The Effect Of Reaction Time On Cyclohexanone

The Effect Of Reaction Time On Cyclohexanone
Results and discussion
4.1. Polymerization mechanism
In base catalyzed aldol condensation of cyclohexanone (A), KOH or NaOH acts as a non–
nucleophilic agent. In presence of base, cyclohexanone initially turns to enolate by losing
αhydrogen. The formed enolate then reacts with the carbonyl group of the second molecule and
leads to the formation of aldol intermediate. The polymerization reaction proceeds further by the
reaction between the carbonyl group of third molecule and the activated methylene group of the
second molecule. In the present study, the effect of reaction parameters on conversion of
cyclohexanone and the product properties was extensively analyzed. The most probable dimeric
(monomer repeating unit (n) =1) and polymeric (n ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
= 110 C, A/K ratio = 0.2.
**VL = viscous liquid. Fig. 3. Effect of reaction time on (a) Monomer conversion, (b) Hydroxyl
value, and (c) Iodine value of products (reaction conditions: temp. = 110 C, A/K ratio = 0.2).
The result (Table 2) shows that there is no significant change in acid values of the products with
reaction time. The average acid value of the product samples is around 0.29. The analysis shows that
solubility of the products in MTO decreases with the increase of reaction time. The reason for the
gradual decrease in solubility may be due to the increase in average molecular weight of the
products with time. The measured solubility of 20 hrs sample is 65 wt%, whereas the solubility of
monomer is around 92 wt%. The data also shows that viscosity of the products increases with the
increase of reaction time. Both the phenomena (i.e. decrease of solubility and increase of viscosity
with time) clearly indicates that the extent of polymerization reaction increases with reaction time.
The average value of moisture content in the products is 1.82
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

The Importance Of Communication
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background:–webkit–linear–gradient(left,rgba(35,35,35,1) 0%,rgba(35,35,35,1)
40%,rgba(35,35,35,0.3) 60%,rgba(35,35,35,0.1) 70%,rgba(35,35,35,0) 100%)}.mv–locthumb
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events:none;position:absolute;text–overflow:ellipsis;text–shadow:1px 1px #232323;top:0;white–
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color:transparent;border:none;cursor:pointer;opacity:0;outline:none}.mv–page .mv–x{–webkit–
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noti,#mv–noti–error{font:bold 12px Arial;padding:10px 0}#mv–noti span,#mv–noti–error

Neutravidin Conjugation And Antibody Attachment Lab Report
Neutravidin Conjugation and Antibody Attachment
After thiol functionalization, surfaces were treated with 50 µg/mL maleimide–activated neutravidin
(Thermo) in phosphate buffer saline (PBS) for 1 hour at 37 C. The maleimide–activated
neutravidin covalently attached to the thiol–functionalized surface through the maleimide–thiol
coupling at neutral pH. Unreacted neutravidin was removed with three PBS washes and the
substrates were stored in PBS at 4 C for up to one week before use. Biotinylated anti–EGFR
antibody (Thermo) was added to the neutravidin–conjugated PDMS surfaces at a concentration of
20 µg/mL in PBS and incubated at 37 C for one hour. Control surfaces were incubated with 20
µg/mL biotinylated antibody which was isotype–matched to the primary antibody. Antibody
attachment was performed immediately before experimentation followed by PBST (PBS with 0.05%
Tween–20) wash and blocking with 1% (w/ v) bovine serum albumin in PBST for 1 h. Reversibly
Sealed Easy Access Modular (SEAM) Platform Integration
PMMA housings (L=45 mm, W=30 mm), McMaster Carr) were designed in AutoCAD and cut with
a CO2 laser. Individually cut layers (1.5 – 2 mm) were laminated together using pressure sensitive
adhesive films to create rigid plastic housings containing L=25 mm, W=10 mm, H=1.5 mm cavities
PDMS pieces containing the microfluidic channels (top) and the flexible nanotextured or plain
PDMS surfaces (bottom). Laser–cut holes at the four corners accommodated cylindrical rare earth
magnets (K&J Magnetics, 2.54 mm diameter, thickness=1.58 mm) which were then glued in place.
Rare earth magnets were embedded in the PMMA and oriented such that the top and bottom
housings had opposite magnetic poles facing one another to achieve a simple and self–aligned
latching mechanism. The housings compressed the top PDMS channel against the PDMS capture
surface and achieved a leak–proof seal (Figure 3.5(b)). Magnetic latching allowed the SEAM
platform to be easily sealed and resealed as needed. The tubing was connected to the channel using a
barbed fitting (McMaster), and a syringe pump was used to control fluid flow (Harvard Apparatus).
The magnetic latching mechanism was sufficient to create a seal that could withstand the maximum

4-Twinkle Artifact
4–Twinkle A discrete focus of alternating colors with or without an associated–color comet–tail
artifact (Figure 31) (Chen Q, Zagzebski J A., 2004). Fig (31): Twinkle artifact (red arrow) behind a
stone at the ureterovesicular junction. The stone was not visible on gray–scale ultrasound, and
visualization of the twinkle artifact made the diagnosing of urolithiasis possible (Chen Q, Zagzebski
J A., 2004). 4–Flash artifact Spurious appearance of blood flow (Figure 32) (Robbin MLet al.,
2002). Fig (32): Flash artifact (arrow) visualized due to motion of bowel gas anterior to IVC
(inferior vena Cava) (Robbin ML. et al., 2009). 5–Vascular motion artifact Artifactual increase and
decrease of spectral Doppler velocity pattern in a cyclical fashion (Figure 33) (Barr RG et al., 2009).
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
et al., 2009). 6–Spurious spectral broadening Spurious spectral broadening (Figure 34) (Barr RG,
2012). Fig (34): Spurious spectral broadening visualized in (A) due to large sample volume. When
sample–volume size is reduced, the accurate depiction of flow velocities within the vessel is seen in
image (B) (Barr RG, 2012). 7–Spurious thrombosis related to velocity scale, wall filter, and gain:
Spurious thrombosis may be seen as a result of setting the velocity scale or wall filter too high or the
gain too low. When the velocity scale is set too high relative to the blood–flow velocity in a slow–
flow vessel, visualization of flow in such a vessel is decreased. Thus, such vessels may falsely
appear thrombosed (Chen Q Zagzebski et al, 2004). Fig (35): Artifactual appearance of thrombosis
in IVC (arrow) due to PRF/velocity scale setting being too high to display low–velocity slow venous
flow (Barr RG.,

Shear Wave Elastography Analysis
Shear wave elastography technique
Shear wave elastography{SWE} is a novel technique for obtaining elastograms of soft tissue by
tracking the transverse shear waves that spread laterally away from amechanical disturbance of the
tissue. They have special properties that differ from both the longitudinal waves of conventional
ultrasound imaging (which relies on the bulk modulus of elasticity) and from conventional
compression elastography. They travel at few metres per second, depending on the visco–elastic
properties of the tissue, and are rapidly attenuated, so that for practically achievable disturbances
they have dissipated after travelling for afew centimeters(101).
SWE is based on the principle of acoustic radiation force. With use of light ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
the information on the propagating shear wave including the velocity of the shear wave could be
measured by obtaining radiofrequency images with a high frame rate , which can be used to
generate a tissue displacement map. then ,the elastic property for quantitative estimation is
calculated by the propagating velocity of shear wave .ARFI, acoustic radiation force impulse, Woo
Kyoung Jeong 2014) (104).
The recommended technique for SWE was to image the lesion with no pressure induced by the
transducer. After a few seconds of immobilization to allow the SWE image to stabilize, the SWE
image was frozen and saved(104).
The size and location of the ROI was standardized as follows: The anterior posterior margin of the
ROI was manipulated to include the area from the subcutaneous fat layer to the pectoral muscle
layer, and the lateral margin was adjusted to include at least 5 mm of breast tissue adjacent to the
lesions, because the maximum areas of stiffness in malignant lesions were always found in the
peritumoral region rather than in the lesion itself

The Layer Of Thin Walled Structures
Thin walled structures are an important part of engineering construction with territories of use
becoming diverse continuously ranging from girder bridges, oil vessels to industrial warehouses ,
framed structures. Thin walled sections have various stresses and failure modes which can be
difficult to predict. Thus structural engineers need help of computers for analysis of these structures.
This has been done by using software called THIN–WALL which estimates the cross–sectional
properties of the section according to the Vlasov theory. The method of input data for thin walled
structure has been explained in this paper. Also the buckling analysis of the thin walled sections has
been done using CUFSM which is based on the finite strip method. This method has been explained
in the paper and the results the analysis have been compared with the hand calculations according to
the Canadian code s–16. The results have been discussed and on basis of this review conclusions
have been presented. Cross–sectional Geometry The data is input to the software is similar to the
input of a structural frame work software. The thin walled structure is divided into a number
elements which intersect at nodes . Each node and element is assigned an number. The coordinates
of each node of the cross–section of the member are entered according to any coordinate system
chosen . The material properties of the thin walled member such as modulus

Standing Waves Lab
This lab demonstrated qualities of standing waves with great help from a mechanical vibrator, a sine
wave generator, and a piece of string. Through this lab we were able to understand how to calculate
the speed of a wave on a string. A standing wave is defined as a wave that travels forward, then is
reflected creating nodes (regions with minimal to zero energy).
If the frequency of a standing wave is increased then more loops will be created, and because of that
the wavelengths will be decreased. Throughout this experiment, transverse waves are generated. We
know this because of the perpendicular movement of the string that creates crests and troughs.
In this experiment we began by measuring the length and finding the mass of our string. Then, we
tied the string to the wave driver and the pulled it over the pulley and attached a weight with a mass
of 0.070 kg the then end of the string. Once we did that, we calculated our predictions for the
frequencies of the various harmonics. After that we connected the wave driver to the sine wave
generator and set the amplitude knob to the midway point. Then we searched for the correct
frequency to find the first, second, and third harmonic. After we completed this, we tried the
experiment two more times with 0.100 kg and 0.120 kg.
One of the main points of this experiment was ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
After finding the speed we can predict what the smallest frequency is to create a standing wave. This
is known as the first harmonic which is also known as the fundamental frequency. Throughout this
experiment we place different weights on the end of the string, because of this different tensions are
created and the speed is calculated differently. We do this in order to examine how the different
tensions of the string can create different frequencies for

A Study On Sandwich Panels
1. Introduction
Sandwich panels has been widely used in different kinds of constructions nowadays, though
sandwich technology was confined almost entirely in aerospace applications before 1960s. From
that time, their characteristics such as high strength to weight ratio and energy efficient started to
attract engineers' attention, and many research and studies enables them to be used safely in modern
constructions. While sandwich panels can be made by the combination of a variety of materials, the
structure of them always shares a same pattern. Two relatively thin and strong facings on both side,
and a relatively light and thick core materials in the middle. It is also worth to notice that the shape
of facings can be flat or profiled to satisfy different situations.
Commonly used facing materials can be stainless steel, aluminum, wood, plastic and concrete, and
their core materials may be made of rubber, different kinds of polymers and mineral wool. Another
special way to make core is to produce a honeycomb core, and it can be even made by paper. The
range of choices of facing and core materials gives a flexibility in use of sandwich panels. This
means that designers can choose a specific combination to optimal its behavior for a special
application.
Fig.1 Flat facing sandwich panel Fig.2 Profiled facing sandwich panel
Fig.3 Sandwich panel with honeycomb core
The application of sandwich panels is still expending in engineering field. These panels are mainly
used

Slip In Nb Lab Report
Slip in bcc metals has a lot in common, although each material has its own subtleties [70].
Investigation of slip in Nb dates to over 60 years ago, when several researchers deformed single
crystal Nb under different experimental conditions [80, 84, 89–91]. More attention has been put into
Nb over the past few decades, as it became the material of choice to build SRF cavities. The
following paragraphs will concentrate on slip in high purity Nb at room temperature, which is the
condition of SRF cavity manufacturing.
Maddin and Chen used optical slip trace analyses and X–ray Laue diffraction to identify slip only on
{110} planes in Nb at room temperature in both tension and compression across the unit triangle
[80]. In the work of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Comparison using the {110} slip systems or a combination of both {110} and {112} slip systems
does not give the same correlation. The rotation of tensile axes can also be explained by the
dominance of {112} slip systems at yield [48].
A ratio between the shear stress of the two most–stressed intersecting {112} slip systems below 1.1
correlates well with hardening at yield, suggesting that the combined twinning/anti–twinning and
non–glide shear stress effects may only alter the critical resolved shear stress by a small amount
[48]. Thus, many of these details may not be necessary for inclusion into practical models for the
deformation of large grain Nb. In fact, initial results from Mapar et al. suggest that non–Schmid
effects are small in Nb, and surprisingly, the Schmid–based model predicts the stress–strain behavior
of the Ningxia tensile samples better than the non–Schmid model in most cases [92].
The dominance of {112} slip at yield followed by {110} slip for the rest of deformation appears to
comply with the theory of Seeger et al. [48, 85], which suggests that the high purity screw
dislocation core relaxation is on {112} planes, and impurities change the core relaxation to {110}
planes. This indicates that the total

The Boundary Layer Of An Object
1. The boundary layer is investigated for the situation that fluid is passing through an object, where
around the object the layer of boundary is formed. Imagine the circumstance that the aircraft is
flying in the sky, the wing is cutting through the air. The boundary layer around the wing could be
observed, which is a thin and a highly sheared region. It is the layer that looks random and chaotic
but also has structure on it. The Boundary layer is a complex structure, which is classified from
Laminar, Transition, to Turbulent around the body depending on different aspects like: Reynolds
number, surface roughness, skin friction drag, pressure gradient and etc. The near wall turbulent
coherent structure is thus the study of the turbulent coherent structure that is close to the surface of
the body. Any structure of the turbulent is the reflected of Kinetic energy through the process of
production, diffusion, transformation and etc. It corresponds to the majority of energy production
within the structure. The actives that involve the structure are happened near the wall, which turns
out the importance of near wall investigation, and worth to put the emphasis on. The 3 dimensional
coherent structures are the small region that exists within the turbulent boundary layer. It has the
correction which has its own aspects either in space or time. The term coherent structure implies to
the boundary layer structure indicate that events are occurred logical and consistent within the

Physics Of A Non Linear Pdes
This work presents a system of a non–linear PDEs, which governing the MHD flow of a Homann
nanofluid with heat and mass transfer through a porous medium. The problem is solved numerically
by making use of the finite difference method. The formulas of the velocity components,
temperature and concentration are obtained as functions of the problem physical parameters. The
effects of these parameters on the solutions are illustrated numerically and graphically through a set
of figures to reinforce the parametric study of the fluid flow.
Fig.(2) depicts the Variation of the velocity fields f(η) & f '(η) , the temperature θ(η) and the
nanoparticles concentration ϕ(η) for different values of the suction parameter S. The velocities f(η)
and f '(η) increase; while, the temperature θ(η) and the nanoparticles concentration ϕ(η) decrease as
S increases. Moreover, increasing the Hartmann number Ha increases f(η), f '(η)), θ(η) and the
ambient nanoparticles concentration far from the wall; otherwise, ϕ(η) decreases near the wall as Ha
increases as illustrated in Fig.(3).
The results included in Fig.(4) clarify that increasing the permeability parameter β has a marked
effect on decreasing the velocity fields and increasing the temperature values; as a consequence of
the increase in the resistive force on the velocity due to the porosity of the medium. Whereas, the
nanoparticles concentration near the wall decreases and the ambient nanoparticles concentration far

Intake Manifold Of Throttle Body Injection
Intake manifold of throttle–body injection/carburetion engines are designed to provide optimum
flow of air–fuel mixture and to reduce the chances of the vaporized fuel re–condensation. Intake
manifold runners on these engines have a few bends as possible. And it is one of the primary
components regarding the performance of an internal combustion engine. An intake manifold is
usually made up of a plenum, throttle body connected to the plenum and runners depending on the
number of cylinders, which leads to the engine cylinder.In port/direct injection SI engines (also CI
engines), the manifold is designed for air flow only, so, these can have larger runners and sharp
bends as these do not have to keep fuel suspended in air.
Exhaust manifold is a part of diesel engines and is required to collect the exhaust gases from the
cylinder head and send it to the exhaust system. This is found in between the engine and exhaust
system. Exhaust manifold plays an important role in the performance of automobile. Particularly, the
efficiencies of emission and the fuel consumption are nearly related to the exhaust manifold. The
manifold may be a casting or made of relatively light material depends on working environment.
The purpose of the exhaust manifold is to collect and carry these exhaust gases away from the
engine cylinders with a minimum of back pressure, without affecting engine performance.
The exhaust manifold used in a 4–stroke IC engine is mounted on the cylinder head of an

Ap Psychology Chapter 4
Chapter 4
Bending
Bending: Bending (also known as flexure) characterizes the behavior of a slender structural element
subjected to an external load applied perpendicularly to a longitudinal axis of the element.
Bending stress: Bending stresses are those that bend the beam because of beam self–load and
external load acting on it.
Beam is a structural member which is subjected to transverse load only.
Support and its types
Support is important aspect of structure while solving any any problem , support specify that how
the forces within structure is transffered to the ground. It ultimetly tells us the boundary conditions
while solving any finite element model.various supports are Fixed support–A fixed support is the
most rigid support. It constrains ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Beam and max deflection of beams:
Beam type Loading on beam Maximum deflection on beam
Cantilever Beam with load P at the free end _max= (P l^3)/3EI
Cantilever Beam with UDL _max= (w l^4)/(8 EI)
Simply Supported beam with load P at the centre _max= (P l^3)/(48 EI)
Simply Supported beam with UDL _max= (5w l^4)/(384 EI)
Types of load– two types of loads are given below Workshop 6 beam with all cases
Pure bending is a condition of stress where a bending moment is applied to a beam without the
presence of axial, shear or torsional forces.
Theory of simple bending(Assumptions) Material of beam is homogenous and Isotropic, Constant E
in all direction Youngs Modulus will be constant in compression and tension. Transverse sections
which are plain before bending remains plain after bending i.e eliminate strains in other directions.
Initially beam is straight and all longitudinal filaments bend in circular arcs. Radius of curvature is
larger compared with the Dimension of the cross section. Each layer of the beam is free to expand or
contract otherwise they will generate internal

Narrows Bridge Failure
Executive Summary
The report debates the Tacoma narrows bridge failure and the different theories of how it came
about, using information about what type of bridge it is and the forces acting on it before and during
the collapse. It also discusses ways in which the failure could have been avoided, from changes in
the design to modifications to the bridge after its construction.
(Blaschke 2015)
Introduction
Tacoma Narrows Bridge was opened to the public on July 1st 1940 after being in construction for 2
years. The structure was built 5,939–foot–long with a span of 2800 feet in order to bridge the gap
between Tacoma and Gig Harbour in the state of Washington, USA. It became known as "Galloping
Gertie" due to the fact that the bridge ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The tension in the suspenders transfers to the cables which run horizontally between the two far–
flung anchorages, through which the tensional forces pass in to the ground and are dissipated.
(Bagga 2014).
Compression is the force pressing a material and compacting it and acts on the towers of a
suspension bridge, this force is created from the weight of the towers and the load on the bridge.
Compression forces will also act on the surface of the bridge deck as when a load is applied it will
have some flexibility and bend, it will then travel up the cables, ropes or chains to transfer the
compression forces to the towers. The towers then dissipate the compression directly into the earth.
(Bagga 2014).
Suspension bridges usually experience torsional forces during very windy conditions where there
are high wind speeds, this can create a twisting force causing the deck to rotate resulting in the
bridge experiencing shear stress. (Bagga

Thermodynamic Optimization of Flow Over an Isothermal...
Boundary layers are thin regions next to the wall in the flow where viscous forces are important.
The above–mentioned wall can be in various geometrical shapes. Blasius [1] studied the simplest
boundary layer over a flat plate. He employed a similarity transformation which reduces the partial
differential boundary layer equations to a nonlinear third–order ordinary differential one before
solving it analytically. The boundary layer flow over a moving plate in a viscous fluid has been
considered by Klemp and Acrivos [2], Hussaini et al. [3], Fang and Zhang [4] and recently Ishak et
al. [5] and Cortell[6] which is an extension of the flow over a static plate considered by Blasius. A
large amount of literatures on this problem has been cited ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
u=∂ψ/∂y and v=–∂ψ/∂x and ν is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid.
Substituting Eqs.(5) and (6) into Eq.(2) we obtained the following ordinary differential equation. f^'''
(η)+f(η)f''(η)=0 (7)
With these boundary conditions:
f(0)=0 ,f^' (0)=λ (8) lim┬(η→∞)⁡
〖f^' (η)〗 = 1
Where λ=u_w/u_∞ is the plate velocity ratio that represents the direction and magnitude of the
moving plate.
The skin friction coefficient C_f can be defined as:
C_f=τ_w/(ρ〖〖 u〗_∞〗^2 ) (9)
Where τ_w is the surface shear stress which is given by: τ_w=├ μ(∂u/∂y)┤| y=0 (10)
Substituting Eqs.(5),(6) into Eqs. (9) and (10) we obtain:
√(2〖Re〗_x ) C_f=f^'' (0) (11)
Where 〖Re〗_x is the local Reynolds number.
Looking for Similarity solution for energy equation, Eq.3, we obtained: θ^'' (η)+Pr f(η) θ^' (η)=0
(12)
Where θ=(T–T_∞)/(T_w–T_∞ ) (13)
Is dimensionless temperature and Pr=ν/α .
The boundary conditions are:

At η=0: θ(0)=1 (14) lim┬(η→∞)⁡
θ(η) = θ(∞)=0
The local Nusselt number〖 Nu〗_x, is defined as:
〖Nu〗_x=(x q_w)/(k (T_w–T_∞)) (15)
Where q_w is the surface heat flux which is: q_w=–k├ ∂T/∂y┤|_(y=0 ) (16)
Using Eq.(5), (6),(15) and (16) we obtain:
〖[〖Re〗_x/2]〗^( –1/2) 〖 Nu〗_x=–θ^' (0) (17)
Works Cited
[1] H. Blasius, Grenzschichten in FlüssigkeitenmitkleinerReibung. Z. Math. Phys. 56 (1908) 1–37.
[2] J.B. Klemp, A. Acrivos, A method for integrating the

Summary : Nanotexture For Enhanced Cell Adhesion
3.3.5. Nanotexture for Enhanced Cell Adhesion
It was expected that the increased surface area on nanotextured PDMS would lead to enhanced cell–
surface interactions resulting in stronger cell attachment compared to plain (non–textured) PDMS.
To test this, PDMS surfaces were functionalized with an anti–EGFR antibody within the reversibly
sealed SEAM platform. SEAM allowed easy integration of nanotextured PDMS and enabled
controlled application of fluid shear stress. EGFR is upregulated in several cancer types and is a
common target for cancer cell capture. A human non–small lung cancer cell line, A549, was used to
investigate possible enhancements in cell attachment strength. These cells were chosen because they
have relatively low ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Results showed that 26 ± 5% higher 50% was required to detach A549 cells from functionalized
nanotextured PDMS versus plain PDMS. These results can be attributed to the larger capture area
and higher density of antibodies on the surface. Assuming a hexagonal close–packed neutravidin
layer [124] the neutravidin surface density on plain and nanotextured PDMS was estimated to be
1.36 x 109 and 2.5 x 109 per mm2, respectively. A biotin–fluorophore conjugate was used to verify
the increased presence of neutravidin on the nanotextured surfaces (Figure 3.7). Figure 3.7.
Fluorescence intensity of biotin–atto–488 conjugated on neutravidin and control functionalized
PDMS surfaces. All the values are normalized with respect to average fluorescence intensity on
plain PDMS. The average fluorescence intensity on neutravidin functionalized plain and
nanotextured PDMS surfaces were 4.67 ± 0.32 and 5.7 ± 0.24, respectively; Fluorescence intensity
on plain and nanotextured control PDMS surfaces were 1 ± 0.14 and 1 ± 0.09 (*p–value < 0.05, #p–
value = 0.96, n = 3). The presence of nanotexture increased the surface area and helped to
accommodate a higher number of neutravidin molecules on the surface.
3.3.6. Nanotexture for Enhanced Cell Capture
Based on the cell adhesion results demonstrating increased cell–surface interactions, it was expected
that the nanotextured PDMS surfaces would exhibit enhanced selective cancer cell capture
compared with plain PDMS. To test this

The Understanding Of Wall Bounded Turbulent Flows
INTRODUCTION
In the world today, the understanding of wall–bounded turbulent flows are of great importance
because of the high number of man–made and natural fluid flow such as flows in rivers, pipelines,
canals, boundary layers, whether it be for power generation, irrigation systems, removal of
pollutants, heat exchangers, various devices, etc. About 50% of the energy spent in transferring
fluids through such systems are lost due to energy dissipation caused by turbulence. Therefore there
is an increasing need to fully understand what occurs in wall–bounded turbulent flows in other to
apply such knowledge and reduce the energy lost during transportation of fluids.
In turbulence, energy, momentum and other conserved quantities are ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Therefore in wall–bounded flows it is important to not only understand how energy is transferred
across various sizes of eddies at a given geometric location but to also understand the interaction of
various sizes of eddies at various distances from the wall.
INNER AND OUTER REGIONS
Wall–bounded flow can be divided into two main regions: inner and outer regions. The inner region
can be further broken into three different layers, starting from the wall upwards:
Viscous Sublayer: This is the region that is closest to the wall. Turbulent motions in the region are
affected by friction and possess relatively low Reynolds number. Viscosity is dominant in this region
and it ranges around〖 y〗^+≤5. In this sublayer shear stress is negligible to viscous shear stress
hence the momentum equation becomes a linear equation. 〖du〗^+/〖dy〗^+ =1
Therefore, u^+= y^+
Buffer Layer: It ranges from 5≤ y^+ ≤30 . In this range both viscosity and inertial forces are
effective here. Neither of both laws works well in this region with the largest variation from either
laws occurring at〖 y〗^+=11. That is before 11 wall units the linear approximation u^+= y^+ is
more accurate and after 11 wall units the logarithmic approximation f(y^+ )= 1/k ln⁡
〖y^+ 〗+B
should be used.
Near–Wall

Spot Weld Analysis Of An Automobile Rim
SPOT WELD ANALYSIS OF AN AUTOMOBILE RIM
Susheel S.Pote1, Prof.R.A.Kathar2, R.B.Patil3, Nilesh Phalke4
1P.G. Student, 2 Associate Professor – J.N.E.C, Aurangabad,
3,4, Klassic Wheels Pvt. Ltd.Ahmednagar, Maharashtra, India
Abstract
In this thesis the Optimization of Number of Spot welds on Automobile Wheel Rim using Finite
Element Analysis is studied. Spot welded rim must pass certain tests like Weld Strength Test (WST),
Dynamic Cornering Fatigue Test (DCFT) and Radial Fatigue Test (RFT). In Weld Strength test a
shear force is applied on the spot weld using Universal Testing Machine. In dynamic cornering
fatigue Test a moment is applied on the rim as specified by the company standards. In Radial
Fatigue Test Influence of Tire pressure and vehicle load are studied. We choose three parameters for
optimization namely, Number of spots on rim, spot diameter and thickness of rim.
Keywords: Rim, Weld Strength Test, Dynamic Cornering Fatigue Test, Radial Fatigue Test, FEA
1. Introduction
Automotive wheel, as a critical component in the vehicle, has to meet the strict requirements of
driving safety. Traditionally, the new designed wheel is tested in the laboratory for its life through an
accelerated fatigue test before the actual production starts. However, a physical prototype test time
lasts at least 7 days and an average design period is 6 months or more depending on the requirement,
so the time to test and inspect wheel during development is very consuming. At the same time,

Mechanotransduction, which is the process by which cells...
Mechanotransduction, which is the process by which cells converts mechanical stimuli to
biochemical signaling cascades, is involved in the homeostasis of numerous tissues. The
mechanotransduction of oscillatory shear stress by bone resident cells has gained special attention
because of its role in regulating bone formation, remodeling and disease. Mechanical forces,
especially, fluid shear stress has been observed to induce several cellular responses in osteoblastic
cells, including intracellular calcium influx, stress fiber formation, ATP, nitric oxide and
prostaglandin E2 release, MAPK activation and gene expression changes 1–5. In particular, there is
intense interest in identifying the primary molecular mechanism of the osteoblast ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Even cells that have been shown to sense mechanical forces (e.g, apical fluid shear) through changes
in the specific activities as a result of stress–induced deformation at the apical surface, respond
differently to the same mechanical stimulus depending on the deformation at the basal surface (106).
Thus the physiologic response of the cell to any mechanical stress is governed by the physical state
of the whole cell, and not by changes in any single signaling molecules. This cellular mechano–
sensing and corresponding responsiveness of a cell firstly governed by the stress imposed on it
specifically at the surface. In most of the mechanotransduction studies, the descriptions of the
imposed force amplitude are grossly mentioned (like...). But the force variations include magnitudal
and vectorial changes at sub–cellular surface due to heterogeneous surface physical/rheological
properties (surface topology, fluidity and stiffness), which actually govern the spatial activation of
the biochemical signal are overlooked. In fact, the determination of spatial surface stress map is very
necessary for interpreting any type of cellular response that made by mechanical force. Thus, before
analysis of the mechanotransduction, in this chapter, we first computationally determined the cell
surface shear stress map using the cell surface topology information obtained by AFM. This stress
map further can explain the related spatial cellular activity as cellular deformation more

Formulation Of Rational Procedure And Comparison With...
Chapter 4
FORMULATION OF RATIONAL PROCEDURE AND COMPARISON WITH CONVENTIONAL
APPROACH FOR DESIGN OF FOOTINGS
This is based on the procedure described by A. Luevanos Rojas et al (2013) and pursued for
confirmation and comparison purposes. The pertinent equations with respect to flexure and shear are
derived based on the general equation soil pressure at any point (x, y) below the footing as q(x,y)=
P/A±M_(x )/I_X y ± M_(y )/I_y x
4.1 Notations and Equation for Soil Pressure below Rectangular Footing
The notations used in Figure 3.2 refer to the following parameters. C1 = Column dimension parallel
to the Y axis, C2 = Column dimension parallel X, h = footing dimension parallel to Y axis, b =
Footing dimension parallel X axis as shown, a' – a', b'–b' are sections located at the column faces
along X and Y respectively. Figure 4 1: Column and Footing Dimensions (Source: Ref 1)
For the case of rectangular footing shown in Figure 4–2, the general equation for soil pressure below
the footing can be written as q(x,y)= P/bh+(12M_(x ))/( bh^3 ) y+ 〖12M〗_(y )/(hb^3 ) x
.......................... (1)
4.2 Resultant Force in the area bounded by 1 – 2 – a' – a'
This is obtained by computing the volume of pressure diagram as
F_y= ∫_(C_1/2)^(h/2)▒ ∫_(–b/2)^(b/2)▒〖q(x,y) □(24&dx)□(24&dy)〗. With q(x, y) as given in
equation (1)
F_y= ∫_(C_1/2)^(h/2)▒〖□(24&dy) 〗

Unit 2 P2
Task 2 – P2 A Newtonian fluid is a fluid that exhibits constant viscosity regardless of any external
stress applied to it, like mixing or a sudden application of force. Like water; this flows in the same
direction regardless of whether it's left alone or agitated. A Newtonian fluid, by definition, can only
be affected by pressure and temperature together, or temperature, but not pressure on its own. Water
The viscosity of water can be affected by temperature, and by pressure and temperature, but not by
pressure on its own. As a liquid, it is incompressible and so isn't affected much by pressure. As the
temperature applied to water increases, it starts to become unstable, like when water in a pan begins
to boil and it starts to bubble. When water reaches its boiling point, its state changes from a liquid to
a gas, and it becomes steam. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Air When the temperature of the air is increased, it starts to rise. This happens because the hotter the
air is, the less dense it becomes. The viscosity in air increases with the temperature; this is equal to
the square root of the temperature. The viscosity increases because the molecules collide more
frequently. Because of this, the molecules move around randomly, due to the increased number of
collisions. Air is normally independent of pressure. However it can be pressurised, like a deodorant
spray. Task 5 –

What Is The Effects On The Fluid Dynamics Of The Addition...
Direct numerical simulations of FENE–P fluid have been used to analyze a time–dependent drag
reducing flow between parallel plates for turbulent regimes at (–– removed HTML ––) Re (––
removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) h (–– removed HTML ––)
(–– removed HTML ––) = 1500 and (–– removed HTML ––) Re (–– removed HTML ––) (––
removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) h (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) =
4000. In order to investigate the effects on the fluid dynamics of the addition of a polymer, these
viscoelastic flows were compared to two Newtonian cases at the same Reynolds numbers. We
simulated our viscoelastic cases fixing (–– removed HTML ––) Wi (–– removed HTML ––) (––
removed HTML ––) (–– ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The polymer–turbulence exchanges of energy were then investigated for each one of these
subdomains. (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) Figure (–– removed HTML ––) 14
(–– removed HTML ––) summarizes the principal four stages related to the DR mechanism at the
beginning of the phenomenon. The open symbols denote the mean streamwise velocity profiles,
while the rotating lined arrows represent vortical (or elliptical, E) parts, the straight lined arrows
represent the extensional (or hyperbolic, H) parts, and the purple line illustrates the polymers. The
exchanges of energy between these four entities at each stage are represented by the dashed arrows.
First, at stage 1 [Fig. (–– removed HTML ––) 14(a) (–– removed HTML ––) ], the flow is primarily
laminar and, consequently, the wall shear stress is equal to the laminar one ( (–– removed HTML
––) τ (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML
––) (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) w (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed
HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) = (––
removed HTML ––) τ (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) (––

Strength of Materials 4th Ed. by Ferdinand L. Singer
Simple Stresses
Simple stresses are expressed as the ratio of the applied force divided by the resisting area or σ =
Force / Area. It is the expression of force per unit area to structural members that are subjected to
external forces and/or induced forces. Stress is the lead to accurately describe and predict the elastic
deformation of a body. Simple stress can be classified as normal stress, shear stress, and bearing
stress. Normal stress develops when a force is applied perpendicular to the cross–sectional area of
the material. If the force is going to pull the material, the stress is said to be tensile stress and
compressive stress develops when the material is being compressed by two opposing forces. Shear
stress is developed if the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Solution 110
wofkim@yahoo.com ^^
Problem 111 For the truss shown in Fig. P–111, calculate the stresses in members CE, DE, and
DF. The crosssectional area of each member is 1.8 in2. Indicate tension (T) or compression (C).
Solution 111
wofkim@yahoo.com ^^
Problem 112 Determine the crosssectional areas of members AG, BC, and CE for the truss shown
in Fig. P–112 above. The stresses are not to exceed 20 ksi in tension and 14 ksi in compression. A
reduced stress in compression is specified to reduce the danger of buckling.
Solution 112
wofkim@yahoo.com ^^
wofkim@yahoo.com ^^
Problem 113 Find the stresses in members BC, BD, and CF for the truss shown in Fig. P–113.
Indicate the tension or compression. The cross sectional area of each member is 1600 mm2.
Solution 113

Problem 114 The homogeneous bar ABCD shown in Fig. P–114 is supported by a cable that runs
from A to B around the smooth peg at E, a vertical cable at C, and a smooth inclined surface at D.
Determine the mass of the heaviest bar that can be supported if the stress in each cable is limited to
100 MPa. The area of the cable AB is 250 mm2 and that of the cable at C is 300 mm2.
wofkim@yahoo.com ^^
Solution 114
wofkim@yahoo.com ^^
Shearing Stress
Forces parallel to the area resisting the force cause shearing stress. It differs to tensile and
compressive stresses, which are caused by

Turbulent Flow Essay
MM4TTF: Introduction to Turbulence and Turbulent Flows
Case Study 1: Turbulent Boundary Layer Structure
Turbulent coherent structures are flow patterns that can be distinguished from each other, as opposed
to motions such as eddies which are subject to the phenomenon of superpositioning. Several of these
occur in the near–wall region:
'Low speed streaks' refer to the regions of relatively slow flow spaced out in a pronounced manner.
They generally occur 'between the legs of hairpin vortices, where flow is displaced upward from the
surfaces so that it convects low momentum fluid away from the wall.'[2]. Streaks have been found
to occur in the sublayer region by Kline and Runstandler (1959)[1] and have been shown to occur at
a distance of y+ ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Another type of coherent structure are 'rolls', which are 'pairs of counter–rotating streamwise
vortices that are the dominant vertical structures in the near–wall region defined by y+ < 100'[2].
They account for streak production also, as the fluid being pushed outwards between the rolls has
reduced axial velocity, creating a velocity profile which is inviscidly unstable, and also associate
with bursting and lift–up.
'Bursting' may be described as a characteristic behaviour of the low–speed streaks. It generally
refers to the whole process of a streak undergoing lift–up from near the wall, beginning to oscillate,
and subsequently undergoing break–up and ejection
Firstly the streaks slowly begin moving downstream and drifting outwards; this is the process
known as 'lift–up'. After the streak reaches a distance of around y+ = 8–12, it begins to rapidly
oscillate, which increases in amplitude as outflow progresses. This ends in a sudden breakup,
generally when y+ is between 10–30. After breakup, 'the streak lifts away from the wall by a
vigorous and chaotic motion. This process 'ejects' low–speed fluid into a region of the boundary
layer with a faster streamwise velocity.'[3]. This process of bursting can be shown graphically, with
a representation of a dye streak in a turbulent boundary layer; a typical example is shown below:
The pressure gradient has been observed to have an effect on the bursting phenomenon; it has been
observed that 'a positive

The Effect Of Velocity On A Flat Plate Boundary Layer
Introduction: The purpose of this experiment was to measure the magnitude of velocity in a flat
plate boundary layer in which the pressure was constant. A pitot tube located at the top of the test
section that was used to determine the total pressure across the boundary layer. The Pitot tube
needed to be able to more along both horizontal and vertical directions for accurate measurements.
Five different tubes, aligned along the x–axis, were placed under the wind tunnel test section to
measure the static pressure. The result of both the static and total pressures is the dynamic pressure.
Theory:
The boundary layer is defined as a thin layer of any fluid adjacent to the solid surface it surrounds.
The characteristics of a boundary layer are basically what define the effects of viscosity. The
velocity of the boundary layer starts from a value of zero at the solid surface and increases until it
reaches a maximum which happens to be the free stream velocity. In other words, theoretically
speaking the boundary layer is infinite, but for measurement purposes the boundary layers ends
where the velocity gradient is 99% of the free stream velocity. The Reynolds number, a unit less
ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces, is used to identify the several inner layers of the boundary
layer. Furthermore, as previously mentioned when a body parallel to the flow, such as a flat plate, is
placed in the parallel direction of a free stream flow, a boundary layer is formed. At the

What Are The Fundamental Characteristics Of Fully...
A fundamental characteristic of fully developed fluid turbulence is the appearance of the inertial
range which is an intermediate regime between the energy–containing low– (–– removed HTML ––)
k (–– removed HTML ––) and dissipative high– (–– removed HTML ––) k (–– removed HTML ––)
regimes. For sufficiently large Reynolds numbers (=forcing/viscous damping), the inertial range is
known to exhibit a universal power law, (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) (––
removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) E (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) (
(–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) k (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML
––) ) (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) ∼ (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed
HTML ––) (–– removed ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This anomalous transport degrades the plasma performance of the fusion device. Therefore, the
study of characteristics of plasma turbulence (onset from unstable plasma conditions, nonlinear
saturations, etc.) has been the most important endeavor in fusion plasma physics for decades. A
thorough understanding of this problem is still far from completeness, given the complexity and
difficulty of the problem. (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) Plasma turbulence is of
wave turbulence, which is different from the fluid turbulence where vortex–vortex interaction
provides spectral transport of physical quantities across the scales. (–– removed HTML ––) (––
removed HTML ––) 5 (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) In plasma physics, the
simplest but non–trivial drift wave turbulence model is the Hasegawa–Mima (HM) equation. (––
removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) 6 (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––)
Even though it is simple enough, it contains sufficient degrees of complication and physics contents
to study plasma wave turbulence. Thus, studies of wave turbulence in the HM model can provide
insights into turbulence dynamics and its consequence in determining plasma transport in
magnetized plasmas. Therefore, many direct numerical simulations as well as analytic studies have
been carried out using the HM model for the past decades. (––

The Components Of Strain Rate Tensor
The components of strain rate tensor, E, are calculated by: (12)
Effective pressure is the normal stress between sediment grains and is defined as the buoyant weight
of the sediments above a certain sediment particle: (13)
where is the vertical distance between sediment particles and the water sediment interface, is
specific weight of the water and is saturated specific weight of sediment. To obtain at first the
interface must be identified in each time step. In the present model the sediment particles were
classified into three groups based on their local distribution as: 1– suspended particles 2– bed
particles 3– interface particles (Figure 2). Since suspended particles are surrounded by water
particles (not in direct contact with other sediment particles) their yield stress will be zero (as =0)
and they flows as a viscous material ([18] and [19]), they do not require any stress–dependent
rheological model and a constant viscosity is assigned. To determine to what group a sediment
particle is belong to the following criteria is applied: (14)
Figure 2: Classification of the sediment particle based on local distribution in the numerical model
where is reference density of sediment particles. The ξ parameter defines whether a sediment
particle is suspended or it is in contact with the other sediment particles. Theoretically, for uniformly
distributed sediment–water mixture, a sediment particle whose smoothed (interpolated) density is
less than half of

Lab Report Lava Flow
Title: How Lava Flows
Background: Viscosity is a liquid's resistance to flow. For example water would have a low viscosity
while syrup has high. The higher temperature the lower viscosity and the lower temperature the
higher viscosity. Cold syrup will move slower than hot syrup because the molecules are more tightly
packed together while hots are very loose and free. Silica will cause the syrups viscosity to
increases, so the more silica it has the more the viscosity will increase. If water is added to syrup the
viscosity will decrease because water has a lower viscosity. Gas can easily escape lava that has a
low viscosity while lava with higher viscosities, gas pressure will build up and might lead to big
eruptions.
Pre–Lab Questions:
30 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The lava flow was fast. An error was that the syrup was poured too fast and to much of it came out,
so it may have messed up the time. Viscosity is a liquid's resistance to flow. Velocity is the speed of
something in a given direction. The velocity for team cold was 2 cm/s. In the cold syrup the
molecules are tightly packed together. The viscosity of the is very high since it does not flow very
fast. Therefore it flowed the slowest. The velocity of the team rooms data was 3.7 cm/s. In the room
temperature syrup, the molecules are more loosely bonded. The viscosity of room temperature is
less than the colds. So it flowed a bit more faster then the colds. It flowed faster but not as fast as the
hots. The velocity for team hots data was 6.8 cm/s. In the hots syrup the molecules moved the most
freely and loose. This means since it was the hottest, it has the lowest viscosity so it was able to flow
the fastest out of all of the syrups.Silica affects viscosity because viscosity increases with more
silica content, more silica, more viscosity. Water can change the viscosity of lava. If water is added
the viscosity will decrease. Lava with low viscosity allows gas to escape easily while lava with a
higher viscosity gas pressure builds up and can lead to a huge

Lab Report : Shear Force And Bending Force
MMAN1300
Shear Force and Bending Moment Lab Report
Wan Aqmarur Razin Wan Azlan, z5138712
PSS Group: Friday / 0900 / 201
Table of contents:
Contents
1. Shear Force Analysis 2
1.1. Discussion 3
1.2. Experiment 2: Shear force variation away from the point of loading 3
1.3. Discussion 5
2. Bending Moment Analysis 5
2.1. Experiment 1: Bending moment variation with an increasing point load. 5
2.2. Discussion 7
2.3. Experiment 2: Bending moment variation away from the point of loading 7
2.4. Discussion 9
3. Overall discussion and conclusion 9
Abstract:
The experiment was done to investigate the shear force and bending moment in a beam. A shear
force in a beam experimental frame and a bending moment of a beam experimental frame was used
along with the digital force display unit to conduct the experiment. When the force increases with
constant distance from the cut, the shear force and bending moment would increase. In the second
experiment, the load is placed at a specific distance to the left of support A. The shear force and
bending moment is than obtained and calculated using the formula that had been given in the
handout.
Table 1. Calculation of load and dimensions
W_1 (N) W_1 (N) a (mm) b (mm)
3.92 3.92 140 260
Shear Force Analysis
Shear force is the internal force acting in a rigid body that caused the body to move in positive or
negative direction. In this analysis, the effect of increasing point load and effect of various distance
to the bending moment was

The Physics Of Continuum Mechanics
In continuum mechanics, a Newtonian Fluids is a fluid that the viscous stress arising from its flow,
at every point, are linearly proportional to the local strain rate. The reason we research Newtonian
Fluids is that Newtonian fluids are the simplest mathematical models of fluids that account for
viscosity. In natural world, there are many common liquids and gases that can be assumed to be
Newtonian Fluids. For example, water, alcohol, thin oil, air, and most of pure liquids. Newtonian
fluids get the name by Isaac Newton, who is one of the most famous scientists in the world. He is
the first person who found the relation between the rate of shear strain and shear stress for such
fluids in differential form. Newtonian Fluids can be also called linearly viscous fluid, which has
been found to describe adequately the mechanical behavior of many real fluids under a wide range
of situations. In order to study Newtonian Fluids, we need to understand the concept of fluids.
A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that will suit to the its container's shape. However, its
volume always independent of pressure. There are four basic states of matter. They are solid, gas,
plasma, and liquid. Besides, Liquid is the only state with a definite volume but no fixed shape.
Water is the most common liquid on Earth. Liquid and gas are similar in many ways. Both of them
can flow and take the shape of a container. However, most liquids cannot be compressed as others.
Also liquids will not to

Binder viscosity was altered by changing temperature. The...
Binder viscosity was altered by changing temperature. The initial dispersion of the binder in the
powder depends upon viscosity and shear rate applied. (Schaefer, 1996) Binder viscosity also
controls the consolidation rate and hence subsequent growth via coalescence. (Ennis, et al., 1991).
Results from Rough et al (2005) showed that increased temperature (lower viscosity), the regimes
are reached faster because the binder is able to distribute more effectively in the mixture at a given
shear rate which is in accordance with the work reported by Schaefer et al (1996). As LAS paste
quantity was increased, mixing time required to form designated regimes decreased. Work done by
Hibare (2012) showed that the peak modal granule diameter stays ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
At the crumble regime, bulk density and porosity of the granules display significant turning points.
Rough et al (2005) also stated that the crumble regime is a key stage in the agglomeration
mechanism as it is the point between macro and micro mixing. Hibare (2012) concluded that as
binder to solid ratio increases, granulation time to achieve a particular size distribution decreases.
Hibare (2012) also showed that granule strength decreases as binder to solid ratio increases due to
more liquid content in the granules in both reactive and non–reactive binder systems.
2.2 High Viscous (Detergent) vs Low Viscous Granulation Mechanisms
According to the research work on a high viscous binder detergent granulation system of LAS (high
viscosity binder) and zeolite carried out by Rough et al (2005), they found that at a higher impeller
speed, size distribution had the same peak modal diameter, a narrower peak width and less vol% of
bigger granule diameter. Comparing findings from Rough et al (2005) detergent granulation with
pharmaceutical granulation of lactose and PEG melt (low viscosity binder) carried out by Schaefer
et al (1993), Schaefer et al (1993) reported a larger peak modal diameter and a narrower size
distribution at higher speed. Heng et al (2000) suggested that at higher impeller speed with increased
shear forces, rate of granule consolidation should increase as surface plasticity and

Tibia Essay
Background
Tibial Tuberosity Advancement (TTA) is an othopaedic procedure to repair rupture of cranial
cruciate ligament (CCL) in dogs. It has also been applied in cats. The canine CCL is a band of tough
fibrous tissue that attaches the femur to the tibia. It is attached to the interdylar notch of the tibia at
one end and the caudomedial part of the lateral femoral condyle at the other end. It keeps the tibia
from sliding cranially beneath the femur when the limb bears weight. It also limits medial rotation
of the tibia when the stifle is flexed [1]. These help to prevent the stifle joint from over – extending
or rotating.
The rupture of this ligament in dog is not suddenly broken due to excessive trauma, but usually
degenerates slowly over ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Material
After the model was imported into Abaqus, the mechanical properties earned from the prior process
were assigned to the model. In addition, as the model is assumed as a homogenous structure, then
the highest values of all mechanical properties were used as a representative of all structure. These
properties are density of 1813 kg/m3, young modulus of 4993 MPa and Poisson coefficient of 0.3
(see figure 4).
Interaction
This part is the most important of the analysis because fissure and fracture cannot be observed
without given fracture mechanics. Therefore, the crack propagation of this study can be studied
using XFEM method. This method will define the model as a crack domain, but the crack cannot be
propagated without crack initiation. A crack tip was placed at the location where the highest stress
was concentrated on. In our study, the highest stress was located at cylindrical wall of maquet hole
at approximately 225 from X+ axis when determined in XY plane as shown in figure 7. The crack
tip is a very thin surface placed on the model associated with the centre of the maquet hole in XY
plane. This tip has 0.5 mm. overlap into the cylindrical wall of maquet hole as shown in figure

A Study On My Paramedic License Essay
As a woman on the brink of becoming a grandmother for the first time and working on my
Paramedic license, I do not want to become a statistic and suffer from a back injury that so many
first responders suffer from these days. There are so many variables to staying healthy such as eating
right, staying fit, and learning proper mechanics for lifting heavy loads. When taking these variables
into account, how can someone in my profession improve the quality of our work environment to
insure a better percentage for a lesser chance of injury? Will better equipment improve these
variables as well? Do the costs for better equipment outweigh the cost of recovery? It is my belief
that not only health, fitness, and education will reduce our chance for injury but better, more
efficient, equipment will also assist in longer, lasting careers. Back injuries are not foreign in our
line of work. According to Bryan Fass (fitness expert), "injury to the knees and lower back,
overexertion injuries, and mechanical strain has remained almost constant." (Fass, 2009)
Approximately 8 out of 100 EMS responders will suffer an injury compared to 1 out of 100
municipal and general labor workers, a 62 percent difference (Fass, 2009). What this means is that
there are quite a few paramedics suffering injuries and currently out of work. These statistics are
astronomical and chances for public safety personnel to make it to retirement age are slim, as most
leave on medical disability. Just as the

What Are The Advantages And Disadvantages Of Joints
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. GENERAL
A beam–column joint is a very significant zone in reinforced concrete framed structure where the
elements are interconnect in all three directions. Joints ensure stability of a structure and transmit
forces that are present at the ends of the members. In reinforced concrete structures, failure in a
beam often occurs at the beam–column joint, making the joint one of the most important sections of
the structure. Abrupt change in geometry and intricacy of stress distribution at joint are the reasons
for their decisive behaviour. In early days, the design of joints in reinforced concrete structures was
generally limited to satisfying anchorage requirements. In succeeding years, the behaviour of joints
was found to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This quantity relates loads or forces to the ensuing structural deformations. Familiar relationships
are readily established from first principles of structural mechanics, using geometric properties of
members and the modulus of elasticity for the material. In reinforced concrete and masonry
structures these relationships are, however, not quite as simple as an introductory text on the subject
may suggest. If serviceability criteria are to be satisfied with a reasonable degree of confidence, the
extent and influence of cracking in members and the contribution of concrete or masonry in tension
must be considered, in conjunction with the traditionally considered aspects of section and element
geometry, and material properties (ACI 318,

Reaction Paper On Gels
1. Introduction
1.1. Gels
1.1.1. Definition
The word ''gel'' is derived from ''gelatin'' and can be traced back to the Latin gelu for ''frost'' and
gelare, meaning ''freeze'' or ''congeal". (1)
According to the U. S. Pharmacopeia (USP), gels are defined as "semisolid systems consisting of
either suspensions made up of small inorganic particles or large organic molecules interpenetrated
by a liquid". (2)
Gels are also defined as two–component semi–rigid systems in which the liquid continuous phase is
immobilized by a cross linked three dimensional network consisting of particles or solvated
macromolecules in the disperse phase. (2,3) This disperse phase can be constituted by inorganic
particles or organic macromolecules, primarily polymers. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
This process is referred to as swelling. This phenomenon occurs as the solvent penetrates the matrix.
Gel–gel interactions are replaced by gel solvent interactions. The degree of swelling depends on the
number of linkages between individual molecules of gelling agent and on the strength of these
linkages7, 8. B) Syneresis Many gels often contract spontaneously on standing and exude some fluid
medium. This effect is known as syneresis. The degree to which syneresis occurs, increases as the
concentration of gelling agent decreases. The occurrence of syneresis indicates that the original gel
was thermodynamically unstable. The mechanism of contraction has been related to the relaxation
of elastic stress developed during the setting of the gels. As these stresses are relieved, the interstitial
space available for the solvent is reduced, forcing the liquid out. C) Ageing Colloidal systems
usually exhibit slow spontaneous aggregation. This process is referred to as ageing. In gels, ageing
results in gradual formation of a denser network of the gelling agent. D) Structure The rigidity of a
gel arises from the presence of a network formed by the interlinking of particles of the gelling
agents. The nature of the particle and the stress, straightening them out and lessening the resistance
to

Cornstarch Experiment
If an object is dropped into four compositions (100% water and 0% cornstarch, 75% water and 25%
cornstarch, 50% water and 50% cornstarch, and 25% water and 75% cornstarch), then the 25%
water and 75% cornstarch mixture will create the non–Newtonian fluid with the highest level of
viscosity because the mixture is made of particles of cornstarch suspended in water, therefore, the
more particles there are, the harder it will be to shear the fluid. Data that was measured from this
experiment supports the stated hypothesis. Trial one provided insight to the experiment. For the
control, the marble took 0.4 seconds to drop from the pen ramp and into the water. The red
composition (75% water and 25% cornstarch) took a total of 0.61 seconds, the longest ... Show more
Out of the trials of the experiment, the hypothesis was predicting that the control would have the
shortest time, the red composition (75% Water, 25% Corn starch) would have the second shortest
time, the yellow mixture (50% Water and 50% Corn starch) would have the second longest time,
and the blue fluid (25% Water and 75% Corn starch) would have the longest time. In trial one, the
results did not behave in the predicted way because the red mixture took 0.05 seconds longer than
the yellow composition. Trials two and five behaved the way the hypothesis predicted. Similarly to
trial one, in trial four the red mixture took 0.11 seconds longer than the yellow. Finally, trial three
showed that the control took 0.07 seconds longer than the red composition. Needless to say, the 25%
water and 75% cornstarch fluid did have the data with the most time because the marble did not
submerge within two minutes. Continuing on, when the data was averaged together, the results
became clear. The mean for the control was 0.42 seconds, the 75% Water and 25% Cornstarch
composition's average time was 0.47 seconds, and the 50% Water and 50% Cornstarch mixture's
mean was 0.5 seconds (Appendix

Boundary Layer Analysis Of Casson Fluid Flow Essay
documentclass{article} usepackage[top = 1.2in,bottom = 1.2in,left = 1in,right =1in]{geometry}
usepackage{graphicx} usepackage{morefloats} usepackage{subfigure} usepackage{color}
egin{document}
egin{center}
Boundary layer analysis of Casson fluid flow over an upper horizontal melting surface of paraboloid
of revolution in the presence of thermophoresis end{center} egin{center}
O. D. Makinde$^1$, N. Sandeep$^2$, T. M. Ajayi$^3$, I. L. Animasaun$^4$
$^1$Faculty of Military Science, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X2, Saldanha 7395, South
Africa.
$^2$Department of Mathematics, VIT University, Vellore 632014, India
$^{3,4}$Department of Mathematical Sciences, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria.
$^1$makinded@gmail.com, $^2$sandeep@vit.ac.in, $^3$stillmetunde@gmail.com,
$^4$anizakph2007@gmail.com end{center} egin{abstract}
Two–dimensional, electrically conducting Casson fluid flow over an upper horizontal surface of
paraboloid of revolution in a thermally stratified medium is analyzed. The influence of melting heat
transfer is accounted by modifying classical boundary condition of temperature. Based on the
boundary layer assumptions, suitable similarity transformation is applied to reduce the governing
equations to coupled ordinary differential equations corresponding to momentum, energy and
concentration equations. These equations along with the boundary conditions are solved numerically
by using Runge–Kutta technique along with shooting method. Effects

Essay about Chemical Engg. Fluid Mechanics MCQ's
Id
Question
The fluid property, due to which, mercury does not wet the glass is
A
surface tension
B
viscosity
C
cohesion
D
adhesion
Answer
A
Marks
1
Unit
A1
Id
Question
The dimension of dynamic viscosity is
A
ML–1T–1
B
L2T–1
C
LT–2
D
ML–1T–2
Answer
A
Marks
2

Unit
A1
Id
Question
The fluid, in which the shearing stress within it is proportional to the velocity gradient across the
sheared section, is called a __________ fluid.
A
Bingham
B
Newtonian
C
perfect
D
none of these
Answer
C
Marks
1
Unit
A1
Id
Question
Pick out the wrong statement.
A
The shear stress at the pipe (diameter = D, length = L) wall in case of laminar flow of Newtonian
fluids is
B
In the equation, the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A exponentially B linearly C logarithmically D none of these
Answer
C
Marks
1
Unit
A1
Id
Question
A fluid is the one, which
A
cannot remain at rest under the action of shear force.

B
continuously expands till it fills any container.
C
is incompressible.
D
permanently resists distortion.
Answer
A
Marks
1
Unit
A1
Id
Question
Which of the following properties of a fluid is responsible for offering resistance to shear ?
A
Surface tension.
B
Viscosity.
C
Specific gravity.
D
All (a), (b), and (c).
Answer
B
Marks
1
Unit
A1
Id
Question
In an incompressible flow of fluid, the fluid
A
temperature remains constant.
B
compressibility is greater than zero.
C
density does not change with pressure temperature.
D
is frictionless.
Answer
C

Marks
1
Unit
a1
Id
Question
A fluid is one which
A
Cannot remain at rest under the action of shear force
B
Continuously expands till it fills any container
C
Is incompressible
D
Permanently resists distortion
Answer
A
Marks
1
Unit
A1
Id
Question
In an incompressible fluid, density
A
is greatly affected by moderate changes in pressure
B
is greatly affected only by moderate changes in temperature
C
Remains unaffected with moderate change in temperature and preesure
D
Is sensible to changes in both temperature and pressure
Answer
A
Marks
1
Unit
A1
Id

Question
A fluid is a substance

Shear Wave Stress Analysis
Acoustic radiation force impulse (ARFI) technique has replaced the traditional stress–strain
elastography where compression force is applied manually(Garra 2011). It can differentiate liver,
prostate and breast diseases(Tozaki and Fukuma 2011, Vermehren, et al. 2012, Yu and Wilson 2011,
Zhai, et al. 2012). ARFI elastography demonstrated a higher rate (99.8%) of accurate measurement
in cirrhosis as compared to transient elastography (78.6%)(Kircheis, et al. 2012). Shear wave
velocity (SWV) assessment associated with ARFI was then suggested to gauge tissue stiffness. It
provides an absolute stiffness value instead of a ratio relative to surrounding tissue. Liver stiffness
measurement by ARFI has a low inter–observer variability with a high intra–class ... Show more
Exclusion criteria consisted of any history of dyspnea or generalized neuromuscular diseases, such
as peripheral neuropathy, myopathy, motor neuron disease, or CNS disease. Ultrasound evaluation
of the diaphragm, the rectus abdominis, and the dominant flexor digitorum profundus were
performed with the Acuson S2000 US System (Siemens, Munich, Germany) and a 7–9–MHz linear
array transducer (9L4; Siemens) to obtain B–mode scanning images, ARFI sono–elastography, and
SWV values in the supine position. SWV values were obtained during resting and muscle
contraction. The resting diaphragm was studied at the end of exhalation, and contraction was
achieved during apnea at the end of a deep inhalation. Head and 3–to–5–cm shoulder elevation
achieved rectus abdominis contraction, and a standardized handgrip with a rubber ball triggered
flexor digitorum contraction. The diaphragm was identified by real–time ultrasound at the
intercostal space with the transducer spanning 2 ribs. At this site, the investigator could see the air
artifact encroached by the lung tissue during maximal inspiration. Typically the eighth or ninth right
intercostal space was chosen, just anterior to the anterior axillary line. Once the most appropriate
intercostal space was identified subject was instructed to breathe while images were captured at the

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