-play in front of the class.
• Have students generate a list of challenging “lines”, then have a student read the lines
to the class and have each student give a response.
• Have students develop and act out plays. Tips for Using Role-Play
• Begin with fairly easy situations and work up to more challenging ones.
• Be aware that some students may feel threatened or self-conscious. Using humor can
help dispel embarrassment. Using role-plays that exaggerate weak responses might
break the ice.
• Reduce the level of abstraction or complexity so that the students may become directly
involved with underlying concepts.
• If students find it difficult to determine skills which model sexual health, they could
observe successful role models or ask experts to suggest approaches.
Benefits of Role-play Strategy

1. Student interest in the topic is raised.
2. Active Participation.
3. Long-term retention.
4. It enhances communication and interpersonal skills.
5. It can be used with individuals or in group situations.
6. It teaches empathy and understanding of different perspectives.
7. It help individuals to learn to accept both their own feelings and those of others.
8. It develops confidence and self-efficacy.
9. Provides teacher immediate feedback about the learner’s understanding and ability
to apply concepts. 10. It develops competence.
11. It is useful for a range of topics, including interviewing, counseling skills, personal
relationships, and team working.
12. They require mental and physical activity e.g., gesturing to put forward a point.
13. Reduces discipline problems which often arise from boredom and lack of
motivation.
Limitations of Role-play Strategy
1. Role play may awaken previously subdued or suppressed emotions.
2. Less effective in large groups (Chaos).
3. Teacher must accept her new role where she/he does not dominate the class
anymore.
4. Embarrassment for some students.
5. Can lack focus unless well planned and monitored.
6. Can be unpredictable in terms of outcomes.
7. Can be time-consuming
Simulation:

A conscious attempt to represent a real-life situation in which participants take on
roles that would enable them to see how a particular situation might unfold.
Educational games and simulations, unlike direct forms of instruction, are experiential
exercises. That is, student teams may be racing each other to reach a pot of gold
(game), sifting through an archeological site and analyzing the artifacts (simulation),
or managing a financial institution for several months (simulation). Currently, the
increased power and flexibility of computer technology is contributing to renewed
interest in games and simulations. This development coincides with the current
perspective of effective instruction in which meaningful learning depends on the
construction of knowledge by the learner. Games and simulations, which can provide
an environment for the learner's construction of new knowledge, have the potential to
become a major component of this focus. The technology, however, faces two major
problems at present. One is that comprehensive design paradigms derived from
learning principles have not been available. Coupled with the variety of disciplines
attempting to develop games and simulations, the result is a variety of abridged
exercises often mislabeled as simulations. These mislabeled exercises indicated the
need for effective design models for games and simulations. Design models are the
"soft technologies" that influence and activate the thought processes of the learners
rather than the "hard technology" of the computer (Jonassen, 1988). Also, poorly
developed exercises are not effective in achieving the objectives for which simulations
are most appropriate-that of developing students' problem-solving skills.

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