Contralateral Theory and Sound Localization Models

Contralateral Theory
bushy cells in the CN converge onto single neurons in the medial superior olive (Kitzes, Kageyama, Semple, & Kil, 1995; Lindsey, 1975; Osen,
(1969); Smith, Joris & Yin, 1969). The convergence of excitatory neural action potential from the ipsilateral CN and inhibitory inputs from the
contralateral CN simulates a simple subtraction mechanism, which produces the ILD of lateral superior olive neurons (Boudreau & Tsuchitani, 1968;
Caird & Klinke, 1983; Guinan, Guinan, Norris, 1972). Specifically, this organization works in such a way that neurons ipsilateral to an intense sound
source are highly excited while the contralateral neurons to the same sound source are highly inhibited (Yin, 2002). Also, increasing evidence suggests
low–frequency... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Also, Grothe et al. (2010) purported that ITD sensitivity in the neurons is not generated by a pure time delay mechanism but that additionally, a
form of phase delay is present, which is not explained with simple, "EE" and "EI" inputs as suggested by Jeffress model. Localization Models
Sound localization models simulate the human auditory system to estimate the processing of spatial information. For example, the Jeffress model
uses delay lines and coincidence cells to mimic the processing of ITDs in the brainstem. According to this model, two separate delay lines exist for
each ear that run parallel (axonal delay paths). The signals travelling along both delay lines meet at a coincidence cell, which then sends a signal to
the next stage. If a sound signal is impinging from a sideways direction, the signal arrives п¬Ѓrst at the ipsilateral side due to path–length differences
from the sound source to each of the two ears. The signal at the ipsilateral side enters the delay line п¬Ѓrst and has more time to travel before it meets
the signal from the contralateral ear. Consequently, both signals will evoke a laterally displaced coincidence cell. A number of studies have
demonstrated characteristic delay in medial superior olive neurons
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Essay On Marlee Matlin
Actress Marlee Matlin has been a long time advocate for deaf rights and deaf culture. At 18 months old an illness permanently destroyed all her
hearing in the right ear and 80% of the hearing in her left, making her legally deaf. However, Marlee did not let this impairment stop her from
pursuing a professional acting career. In 1987, she received the Academy Award for Best Actress for her role in Children of a Lesser God, becoming
the youngest winner of a lead acting award and the first deaf individual to receive the honor. Since then, she has starred in several films and television
shows, the most recent being the television series Switched at Birth which features several deaf cast members and a storyline that endorses deaf culture.
She has also written two books that, "tell the world what it was like being deaf" bringing more awareness to the impairment (Bio.com). Now, Marlee
Matlin serves as the celebrity spokesperson for the National Association of the Deaf (National Association of the Deaf).
The patient's symptoms suggest a bilateral, symmetrical, severe degree of sensorineural hearing loss. The initial sign of this hearing loss was the two ...
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Because the loss is severe to profound and sensorineural, the child does qualify for a cochlear implant or hearing (behind the ear or body aid). If the
parents choose the implant, surgery should happen immediately to begin the development of speaking and listening skills (312). Another option for the
parents is to raise the child in their current condition. Both parents have a family history of deafness and communicate using sign language. Neither
parent has an implant and may have an aversion to it and could therefore communicate with the child using sign

A Child's Brain Is Critical To Brain Development
Studies have shown that the first three years of an individual's life is critical to brain development. These three years are the most important. The
brain shapes the basis for what is to come later on in an individual's life. The child's brain is very fascinating. It is fabricated of diverse parts that
control feelings, judgement, language, memory, behavior, and motor skills. Thebrain has different areas that are intersected circuits. This bases the
mind to develop stronger or weaker depending on the experiences of a child.
To start off with a child's brain, you have to know all the parts to it. Starting with the brainstem, located at the top of the spinal cord near the neck, is
the most significant part of the brain to cultivate at ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The cerebellum is very important because it is the reason for learning whether it is a language or a skill.
It gets its name from its location, the temporal lobe, controls hearing, smell, and verbal understanding. This is where learning, memorizing, and
demonstrative reactions take place. Out of all five senses, hearing is the first to completely cultivate in a baby. This is why a baby cries when born
because of everything going on around him or her. Smell also develops early in your infant 's life. Newborns react to smells on their first day also.
Shockingly, a lot of a baby's progress occurs long before he or she is even born.
The occipital lobe, also located near the back of the head controls vision and gives the capability to comprehend what an individual is seeing. This
may come as a surprise, but a baby's vision is the least developed out of the five senses. They can only see up to fifteen inches away. Everything is
kind of one big blur to them. The most they can make up is movements of shapes. This is because the neural pathways that communicate graphic
material to the brain aren't fully developed yet. Thankfully the occipital lobe makes it possible for pathways to develop, making the baby see a
assortment of objects. This is where practice makes perfect comes in. With the baby being around new things by 8 months it will be able to see as
well as

The Body 's Central Nervous System Essay
Research:
The Brain The brain is known as a spongy organ made up of nerve and supportive tissues. It is located on top of the head and protected by the skull.
Beneath, the brain is linked/connected to the spinal cord whereby they're considered to be the major control network for the body's functions and
abilities to do work. Both the brain and spinal cord comprises the body's Central Nervous System (CNS) and empowers conscious communication
with the body and also helps perform vital operations such as breathing, releasing hormones, and maintaining blood pressure. The Central Nervous
System (CNS) works along with the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS). According to the Canadian Cancer Society, "PNS is made up of nerves that
branch out from the spinal cord to relay messages from the brain to different parts of the body." In summary, both CNS and PNS enable a person to
talk, walk, and do lots of creative/physical activities. The brain collects and interprets nerve signals from the entire body and also responds based on
information being collected from the person itself. There are so many complexity in which many parts of the brain controls how we feel/emotional
needs, our speech, movement, body temperature, self–awareness, and many more. In depth, the brain is divided into several sections/groups. Sections
include the Cerebrum, Cerebellum, brainstem, and the diencephalon.
The cerebrum is considered to be the largest part of the brain. Split in two parts called the left and

Response To Music
Goal: Help people cope with mental challenges via music and pianos
Total word count in this document:
Title:
Our emotional response to music is very individual. Not all 'happy' songs are universally perceived as being uplifting or are guaranteed to put you in a
good mood all the time. Neuroscientists have found that music enters our nervous system through the auditory brainstem and also causes the
cerebellum to 'light up' on a brain scan. Music and mood are inherently linked. Scientists continue to uncover how these influences occur at a neural
level. Studies prove that the music we listen to engages a wide range of neurobiological systems that affect our psychology.
Music and the nerve system
Music creates vibration in the body and this ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The research strongly suggests that the neural connections made during musical training also prime the brain for other aspects of human
communication. An active engagement with musical sounds not only enhances neuroplasticity, but also enables the nervous system to provide the
stable scaffolding of meaningful patterns so important to learning.
How it works
Music appears to be processed in the right hemisphere of the brain. The way we experience music also affects our nervous system. There are different
neurons that respond according to what kind of music is playing. Music can effect hormones, encourage the production of cortisol, testosterone, and
oxytocin. Music can even trigger a release of endorphins. Beyond the biology and the actual responses of your body, there are definite responses of the
mind as well. There are different components to music that can have an effect. Pitch, harmony, frequency, melody, and rhythm all affect the brain in
different ways. We know that some of the brain locations are involved in helping to heal and soothe the body as well. The brain can be taught and
stimulated to perform better – and it seems that music is the perfect vehicle to do

Anatomy Test with Answers
Page 429 #'s 1–7 1. List the three major parts of the brain and describe their locations. A. cerebrum– constitutes about 83% of its volume and consists
of a pair of half–globes called the cerebral hemispheres. B. cerebellum– lies inferior to the cerebrum and occupies the posterior cranial fossa. C.
brainstem– that which remains of the brain if the cerebrum and cerebellum are removed. 2. Gyrus– a wrinkle or fold in the cortex of the cerebrum or
cerebellum.
Sulcus– a groove in the surface of an organ; as in the cerebrum, the heart, or a bone. 3. Name the parts of the brainstem from caudal to rostral. Medulla
oblongata, pons, midbrain, diencephalon 4. Name the three meninges from superficial to deep. Dura mater, arachnoid mater, ... Show more content on
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Less efficient signal conduction and synaptic transmission
28. Describe the neuroanatomical and behavioral changes seen in Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases. Alzheimer disease involves memory deficits,
personality derangement, and loss of motor and cognitive skills. At the structurl level, it shows neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques in the
cerebral tissue, a loss of cholinergic neurons, and a low level of acetycholine in affected areas of the brain. Parkinson disease results from degeneration
of dopamine–releasing neurons of the midbrain substantia nigra and is characterized by involuntary muscle contractions and progressive difficulty in
motor tasks such as walking and speech.
Page 477 #'s 5 and 6
5. Explain why the sympathetic division is also called the thoracolumbar division even though its paravertebral ganglia extend all the way from the
cervical to the sacral region. The sympathetic chain extends for the entire length of the vertebral column, from cervical to coccygeal, but it is directly
attached to the spinal cord only at levels T1 through L2.
6. Describe or diagram the structural relationships among the following; preganglionic fiber, postganglionic fiber, ventral ramus, gray ramus, white
ramus, and paravertebral ganglion.
Page 482 #'s 17 and 18
17. How do the pre– and postganglionic neurons of the ANS differ in embryonic origin? Preganglionic neurons of the ANS develop from the neural

Locked In Syndrome
Introduction: Locked–in syndrome (LIS) presents in a patient as someone who is conscious but cannot move or communicate verbally. This is caused
by the complete paralysis of almost all voluntary muscles in the body except for the eyes. Total locked–in syndrome is similar to locked–in syndrome
except the eyes are paralyzed in addition to all other voluntary muscles. Although locked–in syndrome is associated with quadriplegia and aphasia, some
individuals who are afflicted are able to communicate through a systematic movement of their eyes which are often unaffected by the paralysis. With
current advancements in medical technology as well as the patient's ability to communicate oftentimes there is no loss of cognitive function in
individuals who have this syndrome.
Causes: Locked–in syndrome ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Tests that may be performed to rule out other conditions include magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) which can show potential damage to the pons as
well as magnetic resonance angiography, which can show whether or not there are blood clots in the arteries of the brainstem. In addition, these tests
can be used to determine if there is damage in other parts of the brain as well. Other tests that can be used to diagnose this disease are:
electroencephalogram (EEG), which measures the electrical activity of the brain revealing the brain activity and sleep–wake cycles of patients and
evoked potentials, tests that measure the EEG signal in response to stimulation usually pain, auditory or visual this gives physicians a look at the
responses of the brainstem as well as the responses of the brain. Additionally, electromyography, a test which records electrical activity in the voluntary
muscles and nerve conduction, a test which determines the ability of nerves to relay impulses to the muscles are both tests which are used in the
process of diagnosing this

Deafness : What It Is?
What is deafness?
Deafness is very different to people's general perception of what it actually is. The most common view is that it is a complete loss of hearing
however deafness is defined as the lack or loss of the ability to hear. You can either be born deaf or gradually lose the ability to hear later on in life
(Presbycusis). Pre natal or congenital causes of deafness may be due to a specific X chromosome being passed on through generations of families
even though there may be no previous history of deafness in the family. Deafness at birth can also be caused by illness during pregnancy such as
herpes, rubella or even toxoplasmosis.
Causes of deafness include the birth of premature babies. This ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Mixed hearing loss– This is when there is a combination of SNHL and conductive hearing loss so the damage may occur in the outer/inner ear or the
auditory nerve. As the source of the problem is unknown, this is known as mixed hearing loss.
Facts about Deafness
With approximately ten million people who suffer from hearing loss, it makes up the second largest disability in the UK. The majority being of
retirement age or above.
Out of the 10 million people (approx.) only around two million people use hearing aids.
There are many different types of sign language for example, American Sign Language (ASL), British Sign Language (BSL), International Sign (IS)
and many more. All have subtle differences in them.
Approximately 840 children are born deaf in both ears each year. 90% of deaf children are born to hearing parents with little or no experience of
deafness or knowledge of how to communicate with a deaf person.
Most of the time tinnitus (the constant ringing sound in people heads) will accompany hearing loss which makes the effect of deafness even more
frustrating. The tinnitus can be mild or severe depending on each person and their age.
By 2031, it is estimated that there will be 14.5 million people with hearing loss in the UK.
Approximately 360 million people

Central Auditory Processing Disorder
Except for outwardly appearances, speech may be the one of the most defining elements of a person's identity, "psychologists generally consider
language a prime manifestation of underlying cognitive processes" (Solso, MacLin, & MacLin, 2008, p. 468). Just by listening over the phone, I can
tell whether a family member is feeling positive, in ill health, or worried about events in their lives. Should vocal language be the only measure of
underlying cognitive processes?
As a small child, it was frustrating to not be able to make the adults in my life understand me. Many years later after development of the brainstem
auditory evoked response test (BAER), a doctor who it seemed was always on the cutting edge of his science and working with neurologists at the old
Lovelace Medical Center, tested my hearing using the BAER . For me, the results of this test were life changing because for the first time in 28 years
my not being able to understand much of the conversation around me and consequently, my ability to communicate had a name–a diagnosis–central
auditory processing disorder–I heard at two different speeds and both were at a slower rate than that of the general population.
The BAER measures latency in milliseconds or in layman terms, the BAER measures the length of time it takes for sound to travel from the ear to the
brain stem (Ness, 2009). An important benefit of the BAER is that it can be easily used for diagnosis of auditory processes in infants and young

Hearing Screenings
Without hearing screenings average diagnosis of permanent hearing loss is greater than 2 years old. Late diagnosis of hearing loss has been one of the
contributing factors of reduced language skills in children (Durieux–Smith, Fitzpatrick, & Whittingham, 2008). Since the early 1980s, the Joint
Committee on Infant Hearing has published recommendations and multiple position statements which support the use of newborn hearing screenings,
to decrease the age of diagnosis of children with permanent hearing loss. By 2000, there was a federal law to support universal newborn hearing
screenings (UNHS). The law also promoted early intervention for children with hearing loss, in hopes to improve speech/language abilities for children
with hearing loss ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The study included children who received a diagnosis of a congenital or early–onset (before 6 months) permanent hearing loss that was not medically
treatable (Durieux–Smith et al., 2008). Data was collected from the groups of children who were identified with permanent hearing loss through a
targeted high–risk screening program, a universal newborn hearing–screening program, or through a medical referral either with risk factors or without
factors. Data on the onset of permanent hearing loss, route to referral, etiology, age at diagnosis, and amplification fitting were all obtained from their
medical charts to determine the primary outcomes of language abilities with early identification. Results from the study showed children screened at
infancy were diagnosed earlier than those referred with risk factors (Durieux–Smith et al., 2008). Children with risk factors, in turn, were diagnosed
earlier than referred without risk factors. Although, the age of diagnosis of referred children was seen to improve over time, it remained significantly
higher than children receiving screenings. However, this trend of earlier diagnosis may reflect greater awareness of hearing loss. Results from this
study indicate UNHS leads therefore earlier diagnosis and to earlier amplification, which then leads to earlier auditory stimulation (Durieux–Smith et
al.,

Biology Reflection
Spinal Cord: one part of the central nervous system that allows the brain to communicate with the rest of the body using neural fibers to connect to the
peripheral nervous system (Myers 89).
Medulla: regulates the basic life–sustaining functions of the organism, like breathing and heartbeat, and is located at the bottom of the brainstem
(Myers 97). I chose the yoga symbol because sometimes I like to do yoga to relax and just focus on my breathing.
Pons: sitting atop the medulla, this structure regulates the organism's mobility (Myers 97). I like to hike and go on walks, which require my body to
move.
Cerebellum: this structure converts sensory information into a physical response, aids in learning new information and memorizing information
without verbal information, and keeps the body stable physically (Myers 98). All types of books provide me with new information that I can learn
through reading.
Reticular formation: a system of nerves that is vital in managing alertness and sleep and wake cycles in the area between the thalamus and brainstem
(Myers 98). I like to use alarms to remind myself about assignments or tasks I have to do and when I have to wake up.
Thalamus: at the tip of the brainstem, this structure sends sensory information to its respective area in the cortex of the brain and sends the cerebellum
and medulla the response (Myers 97). When I taste cheese, the sensory information is sent to the thalamus, and then since cheese is so good, my body
wants more.

Differences Between SCM-And Control Trials
Our meta–analysis revealed that premotor reaction times are indeed faster in SCM+ than in SCM– trials. The estimated magnitude of this effect across
the studies may be long enough to entertain the possibility that motor programs are triggered via a pathway that bypasses some cortical areas of the
brain [1, 23], but not fast enough to completely rule out cortical involvement [11]. Although, the meta–analysis showed that the effect associated with
SCM activity is robust across studies, the heterogeneity test approached significance and depended on the correlation coefficient chosen for the studies
for which data was not available: an increase in the correlation coefficient from 0.5 to 0.56 resulted in a statistically significant... Show more content on
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[25, 26]). In contrast, although premotor RTs in response to loud acoustic stimuli (>114 dBa) are somewhat heterogeneous, differences in premotor
RT as a function of foreperiod variability are clearly mitigated, showing similar average estimates and overlapping confidence intervals for the
subgroups (see Figure 4). Why are responses initiated earlier when SCM activity is detected? Maslovat et al. [10] proposed that the detection of SCM
activity indicates that a more direct neural circuit, common with the startle reflex, was responsible for involuntarily triggering the prepared response.
Thus, when responses occur without SCM activity (SCM–), the longer typical neural circuit – involving the auditory cortex – would trigger the motor
response. This model would explain why responses are faster when SCM activity is observed. Interestingly, the StartReact effect can still be observed
when the startle reflex is abolished due to the presentation of a less intense stimulus before the go–signal (pre–pulse inhibition or PPI)[16]. This is
counterintuitive because it suggests that the more direct neural circuit is still activated when the transient activation of the midbrain nuclei by PPI
stimulus exerts long–lasting inhibition of the giant neurons of the caudal pontine reticular nucleus [34]. Alternatively, we have suggested that the
apparent correlation between SCM activity and premotor RT could be a result of variations in the build–up of

Relationship Between Vasopressin And Taste Processing
Vasopressin and visual processing The association between Arginine vasopressin and visual processing is one of the least studied regions when it
comes to AVP and sensory integration links although many visual inputs enter brain regions which are comprised of vasopressin receptors. One of the
few studies that research this link includes an exploration of visual opsin sequences in diverse vertebrate animals. The researchers claimed that the
visual opsins and AVP receptors are located together in the same genomic region(130). For instance, in chickens, it was claimed that a visual opsin was
sharing a genomic region with AVT in the neurons. Nonetheless, even though the other functions of opsins besides the visual ones are still unknown, a
study performed in Japan hypothesize that the pigments are permitting the neurons to react to light and contribute with coordination of behavior
(Bester et al. 2015). Vasopressin and Taste processing
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There has been cases where AVP and gustatory responses were correlated. A study conducted in japan illustrated that AVP modulate gustatory responses
by controlling the activity of epithelial sodium ion channels (ENaCs)(119). These are channels that are found in the organs of the respiratory, urinary
systems and that modulate salty and sour tastes. According to research done on hamsters, AVP in the blood could increase sensitivity to salty or sour
tastes as AVP increases sodium ion currents in the epithelium channels which suggests that the threshold for stimulation of taste cells is being

Comparison Of ITD And ILD For Binaural Processing
(Grothe, Pecka & Mcalpine, 2010). The comparisons of ITD and ILD for binaural processing in the auditory system begin at the superior olivary
complex (SOC) where bushy cells in the CN target the nuclei of the SOC (Stotler, 1953; Lindsey, 1975). The processing of monaural cues originate
from specialized cells in the AVCN and DCN to thelateral lemniscus, or directly to the inferior colliculus (IC) on the contralateral side (Schwartz,
1992). The IC receives almost all ascending fibres as a synaptic station and exhibits more complex response characteristics than the lower brainstem
nuclei. It appears that binaural processing and hence localization is completed at the level of the IC although information on binaural processing
mechanisms at ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The results of the study suggested that the buildup of precedence effect relates to N1 refractoriness, event related potential 'lead domination' and
mismatch negativity differences.
Neuronal processing of spectral cues
The various types of DCN neurons appear specialized for processing spectral cues. Responses of type IV neurons seem to be determined by neural
circuits within the DCN (Oertel & Young, 2004) and show small "islands" (lateral inhibition) at high–intensity stimulation. This inhibitory network of
type IV neurons may be a provision for the tuning of neural inputs from primary auditory nerve fibers. Therefore, the neural network and inhibition in
the DCN render these specialized neurons sensitive to notches in the acoustic spectrum generated by the interaction of sound with the various
structures of the torso (Imig, Bibikov, Poirier, Samson, 2000; Young, Spirous, Rice, Voigt, 1992). The main target of type IV neurons in the DCN is
type O neurons in the IC. Type O neurons in the IC exhibit an inhibitory receptive field with a small area of excitation at low stimulus intensities. IC
neurons show response to the frequency of a spectral notch with opposite characteristics to type IV neurons in the DCN, showing considerable
excitatory responses for a single notch frequency, particularly at higher sound intensities, flanked by inhibitory regions

Primary Functions Of The Brain
The brain is an astonishing organ used in an everyday life, but do you know what each function of the brain does? The myth about humans using only
10 percent of our brain has been around for decades, but what the people don't know is that there is "no scientific evidence to suggest" that theory
(Chudler). We all know that the brain isn't just a simple organ. Billions and trillions of connections or also known as synapses create those neurons
that our brain consists of. The weight of each and every brain weighs about "3 pounds" (Lewis). It consists of "two percent body weight" (Lewis), and
is larger in relation to body size than any other brain. Our brains are the "same structure as mammal brains", and are both the "command center for the
It controls the behavior such as hunger, thirst, sleep and sexual response. It also "regulates body temperature, blood pressure, emotions, and secretion of
hormones" (Hines).
What lies beneath the cerebrum is called the cerebellum, which has an important function in motor control. It has a role with coordination and
balance. "The left brain involves speech and language as the right brain involves visual and auditory" (Lewis). Everyone uses both halves of the
brain at the same time. "Both right and left brain are joined by a bundle of fibers called the corpus callosum that delivers messages from one side to
another" (Hines). "Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body. Such as the left hemisphere is dominant in hand use and language in about
92% of people." (Hines).
Did you ever wonder where we get the intelligence, creativity, emotion and memory? Well it is all governed by the brain. Our brain receives
information through our five senses, and they are sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing. Another thing is that our brain controls everything. It controls
thoughts, memory, and speech, movement in the arms and legs, and the working functions of many

Sensory Processing Disorders And The Central Nervous System
Auditory Processing Disorders, also known as Central Processing Disorders, are difficulties in the processing of auditory information in the central
nervous system. The definition for an Auditory Processing Disorder is frequently changing and evolving. According to ASHA standards in 2005, a
"central processing disorder refers to difficulties in the perceptual processing of auditory information in the central nervous system and the
neurobiological activity that underlies the processing and gives rise to the electrophysiological auditory potentials (ASHA 2005)." Recent evidence
has declared auditory processing disorders to be a legitimate clinical disorder resulting from confirmation of the link between well–defined lesions of
the central nervous system and deficits on behavioral and electrophysiological central auditory measures (Musiek, F. Journal of American Academy of
Audiology). An individual is likely to perform normally in tests including clicks and tones, rather than speech. There is a significant difference between
the receptors for audition and speech processing. It is imperative that these disorders are diagnosed and treated early in a child's development to
eliminate developmental negative consequences.
The physiology of hearing starts with a vibration that occurs in the air which sends an acoustic signal to the ear drum. The signal is transduced into a
mechanical signal that transmits through the inner ear and the cochlear nerve. Finally, the signal is

Conductive Hearing Loss In The US
Introduction In the United States, about 48 million people or 20 percent of the population is affected by hearing loss (Hearing Loss Association of
America). According to Cole and Flexer (2008), "Hearing loss is the most common birth defect" (p. xi). Approximately 16,000 to 18,000 infants and
young children are diagnosed with hearing loss every year. (Cole & Flexer, 2008).
Hearing loss can be classified in three ways based on type: conductive, sensorineural, and mixed. Conductive hearing loss is when sound is not
transmitted from the outer ear to the middle ear in an effective manner. Examples of a conductive hearing loss include: otitis media, perforation of the
tympanic membrane, impacted cerumen, benign growths, foreign objects, or a maldeveloped or absent outer ear or middle ear structure. Most ... Show
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It can be described as unilateral meaning only one ear is affected or bilateral meaning both ears are affected. Hearing loss can also be classified as
symmetrical or asymmetrical. Symmetrical means that both ears are affected equally while asymmetrical means that the ears are unequal in their
level of hearing loss. Hearing loss can also be broken down into sudden and progressive onset. Hearing loss can occur over a short period or it can
worsen over time. Fluctuating hearing loss changes over time, and stable hearing loss remains constant. Hearing loss is characterized by degree of
severity based on decibel loss (American Speech Hearing Association). Normal hearing has a decibel loss of –10 to 15. Slight hearing loss has a
decibel loss of 16 to 25. Mild hearing loss has a decibel loss of 26 to 40. Moderate hearing loss has a decibel loss of 41 to 55. Moderately severe
hearing loss has a decibel loss of 56 to 70. Severe hearing loss has a decibel loss of 71 to 90. Profound hearing loss has a decibel loss of 90 or greater
(Clark,

Clarity Hearing Assessments: A Case Study
Queensland's Audiological and Hearing Aid Experts
From basic hearing loss treatment to implant technology and more, Clarity Hearing Solutions offer comprehensive audiological services throughout
Queensland.
Our services include:
Full diagnostic paediatric Audiological assessments (3 years and below)
Otoscopy, cerumen removal if present, full immittance measures including Acoustic Reflex testing and Tympanometry, Otoacoustic emissions (OAE),
Visual Reinforcement Observation Audiometry (VROA), Auditory Brainstem Response audiometry (ABR) (if required)
Full audiometric diagnostic paediatric Audiological assessments (3 years and above)
Otoscopy, cerumen removal if present, air and bone conduction audiometry, speech audiometry, full immittance... Show more content on
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Full comprehensive rehabilitative and hearing aid assessments
Including QuickSIN adult auditory processing tests (hearing ability in background noise test)
Semi–Permanent 24/7 Implantable hearing aids (Lyric)
Advanced, high–quality, invisible, digital, Bluetooth hearing aids from all manufacturers to suit each individual's hearing needs and budget
Additional services and options
Free high quality advanced invisible digital hearing aids to eligible pensioners and DVA recipients
Including free Ultra–small BTEs, RICs, CICs, MCs, ITC with directional microphones and Bluetooth compatible hearing aids (through the government
Office of Hearing Services program)
Private Health Insurance rebates including high quality $0 No Gap range
ClarityFlex purchase free hearing treatment subscription plans
Unbundled (pay per consultation) and bundled (unlimited consultations over 1 year, 3 years or life) payment options
Interest free repayment schemes
60 day money back satisfaction guarantee with every purchase
No obligation hearing aid trials
On the spot fittings for certain hearing aids
Remote access hearing aid adjustments done over the Internet
Foreign hearing aid adjustments

We are happy to adjust or fit any hearing aids whether they are ours or from another

Brainstem Essay
It is a far–field response that reflects stimulus–locked, synchronous neural firing from nuclei along the brainstem.(45) The conventional click generated
ABR is a robust response, producing five vertex recorded positive peaks (Waves I–V) usually within 6 to 7 milliseconds after very brief duration (0.1
milliseconds), moderately high intensity click stimulation, at rates of roughly 8 to 24/sec. These waves are the result of abrupt activation of auditory
neurons from the cochlea to the inferior colliculus. About 2,000 to 4,000 repetitions are averaged from each ear within a 10 to 15 milliseconds
recording window representing one trial, and generally two superimposed trials are necessary from each ear. Only Wave V is seen after less intense
...
(47) Generally click ABR is used for threshold estimation and assessment of neural intergrity. The appearance of Wave V generally follows by about
10 to 20 dB the threshold to hear the respective click. (47) The click evoked brainstem auditory evoked potential (BAEP)/brainstem auditory evoked
response (BAER)/auditory brainstem response (ABR) has well–established utility in neurology, neurologic surgery, and otology since its introduction to
clinical medicine in the 1970s.(51) Routine click ABR interpretation consists of Waves I, III, and V absolute and interpeak interval (IPI) determinations,
and comparison with normative data. In neurologic practice, the cornerstone of click ABR interpretation has been the IPIs representing central or
brainstem conduction times, often obviating confounding middle ear conductive delay or hearing problems which usually cause a delayed Wave I. It's
elicited by click stimuli delivered to each ear separately, thus it's sensitive to brainstem lesions from tumors, trauma, hemorrhage, ischemia,
demyelination, or metabolic insult. (46) Waveform amplitudes perhaps more dependant on neuronal generators, are more variable between individuals,
susceptible to background noise and less reliable than latency conductions, although absence of waves after Wave I or II has

Ssd Case Studies
Iliadou et al. (2015) analyzed three cases of Pediatric Speech Sound Disorder (SSD) to determine if a hearing loss or auditory processing deficit played
a part in the delayed progress that was being made in speech therapy. Each child completed an otoscopy, pure–tone air conduction evaluation,
tympanometry, otoacoustic emissions (OAEs), auditory brainstem responses (ABR), and a variety of word recognition assessments (e.g. dichotic
listening, sequencing, other central auditory processing disorder assessments). Case one was an 8–year–old boy who had a diagnosis of SSD and
presented little to no progress in therapy (Iliadou et al., 2015). The mother of the child had no concerns regarding her child's hearing, although several
scenarios began... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
After a complete audiologic evaluation, the child was diagnosed with auditory neuropathy spectrum disorder (ANSD) and central auditory processing
disorder (CAPD; Iliadou et al., 2015). Case two was an 8–year, 10–month–old girl who was diagnosed with SSD after receiving speech therapy for two
consecutive months and obtaining slow progress (despite what the mother felt). After completing a diagnostic hearing evaluation, the girl presented
with a slight–to–mild hearing loss bilaterally, impaired cochlear involvement, and CAPD (Iliadou et al., 2015). The final case analyzed was a 4–year,
5–month–old girl who was receiving speech therapy for SSD and was not making the expected gains after four months of therapy. The parents reported
their daughter did not speak in sentences until she was 3–years–old, but had an otherwise unremarkable medical history. The audiologic evaluation
determined she had CAPD (although the actual diagnosis is not given to children until after the age of 7 years), cochlear dysfunction, and middle ear
dysfunction (even after bilateral pressure equalizing [PE] tubes were inserted; Iliadou et al., 2015). While the definition of SSD describes the absence
of acquired disorders (such as hearing losses, CAPD,

A Study On Diabetes Mellitus
An Electrophysiological Study on Brainstem in Type–2 DM Introduction: Diabetes mellitus is a generalized, chronic metabolic disorder manifesting
itself, in its fully developed form, by hyperglycemia, glycosuria, increased protein breakdown, ketosis and acidosis. If the disease is prolonged, it is
usually complicated by degenerative disease of the blood vessels, the retina, the kidneys and the nervous system1. T2DM is the predominant form of
diabetes worldwide, accounting for 90% cases globally. Globally, the number of people with diabetes is expected to rise from the current estimate of
285 million in 2010 to 438 million in 2030, both figures substantially higher than even recent estimates.T2DM has become one of... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Nonenzymatic glycisilation is the process by which glucose attaches to proteins without the action of any enzymes. The initial products that form over
hours to days is a Schiff base or an Amadori product, during which the process is reversible4. Intracellular hyperglycemia activates the enzyme aldose
reductase. This increases the formation of sorbitol in cells, which in turn reduces cellular Na, K ATPase. In addition, intracellular glucose can be
converted to so – called Amadori products, and these in turn can form advanced glycosylation end products (AGEs), which cross– link matrix proteins.
This damages blood vessels. The AGEs also interfere with leukocyte responses to infection5. A minor hemoglobin derivative called HbA1C is
produced by glycation, the covalent binding of glucose to hemoglobin6. Glycosilated hemoglobin testing provides an index of average blood glucose
levels over the prior two to three months. It has been established that improved glycemic control is associated with preventing or delaying the
progression of micro vascular complications in diabetes7.long– term blood glucose regulation can be followed by measurement of glycosilated
hemoglobin8. Glycated hemoglobin provides an accurate and objective measure of glycemic control over a period of weeks to months. The rate of
formation of HbA1C is directly proportional to the ambient blood glucose concentration; a rise of 1% in HbA1c corresponds to an approximate

A Brief Note On The Deaf Culture And Hearing People
When a child or an adult who is deaf, there are many options one can take to fix their hearing if they want to. They have the options of hearing aid,
cochlear implants, an auditory brainstem implant, an auditory midbrain implant, or use ASL. The cochlear implant is a very controversial topic
between the Deaf culture and hearing people. Deciding whether or not to receive the implant and be involved in the Deaf culture is a very hard
decision for someone to make because of the benefits but also the complications that could happen after the surgery. My original opinion about the
implant was neutral because if I got asked what I would do if my child was born deaf, I would not know what to do because I did not have enough
information about the cochlear implant. However now, I feel that I have learned more about the implant and think that an implant and still be
exposed to Deaf culture is the best way to go. So my original opinions I felt wishy washy about the topic. I understood both sides of the argument,
but I did not know what I would do. Getting the implant provides many opportunities for the person, but then their deaf identity is not really in their
life anymore because the person needs to focus on speaking to learn English. So I did not know what I would do if I was put in that situation.
Throughout this class, I have gained more knowledge about the two sides and it has helped me get a better understanding of what I would do if I had
a child born profoundly deaf or I

Superior Temporal Gyrus Research Paper
It's hard to understand how people can say dance is easy when it's so complex to be thinking about every single part of your body at the same time
making sure it's in perfect position from one movement to the next throughout a whole routine and even before that during the hour–long practices for
months. The body endures too much with bumps and bruises, stretching and soreness, and pops and cracks but that's only the physical aspect of what a
dancer has to go through. The mind is worked and conditioned along the journey to improve what you see externally. Thebrain undergoes critical
thinking of the song playing, beats, timing, when and how to move certain body parts until the end of every performance.
The Superior temporal Gyrus is responsible for processing sounds with the primary auditory cortex. Some areas of the superior temporal gyrus are
specialized for processing combination of frequencies while other areas are specialized for processing changes in amplitude or frequency. This
contributes to hearing rhythm with steady beats and fluctuations in music which is just vibrating air molecules connecting with the eardrum with
different ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Thalamus tells whether the signals been received are any signs of danger by communicating with the hippocampus. The hippocampus stores historical
sound/danger associations while the thalamus links to the amygdala to initiate an emotional response. The amygdala is an important part of the limbic
system. The limbic system in involved without emotions, feelings of pleasure, and memories while the amygdala is specifically for the processing of
emotions, memories, and motivation. For a dancer to truly perform, they give off emotion based on the music. Whether the music is sad they show it
in their facial expressions and play out a character that is perceived by the

Selective Attention Paper
Cherry, a British physiologist, has suggested the cocktail party effect for the first time about 60 years ago. It means that a person can attend to one
speaker while ignoring others at the same time, and that is happened just by selective attention[2]. In many studies, it has been showed that during
auditory selective attention, amplitude of some of the components of ERPs increase which causes new waves such as Nd and N2 with longer latency.
These findings represent the role of higher processing in selecting the auditory stream. Hilyard in 1973 introduced an EEG–based auditory selective
attention protocol to investigate the brain`s electrophysiological activity during the auditory attention. It has been demonstrated that N1 amplitude of the
FFR was used in a study to investigate the effects of selective attention on humans` primary auditory cortex area and thalamus. Increased response was
observed at the fundamental frequency in comparison to that of the ignored vowel[5]. Few researchers study the effect of selective attention on the
brainstems responses. In 1993 Ario and .et al has investigated the effects of selective attention on the click–ABR. He showed that selective attention
modulates the response at the brainstem level less than that of the cortical level[6]. For the first time, in 2008 it has been stated that auditory selective
attention causes activity in the inferior colliculus, which is in the brainstem. Auditory selective attention intensely activates neural activity in human`s
auditory cortex. On the contrary, the role of the attention in subcortical auditory processing was not that much interesting. In this study, fMRI was used
to investigate the activity of the inferior colliculus (IC) during the auditory selective attention procedure. Inferior colliculus lies in the auditory pathway
with various internal and external

Neonatal Auditory System
Auditory development starts from 23 to 24 weeks of gestational age. At this time fetal auditory threshold is approximately 65dB.Auditory system
development continues during intrauterine life, and the threshold is gradually diminished to that of an adult level(1). Some parts of neonatal auditory
system develop after birth shortly . persistence of appropriate sensory stimulants is important for normal growth and development (2). Preterm
newborns are susceptible to negative effects of environmental stimuli due to immature central nervous system, and decreased autonomic and
self–regularity abilities of dealing with stress. They are unable to coordinate autonomic responses to environmental and tactile stimulation until 32 to 34
weeks' postmenstrual age (PMA). because of excessive... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Excessive sound may affect the neuroendocrine system and may have indirect effect on immunity(5). Stress from noise causing activation of the
hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, and causes growth–inhibition through the action of corticosteroids possibly(8). Neonatologist should monitor the
sound in the NICU, and in incubators. A noise level 45 dB is recommended by the US Environmental Protection Agency(9). NICU personnel should
do simple instruction to reduce noise in the nicu (no tapping no writing on the incubators tops and hoods, closing the incubator doors carefully,
wearing soft shoes).lowering sound level can be done also by earmuffs or earplugs. These earmuffs, which are laid on infants' external ears, diminish
the sound intensity to at least 7 dB and the sound pressure level by over 50%, so that they do not block infants' necessary hearing stimulation for
nervous system development(4). If this simple strategies fail to reduce noise levels, more technical strategies should be considered (incubator covers,
use of equipment causing less

Neuroanatomy Assignment 3 Assignment
Rebecca Luther 12/10/14 Professor Datta Neuroanatomy Assignment #3 Part A The brain is a complex organ, involving multiple processes and
pathways. Laila is able to first guess, and then confirm, that her friends have ordered pizza through a few different processes. The human nervous
system plays an essential part in receiving and interpreting all outside stimuli. It integrates information from the outside world with information from
inside the body. It initiates appropriate responses to the environment, and includes all movements and behavioral actions. In the first part of the story,
Laila is walking over to her dorm. The beginning of the processes starts at the level of neurons. A series of Laila's sensory nerves receive external
stimuli... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Extrapyramidal tract consists of tracts that descend directly into the spinal chord, and are important for motor movement. This system is
responsible for refining and regulating the motor commands. This makes the processes of Laila's speech and walking more controlled and smooth. On
a side note from Laila's speech, there are subsystems within the Extrapyramidal tract. The first is the Tectospinal tract, which is responsible for
orienting the head/eye movements to sudden stimuli. This allows Laila to turn her eyes and walk to her friends in response to the outside stimuli.
Vestibulospinal tract is located in the pons and medulla to the brainstem. It helps to control Laila's balance in order to walk. The Reticulospinal tract
plays an important part in controlling autonomic functions. Rubrospinal tract is responsible for skeletal muscle control and is important in regulating
muscle tone for posture. The Pyramidal Tract is the second major pathway for motor planning and execution for Laila's speech. This tract comes from
pyramidal cells of the primary motor cortex and controls voluntary movement of the skeletal muscles. Meaning, this system controls gross motor
movement instead of fine motor movement. This also has three subsystems within. The corticonuclear tract contains fibers of the pyramidal tract that
synapse with cranial nerves (III,

The Human Brain : The Nervous System Of The Human Body
There are eleven systems in the human body which one of them is known as the nervous system. Like most systems in the human body, the nervous
system is composed of organs such as the brain, spinal cord, nerves and ganglia. The nervous system has been known to be the bodys primary
communication and control system.
The brain which is principally the main organ of the nervous system, is the center of all mental activity. These activities include thought, learning, and
memory. It is also the most complex and delicate organ within the body. Within the brain are four major regions which are the brainstem, cerebellum,
diencephalon, and cerebrum.
In an article about Human Brain: Facts, Functions and Anatomy it quotes that "The largest part of the human brain is the cerebrum, which is divided
into two hemispheres. Underneath lies the brainstem, and behind that sits the cerebellum. The outermost layer of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex,
which consists of four lobes: the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the temporal lobe and the occipital lobe." It's been known that the cerebrum is the most
developed part of the human brain. The cerebrum, also known as the telencephalon, has several functions such as thinking, reasoning, planning
/organization, motor function, understanding language, and so on. The cerebrum obtains this information and later sends it to a particular part of the
cerebrum. This means that the cerebrum interprets the information and decides what is the next

Pediatric Hearing Testing
Hearing Tests, Pediatric
WHAT IS A HEARING TEST?
A hearing test is a test to check for hearing loss in one or both ears. A hearing screening is a quick and simple hearing test to see whether more
in–depth tests are needed. If your child passes the screening, this means he or she does not have hearing loss. If the results of the screening show that
there could be a problem, your child may need to see a hearing specialist (pediatric audiologist) for more detailed testing and evaluation.
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF HEARING TESTS?
There are several types of hearing tests. Hearing is measured in decibels (dB). Infants and babies often screened with:
Otoacoustic emissions (OAEs) testing. This test uses an earphone to measure OAEs, which ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Many hearing tests are done in a room with special equipment. Some tests, such as speech testing, are done in a noisy environment to see if your child
can block out background noise.
For additional testing, your child may need to see a pediatric audiologist. The audiologist will:
Ask questions about your child's symptoms and medical history.
Check inside your child's ears with a lighted instrument (otoscope).
WHAT CAN AFFECT THE RESULTS OF THE TEST?
The results of a hearing test can be affected by:
A cold or an ear infection.
Earwax buildup.
Recent injury (trauma).
Recent noise exposure, such as listening to loud music with headphones.
Medical symptoms such as headache, memory problems, or fatigue.
Physical abnormalities (defects) in the ear.
Trouble cooperating or understanding the test instructions.
Noise in the testing environment.
Misreported test answers.

Faulty equipment.
Level of training of the test giver.
WHAT ARE SOME QUESTIONS TO ASK MY CHILD'S HEALTH CARE PROVIDER?
How will my child's testing be done?
What are the risks of the

Skeletal Muscle Movement Case Study
Part l – Rise and shine?
1)What components of the nervous system are involved in physical sensation? How does sensory impulse move throughout the body?
Pertaining to the peripheral nervous system, it is found the sensory division of it. The neurons that form this division, also called afferent neuron,
transmit electrical impulses from several receptors located throughout the body to the central nervous system in order to further analyze and process the
stimuli.
2)What components of the nervous system are involved in skeletal muscle movement? How does motor impulse move throughout the body? What is a
motor unit?
The other division of the peripheral nervous system, the motor or efferent, is involved in skeletal muscle movement. In particular, the somatic motor ...
Part ll – Diagnosis and treatment.
7)What is myelin and how does it affect the transmission of nerve impulses? Identify the cells responsible for formation of myelin.
Myelin is an isolating covering consisting in repeating layer around the axon. It is high in lipids and low in proteins, thus its white color and isolating
power. Because many axons are myelinated, electric impulse is able to undergo salutatory movement which accelerates its transmission. Myelination is
completed by oligodendrocytes in CNS and neurolemmocytes in the PNS.
8)What are the scleroses in Multiple Sclerosis and where do they occur? How does this influence nerve transmission?
Scleroses are scarring at myelinated sites caused by multiple inflammatory events as a consequence of one's immune system cells attacking
oligodendrocytes. If this fate continues long enough, loss of function can occur due to disruption of electric impulse through axons.
9)How do an MRI and spinal tap help confirm the diagnosis of Multiple

An Evaluation Of An Auditory Brainstem Response
An auditory brainstem response is an electrical potential generated from the changes in neural activity when an acoustic stimulus is presented into the
ear. Stimuli in the form of clicks, tonebursts or chirps are transmitted through a transducer and measured using surface electrodes positioned on the
scalp. The elicited waveform response consists of 7 waves that occur within a period of 10ms after the presented stimuli. Each waveform peak is
labeled from I–VII where each wave corresponds to a neural generator within the auditory pathway. Just like other auditory evoked potentials such as
the middle–latency response, the response depends relatively on the pathological factors, non–pathological factors, acquisition parameters, stimulus
parameters as well as the noise and interference. Consequently, this has meant that a great deal of research has been conducted into investigating these
potential effects on the ABR, especially as it is commonly used in clinical practice such as for evaluating retrocochlear pathology, detecting permanent
childhood hearing loss in newborn hearing screens and intraoperative monitoring during surgery. These findings usually influence the test conditions
used in protocols and guidance for clinical practice. Whilst previous literature focus their experiments in order to find a significant difference in the
ABR waveform, very few studies explore what these parameters and factors have on the quality aspect of the recording. This study will primarily

Temporal Processing Paper
Temporal processing relates to the incorporation and integration of diverse acoustic signals over time. The auditory system works to address the
spectral and temporal modulations of speech, identification of sound location, speech in noise, and other environmental and auditory stimuli. Temporal
processing consists of the ability to sequence, discriminate, integrate, and mask incoming auditory signals (Shinn, 2003). The auditory system
recognizes the location and discrimination of sounds through communication of neurons in the central ascending auditory pathway. Phase–locking with
varying frequency cutoffs based on test subjects affects this coding of signal (Paolini, FitzGerald, Burkitt, & Clark, 2001). Neurons must fire fast and
precise in order to detect the brief time differences between stimuli. With the help of potassium channels at both presynaptic and postsynaptic action
potential (AP) locations, these neurons remain constantly ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
With the activation of the Kv3.1 potassium channel, these neurons phase–locked precisely to acoustic stimuli presented up to 2000 to 4000 Hz (Song
and Kaczmarek, 2006). Regulation of certain potassium channels, both increasing and decreasing the influx of potassium, relied on the process of sound
–activated phosphorylation and sound–activated dephosphorylation after the onset of loud noises (Steinert et al., 2008). Stimulation of Kv3.1a and
Kv3.1b channels expressed in the globular bushy cells of the AVCN and principle neurons of MNTB strongly depended on the process of
phosphorylation and dephosphorylation. Research focused on the process of activation with the Kv3.1b channel in adult cells, as the shorter Kv3.1a
expressed greater quantities in embryonic cells (Kaczmarek et al., 2005). Through this process, the influx of potassium affected the activation of
neurons in the ascending auditory

Neural Prosthetics And Its Effects
The full function of our bodies is taken for granted by so many people in this day and age, and arguably in every age. Only people still in the
innocence of youth are often, the only ones who are truly able to access the full intended function. As we get older we begin to lose a plethora of
our abilities; through old age, an injury, or whatever the case may be, we all slowly deteriorate. With modern science we are now able to regain some
of what we had lost or have never hard, through neural prosthetics. In this essay, I will be dissecting and explaining what exactly neural prosthetics are
while delving into its past, its current present applications while making comparisons to other similar technologies, and its future and potential ... Show
Only very recently have we been able to believe that it could be possible, let alone make any real advancement in this field, long before type of
research became a real academic field. The first neural prosthesis developed was in 1957. That very first prosthesis was the cochlear implant; which is
now widely used today with hundreds of thousands of people currently fitted with it. This development was the first of its kind and has since lead the
way for other creations such as the internal pacemaker in 1958, the first motor prosthesis in 1961, the first auditory brainstem implant in 1977, and the
peripheral nerve bridge implanted into the spinal cord of a rat in 1981.All of these are only a few of the incredible advances made in quite a close
amount of time. All of these advancements are relatively new compared to the field of medicine, which has been practiced for centuries. These
breakthroughs lead to much more effort going into neural prosthetics, propelling even more progress in this field to bleed out and help other
disciplines such as brain computer interface and vice versa. This has lead some patients that are paraplegics, being able to walk once again with the
aid, and in 1988 an implant in the lumbar anterior root was developed to help promote standing in them. All this has accumulated in FDA approving
many more applications for aids now not only

Activation-Synthesis Model Of Dreaming: Video Analysis
Starting off the video I found it quite fascinating that when Alan was asked to blink slowly 5 times to test the equipment we could clearly see 5 large
spikes in the second line of the graph. This seems like quite the trivial matter considering it was just meant to test the connections from Alan to the
equipment; but it was cool to see such a strong response from the equipment for such a simple movement. The video suggests that the most accurate
theory for the explanation of where dreams comes from is the theory proposed by J. Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley known as the
activation–synthesis model of dreaming. The video has a very simple and easy to understand explanation of this theory. It states that "normal signals
from our brains

Dr. Ruth Litovsky Cocktail Party Effect Summary
Dr. Ruth Litovsky conducts research in the Communication Sciences and Disorder department. Her expertise is in binaural hearing and cochlear
implants. It is amazing how our brains are able to focus our auditory attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out the "noise," a phenomenon
known as the cocktail party effect. When Dr. Litovsky gave statistics on hearing loss, I was shocked to learn that 360 million people, or approximately
5.3% of the world population, suffer from disabling hear loss. Furthermore, it is interesting to note that males experience hearing loss more commonly
than females, give the statistics.
The pinna is the outermost part of the ear, helping to collect sound and direct the sound waves to the inner structures

Congenital Hypothyroidism
Congenital Hypothyroidism
Congenital hypothyroidism is caused due to the lack of adequate thyroid hormone at birth and can lead to multiple flaws in bodily development
including cochlear morphology. Synthesis of thyroid hormone is mediated by many biological processes and as such there are many points of failure.
Proper development of the Cochlear function and morphology is dependant on the normal secretion and reception of thyroid hormone through
G–protein coupled receptors (Park and Chatterjee, 2005) which are bound extracellularly and produce a second messenger to elicit gene activation
(Lluka, 2015). Richter, C. et al. and Johnson, K.R. et al. experiment with the synthesis and activation of thyroid hormone in animal models to accurately
et al. used two different thyroid hormone receptor knock–in mutations, TRОІО”337T/О”337T and TRОІE457A/E457A, to test how triiodothyronine
regulates cochlear development. They introduced the mutations in the same way for both trial groups and followed the same procedure for mice
maintenance, surgery and cochlea tuning as well as using the same sound system of testing. Data was collected for auditory brainstem responses by
subtracting the value measured from an electrode placed on the mastoid process from the ipsilateral electrode in the vertex, relative to the ground
electrode placed in the neck and measuring, through direct instructions, the morphology of the cochlea. The researchers also measured compound
action potential threshold in the cochlear by using a modified tracking system and threshold was defined as the level needed for a 20–ВµV N1/P1
amplitude at each frequency. Results show that TRОІО”337T/О”337T mutants had significant increases in auditory brainstem responses, more than
60dB, and that TRОІ E457A/E457A mutants had moderate elevations of approximately 20dB. Also, TRОІE457A/E457A mutants show an increase in
sound pressure required to raise compound action potential amplitude to the defined level and that gross morphology was normal in both groups. The
results suggest that disrupted triiodothyronine leads to improper tectorial membrane development which allows for increased thresholds and decreased
action potentials of inner hair cell potassium channels.

Auditory Processing Disorder Analysis
the temporal lobe for memory storage (White, n.d.). The temporal lobe then stores the information until it is used again at a later time. In–fact the
temporal lobe is a very important part of selective auditory attention; it is the processing center for short–term and long–term memory (Paramapoonya,
n.d.). This part of the brain is a very important part of thought processing, which can ultimately help us distinguish what to take in and what should be
ignored (White, n.d.). During this process the brain begins to understand how to sort out the relevant information, which is an amazing process. There
is a substantial amount of work that goes on in our minds and it is all done so in hopes of keeping us on the right track. Now that we know how... Show
Although, this disease affects most children, it can stay with this child through adulthood (Auditory Processing Disorder, 2012). This disorder is
characterized by the way it attacks the central nervous system and lowers its ability to efficiently and effectively use auditory information (Paul,
2008). Living with APD can be very hard; especially for children because they lack the ability to stay on track with what their peers are saying, often
causing ridicule. For someone fighting this disease there maybe a difficulty when it comes to understanding what is being said, ultimately affecting the
person's short–term memory. Some of the symptoms of APD include difficulty concentrating, difficulty understanding abstract information and trouble
understanding jokes, riddles, or idioms (Auditory Processing Disorder, 2012). The symptoms may make it a little easier to uncover if your family
member is suffering from this disease, but there are specialized test that can give definite answers. Understanding how the test works and what goes on
during the test can help those with limited knowledge understand how their family member is affected by the disease. During the test the person
under review is given a series of sounds, each having a small difference like location, timing, as well as order and pattern (Auditory Processing
Disorder, 2012). They are asked to focus on sound and

The National Institutes Of Health Consensus Statement (NIH)
The National Institutes of Health Consensus Statement (NIH, 1993) previously discussed the importance of implementing the two–stage, evoked
otoacoustic emissions (EOAE) and auditory brainstem response (ABR) universal newborn hearing screening (UNHS) protocol. Bess and Paradise
(1994) stated their objections towards the NIH study by presenting limitations, which included the practicability, effectiveness, cost, and harm–benefit
ratio. Although there was an agreement between NIH and Bess and Paradise that early identification is important, Bess and Paradise are cautious in
supporting NIH launching the UNHS protocol. The first notable limitation on the practicability of the NIH study takes into account hospital nurseries
discharging within 24

Auditory Dysfunction
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) comprises a continuum of neurodevelopmental disorders clinically characterized by social difficulties, impaired
communication skills and repetitive behavioral patterns. Despite the prevalence of ASD, the neurobiology of this disorder is poorly understood.
However, abnormalities in neuronal morphology, cell number and connectivity have been described throughout the autistic brain. Further, there is
ample evidence that auditory dysfunction is a common feature of ASD.(1) The majority of individuals with ASD demonstrate some degree of auditory
dysfunction. The level and expression of this dysfunction ranges from deafness and increased thresholds to hyperacusis and difficulty listening with
background noise and impairments... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the real–world listening situations, auditory information is processed by two ears, often in the presence of background noise.(4) Binaural
interaction is reflected in electrophysiological activity of neurons activated by binaural stimulation central to the cochlear nucleus. Binaural interaction
is known to occur at three levels of the brainstem: superior olivary complex (SOC), lateral lemniscus and inferior colliculus (IC).(5) Binaural
interaction component (BIC) manifests binaural interaction and is valid and proven response which reflects ongoing binaural processing. A BIC in
ABR is defined as the difference between the binaurally evoked ABR waveform and a predicted binaural waveform created by algebraically summing
the left and right monaurally evoked ABRs at amplitude of waves IV–V.(6, 7) There is a significant correlation between the amplitude of the BIC and
the ability to lateralize a sound image as a function of interaural time differences (ITDs) and interaural level differences (ILDs). In addition to the
dependence of BIC amplitude on stimulus lateralization, BIC presence is also an indicator of binaural stimulus fusion. Together, this suggests that the
BIC reflects the spatial processing of sound in the horizontal plane in the

NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, and a complex network of neurons. This system is responsible for sending, receiving, and
interpreting information from all parts of the body. The nervous system monitors and coordinates internal organ function and responds to changes in
the external environment. This system can be divided into two parts: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. Let 's take a look at
the central nervous system.
Central Nervous System
The central nervous system (CNS) is the processing center for the nervous system. It receives information from and sends information to the peripheral
nervous system. The two main organs of the CNS are the brain and spinal cord. The brain processes ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The parietal lobes are located behind the frontal lobes and in front of theoccipital lobes. They process sensory information such as temperature,
pain,taste, and touch. In addition, the processing includes information about numbers, attentiveness to the position of one 's body parts, the space
around one 's body, and one 's relationship to this space.
The temporal lobes are located on each side of the brain. They process memory and auditory (hearing) information and speech and language functions.
The occipital lobes are located at the back of the brain. They receive and process visual information.
The cortex, also called gray matter, is the most external layer of the brain and predominantly contains neuronal bodies (the part of the neurons where
the DNA–containing cell nucleus is located). The gray matter participates actively in the storage and processing of information. An isolated clump of
nerve cell bodies in the gray matter is termed a nucleus (to be differentiated from a cell nucleus). The cells in the gray matter extend their projections,
called axons, to other areas of the brain.
Fibers that leave the cortex to conduct impulses toward other areas are termedefferent fibers, and fibers that approach the cortex from other areas of
the nervous system are termed afferent (nerves or pathways). Fibers that go from the motor cortex to the brainstem (for example, the pons) or the spinal

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