Macrophage Pathogen

Macrophage Pathogen
The success of a pathogen is not to kill its host but to infect the host in a way that it helps to transfer and hence propel the pathogen further. The host
has its own mechanisms to contain the infection, like low pH (acidic pH in the phagolysosomes is crucial for the hydrolytic activity of the enzymes),
temperature (fever is a common symptom due to a lot of infections), and inflammation. All this is well mediated by the host immune system.
As Mtb is inhaled by a healthy individual, it is phagocytosed by the macrophages and dendritic cells in the lung alveoli. Macrophages, a part of the
innate immunity, play a major role in killing and containing Mtb. Of the many bacteria inhaled, macrophages are able to kill some, while the others
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A pro–inflammatory response triggered by infected macrophages causes recruitment of the mononuclear cells at the site of infection. The T–cells
interact with the macrophages and activate them by releasing the cytokine, IFN–пЃ§. Activated macrophages are more efficient at killing Mtb. At this
stage of infection, antigen presentation also activates B–cells which produce antibodies against Mtb. A consolidated mass of infected host cells and
immune cells forms a granuloma. The granuloma consists of infected macrophages, foamy macrophages that contain stored oil droplets which serve as
the bacterial nutrition, T–cells, B–cells in the earlier stages. When the bacillary load becomes static, the infection is said to be "latent". Early stages of
granuloma formation also witnesses vascularisation and supply of blood through newly developed blood capillaries. The granuloma is lined by
epithelial cells and fibrous tissue in the later stages. The core of the granuloma is hypoxic (Vandiviere et al., 1956; Via et al., 2008). Granulomas can be
resolved due to the action of immune system. With suppression of the immune system due to ageing, HIV infection or malnutrition, the containment of
the bacteria
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Leprosy Pathogens
The earliest record of leprosy existing is back in 1550 B.C. There, it was discovered that the Egyptians had described the indicators of this pathogenic
bacterial disease. From then on, Indians, Greeks, and Romans had dealt with the disfigurement, muscle weakness, and neuralgia. As the disease
multiplied inside of its hosts, so did humanity's struggle to accept and cure the disabled whom were affected. In 1873, a Norwegian doctor named Dr.
Gerhard Hansen uncovered Mycobacterium leprae, the leprosy pathogen. Afterwards, doctors start using an oil extracted from a Chaulmoogra nut plant
as a treatment. They injected the oil into the person affected. Although it seemed to work, the injections near affected areas were painful for the treated
persons,

Controlling The Spread Of Pathogens
Controlling the spread of pathogens
Often times, when one thinks of the civil war and the men who fought and died, he often will only consider the deaths in terms of battle. However
many do not consider that a large number of these deaths were linked to germs. In the Civil War, many soldiers died from diseases and lack of
cleanliness because they did not know about hygiene or how to stay clean. Most soldiers touched many germ infested things without even knowing that
those surfaces contained thousands of germs that could eventually cause disease. Although the Civil war is ancient history, germs, unfortunately are not.
In today's society, people have access to lifesaving vaccinations. In fact, vaccinations are the best way to prevent the spread of pathogens, because they
help fight off diseases.
There are many ways to cope with infection control standard precautions in health care. Ways that can help you with your respiratory hygiene and
cough etiquette. Persons with respiratory symptoms should apply control measures. Vaccinations is a treatment to prevent a person from getting sick.
Pathogens are a infectious agent that causes or illness to it's host. Many soldiers who did end up having diseases were because he did not know the
harm that it can cause him. '' Pathogens are usually spread by bodily fluids such as blood and semen through fresh, bleeding cuts and scratches(''Hand
Hygiene'').''Soldiers should be aware of their surroundings and make sure not to get any blood or

Clean Water Pollution
The lack of clean drinking water around the world is a highly discussed global issue. Many people are affected by this problem and it has a large
negative effect on a large percentage of the world. 31.25% of people do not have access to properly treated, clean, safe water. This issue continues
to grow everyday and many people continue to suffer. The reason this topic needs to be addressed is that the people in the world affected by their
lack of clean water are suffering, contracting diseases, and dying, because of the conditions they live in. Moreover it is a large issue and affects
millions, if not billions of people. The clean water shortage that plagues our world is important to discuss and be aware of, because it is a huge
global problem and needs a solution right away. The problem is important, because people suffer everyday and don't live good lives in the
condition and state their world is in. Water is necessary to survival and having no access to safe water can lead to death, which then affects the
entire population of the country. A single death may not seem impactful, however one death may lead to ten more, and more after that. The people
dying most likely had a job and if people keep dying soon the population will be too small to hold up the economy. If an economy in a country
collapses the entire world could be affected. As an effect of this, the goods that the country produces would no longer be able to be shipped and from
there things could get

Swine Pathogens
North Carolina is the country's second largest hog producer housing over 10 million swine (Edwards and Ladd, 2000). Due to the density of swine in
such a small region, 15.5 million tons of manure is produced on a yearly basis. This manure is stored in lagoon pits that are man–made for this
purpose. 1 Once stored in these lagoons, the manure is then sprayed onto fields for disposal; these fields contain agricultural crops or turf (USGAO,
2008). Since the ground is permeable, runoff and percolation occur in these fields and in the lagoons, as they are only lined with clay. The waste in
these lagoon pits contain insecticides, antimicrobial agents, pathogens, pharmaceuticals, and other nutrients which result in extensive pollution and...
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The odor invades homes and some days mist will hit cars and homes (Wing S, 2002). As previously noted, the waste contains pathogens and
antibiotic–resistant bacteria. As this spray is impacting residents' homes it is reaching public water sources. The mist contains hydrogen sulfide and
ammonia which cause irritation of the eyes and respiratory system (Wilson SM, Serre ML, 2007). Research indicates these spray fields cause mental
stress, decreased quality of life, and raised blood pressure on nearby residents. NC's swine CAFOs are densely bunched in low income communities
with predominantly black residents. This region experiences poor quality of life, high unemployment rates, subpar healthcare, and a minimal level of
education (Calhoun SD, et al, 2000). The residents in this region do not obtain the political power to oppose the impact of swine CAFOs. Therefore,
employment and schools or any educational institution thereof are not present within vicinity. Regardless of any reason, this is environmental injustice
impacting minority populations. This population lacks the political power to push back, therefore; they have to bear the health, socio–economic, and
environmental impacts of the CAFOs without any allocation of the economic benefits from the industry (Edwards B, Ladd AE, 2001). It seems that
this industry chooses to build CAFOs in areas with minimal zoning codes or least

Biohazards of Sewage Sludge Essay
Wastewater can come from a variety of sources like homes, businesses, industries, runoff from roads, lawns and fields and is treated by municipal
wastewater treatment facilities (Product, cornell). The solid material that remains after the treatment of wastewater is known as sludge (charac, cornell).
Sludge can be employed in many different ways, it can be used as a soil additive or growing medium, sent to a composting facility, incinerated or
landfilled (Char, cornell).
Biosolids are derived primarily from a combination of primary, secondary, and tertiarysewage sludges. Biosolids do not contain the coarse grit and
screenings removed from raw wastewater during preliminary treatment steps or ash generated from incineration of sewage ... Show more content on
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These various routes or pathways of contact can result in either acute or chronic disease if the exposure is high enough. For pathogens, the primary
concern is acute diseases of a short–term duration (i.e., gastroenteritis or flu–like symptoms), while for the various potential chemical contaminants,
risks are derived from chronic exposure via ingestion.
Pathogens that may be present in biosolids applied to land pose a disease risk only if there are routes of exposure that deliver an infective dose. The
principal means of exposure is through ingestion or inhalation. Absorption through the skin is considered to be a minor route of exposure unless a
field worker suffers a cut or other puncture to the skin and is exposed. The degree of harm caused by bacterial toxins varies with the mode of entry
into the body.
It seems there is a correlation between the amount of biosolids applied and frequency of contamination. A 1984 study showed that 22.4mg/ha applied
to Sassafras sandy loam soil was the upper limit to ensure that groundwater was not contaminated (Higgins, 1984). Doses below 22.4mg/ha of land are
acceptable for the provision of nutrients to plants, while anything above diminished the water quality to below American federal standards (Higgens,
1984). Heavy metals and coliforms remained low

How Do Utensils Lead To Cross-Contamination?
In a recent study funded by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, University of Georgia researchers found that produce that contained bacteria would
contaminate other produce items through the continued use of knives or grates––the bacteria would latch on to the utensils commonly found in
consumers' homes and spread to the next item.
Unfortunately, many consumers are unaware that utensils and other surfaces at home can give to the spread of bacteria, said the study's lead author
Marilyn Erickson, an associate professor in the College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences' department of food science and technology.
"Just knowing that utensils may lead to cross–contamination is important," Erickson said. "With that knowledge, consumers are then more likely to
make sure they ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They found that both knives and grates can cause extra cross–contamination in the kitchen and that the pathogens were spread from produce to produce
if they hadn't washed the utensils.
"A lot of the broken up material and particles from the contaminated produce remained on the grates," said Erickson, who conducts her research at the
UGA Center for Food Safety in Griffin. "Then if you were to shred another carrot or something else immediately after that, it gets contaminated, too."
The study also found that certain fruits and vegetables spread pathogens to knives to different degrees.
"For items like tomatoes, we tended to have a higher contamination of the knives than when we cut strawberries," Erickson said. "We don't have a
specific answer about why there are differences between the different produce groups. But we do know that once a pathogen gets on the food, it's
difficult to remove."
Knives and grates aren't the only utensils in the kitchen consumers should be worried about. Erickson has also helped study the role brushes and
pedlers have on the transfer of dangerous kitchen

Using Homemade Solar Cookers And Solar Energy
Using Homemade Solar Cookers and Solar Energy to Pasteurize Non–Potable Water by Killing Harmful Bacteria, Parasites, and Diseases
Maia J. Graudick
Brown School
Abstract
In less developed countries, there is a lack of availability in potable water for safe consumption. Using a device known as a solar cooker may allow for
cheap and easy access to water without worry of contracting diseases. Solar cookers utilize solar energy by focusing the sun's rays into water, heating
the water to a temperature hot enough to kill harmful pathogens. A homemade solar cooker was filled 100ml of non–potable water and set out in the
sun for 50 minutes. The experiment resulted in a success with 95.9% of all organisms in the water being killed, effectively pasteurizing the water for
safe drinking. The experiment provided evidence to support that solar cookers are reliable option for pasteurizing non–potable water in less developed
countries.
Using Homemade Solar Cookers and Solar Energy to Pasteurize Non–Potable Water by Killing Harmful Bacteria, Parasites, and Diseases Water is
highly important in sustaining human life. Untreated water however, can have very harmful effects on the body. Water that is not of drinking
standards, or non–potable water, can contain harmful and possibly fatal pathogens. The consumption of this water by humans is extremely dangerous.
In less developed countries (LDCs) effective methods of pasteurizing non–potable water are not always readily

The Negative Effects Of Pollution On The Environment
America's increasingly prominent contamination of water and air from nitrates, lead, plastic and other pathogenic organisms is critical to our
environment and the health of our population. Pollution has existed since the dawn of man. However, the transition from a nomadic lifestyle to a
settled society escalated pollution. The Roman empire had been the first to introduce lead pollution into the atmosphere. As the population grows
exponentially so does pollution rates, primarily in developed countries. It hadn't been until the second world war that industry's begun producing
synthetic plastic materials. These materials are hardly biodegradable and therefore accumulate in the environment faster than they can be broken
down. It was also in this 1950's era that scientist first began developing agriculture fertilizers as well as inorganic pesticides. It has been discovered
that these particular compounds have a negative effect on ecosystems and humans. Pesticides are used to protect crops from being eaten by insects,
the pesticide work as a repellent. Scientist now know that pesticides can cripple a species over time. Certain pesticides are designed to kill the insects
that eat the plant, this is creating a lack of biological diversity in ecosystems. For example, Bee population has been declining for some time now.
Without Bees, there would be no pollination of plants, potentially crippling entire ecosystems. Fertilizers contain nitrogen, runoff carries this element to

Pathogens
The term disease can be defined as a disorder of structure or function in a human, animal, or plant, especially one that produces specific symptoms or
that affects a specific location and is not simply a direct result of physical injury.With this being said, it can be seen that there are numbers of diseases.
A pathogen is a biological agent, or germ, that causes disease to its host by interrupting normal body processes. Bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites
are all common types of pathogens that can cause pathogenic, or infectious, diseases. These pathogens can be found in the air, soil and water, and
infection can occur as a result of touching, eating or drinking something that is infected with a germ.A vector is an organism that does ... Show more
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Hereditary diseases are disorders or diseases that are inherited genetically. They are also known as genetic disorders or inherited diseases and may
be passed on within the family if there is a mutant gene present. For example, Down syndrome. This disease is also known as Trisomy 21 and it is
caused by inheritance of an extra chromosome 21. This condition causes delay in mental and physical development of a child. This genetic disorder
is rare and may be detected before a child is born. Another example is Hereditary Fructose Intolerance. This hereditary disease causes absence of
enzyme aldolase B in a person, which is required for metabolizing fructose. Symptoms of hereditary fructose intolerance include severe abdominal
pain, vomiting and aversion to sweet foods. Along with Hereditary hemochromatosis which is a genetic disease that causes the body to absorb too
much iron. Absorbed iron doesn't leave the body but instead it is stored in the body organs, which can cause many health

Resistance Against Pathogens
One of the greatest problems our world faces today is rising antibiotic resistance in viruses, bacteria and pathogens in general. This is a human–driven
problem; the more we use antibiotics to save lives today, the stronger the pathogens infecting and harming us tomorrow will be. The entire problem is
based in natural selection because antibiotics kill all of a pathogen except for a special few who were themselves deformed in a way that enabled them
to survive. These then become the pathogens that infect everyone, so the previous solution is no longer able to solve the problem the next time around.
There can be no single concrete solution, but rather endless research and discovery to stop these pathogens from causing death and destruction... Show
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In this specific scenario, only research can tell us whether a cocktail of antibiotics will potentially kill every form of the pathogen, eliminating the ones
that with the use of only one drug may have survived, or if this cocktail will accelerate antibiotic resistance creating new superiorly adapted pathogens.
Maybe the only choice is to just stop using really powerful drugs, potentially losing lives in the process to end up saving the lives of millions down
the road. But the solutions to the problem start with education because the more we know about the absolute basic workings of anything, the easier
it is to find and exploit a weakness, whatever that may be. A great passion of mine is to learn and learn and learn so that I am in a position in which
the answer to whatever problem I need solved, is right in front of me, all I have to do or anybody else for that matter, is put the pieces

Foodborne Pathogens
Foodborne diseases are an important public health problems in United States causing numerous illnesses, hospitalizations and deaths of people. Along
with this, these diseases can cause substantial amount of burden through long term complications and sequelae. Understanding the overall human
health impact of these diseases is a prime key to prioritize food safety policies and interventions. Hoffmann et al. (2012) and Scallan et al. (2015),
both explores the overall impact of foodborne disease caused by major leading foodborne pathogens in United States measuring the annual cost of
illnesses and loss of Quality Life Years. Hoffmann et al. (2012) emphasize 14 of the major foodborne pathogens whereas Scallan et al. (2015)
emphasize only seven of... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(2012) reported the annual loss of $14 billion in cost of illness and 61,000 QALYs in United States. Whereas, Scallan et al. (2015) estimate the loss of
112, 000 DALYs annually in United States. From the viewpoint of Hoffmann et al. (2012) nontyphoidal Salmonella enterica is the leading cause of
food borne pathogens followed by Campylobacter, Listeria monocyotgenes, Toxoplasma gondii and norovirus. However, Scallan et al. (2015) report the
little bit contrasting result showing nontyphoidal Salmonella enterica as the major cause followed by Toxoplasma, Camplyobacter, norovirus, Listeria
monocytogenes, Clostridium perfringens and Escherichia coli O157.They define health states for each pathogen (acute illness and sequelae) and
estimate the average annual incidence of each health state using data from public health surveillance and previously published estimates from United
States. In addition, they create disease outcome tress for each pathogen that characterize the symptoms, severities, durations, outcomes and likelihoods
of health states associated with that pathogen. Then, they estimate the cost of illness (medical costs, productivity loss, and valuation of premature
mortality) for each pathogen. They also estimate QALY loss for each health state associated with a given pathogen, using EuroQol 5D scale. They
recommend to address important data gaps and to develop and validate US– specific disability weights for foodborne diseases to improve the future
estimates of the burden of foodborne diseases in

Water Is Convenient Environment For Microorganisms Growth
Water is convenient environment for microorganisms growth, some are pathogenic and other non–pathogenic.
Bioindicators are living organisms such as plants, planktons, animals, and microbes, which are utilized, to screen the health of the natural ecosystem in
the environment (Trishala K. Parmar, Deepak Rawtani and Y. K. Agrawal, 2016). Bio indicator organisms are algae, fungi,bacteria, larval invertebrates,
Cyanobacteria, macro invertebrates, and fish play a vital role in water quality evaluation. [Natalia SzczerbiГ±ska and MaВіgorzata GaВіczyГ±ska,
2015.]
(Bacteria play a vital role as Bio indicator organisms)
Previous studies indicate that water have many types of indicators; General (Process) indicator a group of organisms that ... Show more content on
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Current research on water pathogens is focused on some pathogenic bacteria (bacterial pathogens).
Waterborne pathogens and related diseases are a major public health concern worldwide, not only by the morbidity and mortality that they cause, but by
the high cost that represents their prevention and treatment. These diseases are directly related to environmental (7, 2015) Proper assessment of
pathogens on water and water quality monitoring are key factors for decision–making regarding water distribution systems' infrastructure, the choice of
best water treatment and prevention waterborne outbreaks.
The World Health Organization [World Health Organization (WHO). Water Sanitation and Health. 2015. Available online: http://www.who.int
/water_sanitation_health/diseases (assessed on 17 February 2015)., Pandey, P.K.; Kass, P.H.; Soupir, M.L.; Biswas, S.; Singh, V.P. Contamination of
water resources by pathogenic bacteria. AMB Express 2014, 4, 51.] has reported that improving water quality can reduce the global disease burden by
approximately 4%. Thus, there is an urgent need to undertake all possible efforts to reach this goal. if infection to the host is produced, depends on
factors such as minimal infectious dose (MID), pathogenicity, host susceptibility and environmental

Spread Of Pathogens
Explain two ways you help in preventing the spread of pathogens on a daily basis. (4 Points) Two ways that I could help prevent pathogens from
spreading on a daily basis include avoiding close contact with people who are infected with a communicable disease and also by keeping my
environment clean, by emptying trash cans frequently and keeping them clean. Describe how pathogens can be spread at school through both direct
and indirect contact. (4 Points) Pathogens are most easily spread in the school environment since there are so many people inclosed in one place, using
many of the same learning tools. When people are messing around and "wrestling" one another in the hallways, hugging each other, or even giving
someone a high–five, these

Innate Pathogens
Pathogens and parasites are very dangerous and lethal to not only vertebrate species such as animals, but invertebrate species like insects as well.
Insects have to heavily rely on their innate immune system, which is an immediate response in quickly destroying invaders (Alberts et al 2002).
Melanism is a key response to insects' innate defenses that serves many functions like improving fitness. Melanin darkens the insects' cuticle, which is
facilitated by the enzyme phenoloxidase that converts dopamine to melanin (True 2003). So when the insect is infected, host hemocytes surround
around an invader and from a melanized capsule, and as the capsule darkens, cytotoxic intermediates are produced and the invader loses its ability to
survive (Cerenius

Spirited Pathogens
One of the core tenets of the B.H.Sc program is giving back to the community and for me, being a pathogen represents an opportunity to do just that.
Each year during Welcome Week, new people from diverse backgrounds join our community and it is crucial that we make a positive impression in
their minds about what B.H.Sc is and what it stands for. A positive impression can be made by setting the right tone from the beginning that, as new
members of the community, we should trust each other, be welcoming and inclusive, and being spirited about the four years to come. These are the
values that I have learned during my time in B.H.Sc and I want to pass them down as soon as the first years set foot on campus on the first day of the
Welcome Week.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It should be a person who is lively, animated, full of energy and who enthusiastically embodies the values that B.H.Sc stands for. I believe that such a
characteristic is important because Welcome Week is a once
–in–a–lifetime opportunity and experience for the first years and our goal is to make that
week a memorable and a cherished time of their university life. This can be made possible with a team of spirited pathogens. In my view, a spirited
pathogen is one who pushes the new students to come out of their comfort zones and interact with their new peers and explore their new environment.
Of course, the pathogen must respect the students' needs and must make sure student is not feeling overwhelmed in that process. A spirited pathogen is
able to recount their university experiences and narrate their bad experiences into good lessons through humour and frank conversation. This
characteristic is important because it would reassure the students that despite any uncertainties, everything will be turn out to be okay and that
university has its ups and downs which is all part of the fun and of the learning experience. So in summary, the characteristic of spiritedness, in my
opinion, is all about optimism and spreading it far and wide to

Antigenic Pathogens
Question 1. I remember hearing in your video something about our body natural immunity and it eradicates the virus. The immune system includes
physical barriers, such as the skin and mucous membranes that prevent pathogens from entering the body, and cellular responses, such as circulating
macrophages that respond to foreign invaders. Our acquired immune system mounts a specific antibody response when the body is exposed to a
foreign invader, and our immune cells attack the invader Question 2. The advantage for a fever can mean that you have an active immune system,
revved up and helping an array of immunological processes work more effectively. Replication of most viruses is reduced by even a modest rise in
temperature. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/11/health/11klass.html (Links to an external site.)... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One way in which an infectious agent can evade immune surveillance is by altering its antigens; this is particularly important for extracellular
pathogens, against which the principal defense is the production of antibody against their surface structures. There are three ways in which antigenic
variation can occur. First, many infectious agents exist in a wide variety of antigenic types. There are, for example, 84 known types of Streptococcus
pneumoniae, an important cause of bacterial pneumonia. Each type differs from the others in the structure of its polysaccharide capsule. The different
types are distinguished by serological tests and so are often known as serotypes. Infection with one serotype of such an organism can lead to
type–specific immunity, which protects against reinfection with that type but not with a different serotype. Thus, from the point of view of the
adaptive immune system, each serotype of S. pneumoniae represents a distinct organism. The result is that essentially the same pathogen can cause
disease many times in the same

Pathogens Of Hpv
As a human being, we are faced with several pathogens that can cause harm to our body. As health care professional, we are encouraged to obtain
knowledge about these different types of diseases; so that we can educate and as well as treat the patient diagnosis. Due to the action of our sexual
behavior, we open our bodies to a vast amount of sexual transmitted diseases. Even though, sex plays one of the most important roles in our daily
lives. It is essential to be educated on the prompt ways of performing safe sex; nevertheless, it is necessary to be aware of infections you can acquire.
Frequently, more recently in today's society the disease known as HPV is a genital to genital disease that can be spread through sexual contact. The
following

When we think of cannibalism, our minds immediately turn...
When we think of cannibalism, our minds immediately turn to gruesome pictures of humans eating other humans or fictional characters that feast upon
the flesh of other living people (especially with a nice chianti and fava beans). Though cannibalism may not be a common occurrence among humans,
it is a fairly widespread practice upon many other species of the animal kingdom. This paper will explore the behavior of cannibalism in the tiger
salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum) a major fitness cost of cannibalism in these organisms: pathogen transmission. Cannibalism is operationally defined
as the ingestion of all or part of a conspecific, and is taxonomically widespread amongst many vertebrate and invertebrate groups; however, it is
extremely ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Most normal morphs feed on invertebrates, whereas cannibal morphs eat a wider range of prey including conspecific and heterospecific larvae. Since
tiger salamanders breed in ephemeral ponds, it is believed that environmental cues influence the frequency of cannibal morphs in a population. These
cues can include high intraspecific density that leads to resource competition, pathogen and/or parasite densities in the habitat, etc. (Brunkow and
Collins, 1996; Collins et al., 2003; Denoel et al., 2006; Maret and Collins, 1997; Pfennig, 1991, 1998). Most current research on cannibalism in tiger
salamanders focuses on kin selection and kin recognition strategies. However, within the past twenty years more research has begun to focus on the
cost of pathogen transmission on cannibalism in tiger salamanders. This seems to be due to the increased amphibian population declines due to
pathogens and because it seems to be the biggest fitness cost to cannibalistic salamanders, when compared to the other mentioned above (Parris et al.,
2005; Pfennig, 1997). Through the current research, the rest of this paper will explore pathogen transmission and how it affects cannibalism in tiger
salamanders. First we will survey some research done on transmission dynamics and the pathogens that affect tiger salamanders. It is believed that
numerous bacterial pathogens in high enough quantities and infecting other tissues than they usually do can lead to death in tiger

Marcergens are those bacteria responsible for plant tissue...
Marcergens are those bacteria responsible for plant tissue maceration resulting in total tissue collapse (Gwyn 2007). Soft rot diseases of vegetable is
the most characteristic symptom of tissue maceration in plant which begins as small water soaked lesion, expands and intensifies until the tissue turns
soft and watery. Apparently, the outer surface of the diseased plant might stay unbroken, while tanned and depressed, or enclosed in an exuding
bacterial mucus layer. Foul smells are common owing to the discharge of explosive complexes throughtissue degradation. Best bacterial growth
follows after plant cell lysis in these diseases. Soft–rotting bacteria are distinguished for the speed at which they stimulate soft rot: warehoused crop may
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These macergens infect and destroy plant tissues both pre– and postharvest and this species causes the greatest damage to harvested vegetables (Amy
2007). There is need to ensure a continuous cold chain from immediately postharvest to retail to successfully manage this ubiquitous spoilage bacterium
that only thrive well at temperatures of 20В°C and above. The fluorescent Pseudomonads (i.e. P. fluorescens and P. viridiflava) can macerate plant
parenchymatous tissues at a temperature below 4В°C, this cause for high occurrence of these bacteria on decayed vegetables both at wholesale and
retail markets. These soft–rotting fluorescent Pseudomonads and Erwinia, therefore become the major threat to commercial fresh product operations
and fresh vegetables precisely, from the farm to retail and wholesale outlets. However, there are currently no commercial agents available specifically
for controlling soft rot (Dong et al. 2004; Latour et al. 2008). Despite advances in vegetable production and diseases management, many challenges
face growers of vegetables, out of which the major one is the damage caused by macergens (PГ©rombelon 2002). Macergens damage the tissues of
vegetable thereby reducing the quality, yields and shelf–life and consumer satisfaction of these plants. They usually cause great economic losses due to

Non Pathogens
Pathogen research
After the introduction of the pathogen, it was clear that various non–pathogens could cause harm to people. The concept of the pathogen was initially
was referred to microbe causing the disease. Scientists have involved themselves in research to critical understand the properties of fungi, bacteria,
parasites and viruses that were able to make people become ill. During the research, there were seminal discoveries that were able to be got
(Casadevall and Pirofski). These included various roles of fungal and bacterial toxins available in diseases. Microbe, however, causes diseases only
with the host. In 1950, the microbes that caused infections were common opening channel of skin and blood relating to the treatments suppressing ...
Researchers studying microorganisms' community use genomics recognize myriad factors and interactions help shape the composition of the
microorganism. However, in different people, the microbe varies in development at various times with relation to the disease. Infectious research on
the diseases is dominated continuously by reducing the approaches (Casadevall and Pirofski). The microbiologists view the microbes of any disease as
the major factors that vary with the disease. They, therefore, treat the body of the host as just a

Pathogens Essay
Pathogens are everywhere. They are in people, animals, and the environment. Pathogens come in a wide variety. The types are fungal, bacterial, viral,
and other parasites. All pathogens can be dangerous, but two of them are more dangerous. These two types that more dangerous are fungal and
bacterial. While both fungal and bacterial pathogens cause illness, they differ in the way they are transmitted, the way they are treated, and the diseases
they cause. First, the way fungal and bacterial pathogens are transmitted is different. Most fungal pathogens are not transmitted person to person but
instead by inhaling fungal spores. On the other hand bacterial pathogens are transmitted in many ways like through touch and air.... Show more content
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Antifungal creams are used to treat things like athlete's foot, ringworm of the groin and body, skin infection because of Candida yeast. A serious
systemic infections like crypotococcal meningitis. Antifungal injections are used to treat infections like Candidiasis, Coccidiomycosis, and
Crypotococcal Meningitis. Antifungals work by exploiting differences in mammalian and fungal cells to kill the fungal organisms with no dangerous
effects on the host. Fungal and human cells are alike at the molecular level. Antifungal drugs can cause side effects; some could be fatal if the drug is
not used properly (Antifungal medication, n.d.). Finally, the diseases that fungal and bacterial pathogens cause are completely different. Fungal
diseases are rarer and more likely to be fatal. One of the most fatal fungal pathogens is Candida. Candidiasis infections have many types the most
common non–fatal type is oral also known as thrush. Invasive Candidiasis infections occur if Candida yeast gets in your bloodstream and you have a
weakened immune system and a yeast infection goes untreated. Candidiasis infections have a forty to fifty percent mortality rate for systemic infections
(Hidalgo, 1994–2013). Bacterial diseases are more common and there are so many different types. Some bacterial infections are Botulism, Lyme
disease, and gonorrhea. Botulism is a disease that causes neuroparalysis because of a

Infection Control Nvq 3 Unit 0.20
1.1 and 1.2 Bacteria – are micro–organisms that consist of only one cell. Bacteria multiply by splitting themselves in two, which is called a binary
fission. Because of this they can increase in number rapidly. The majority are harmless, but some can be pathogenic which results in bacterial infection
occuring. Bacterial infections can be treated by using antibiotics. Bacteria can evolve a resistance to antibiotic e.g. MRSA. Some diseases caused by
bacteria include tuberculosis, pneumonia, salmonella, tetanus and syphilis.
Viruses – are extremely small particles made from protein and either DNA or RNA. They are not made up of cells instead they invade the living cells
of other organisms and use them to produce many copies of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
All pathogens need a source of food to provide them with a source of energy and nutrients they need to multiply. Often they get it from the body of the
infected individual. All human pathogens require moisture to grow, that is why food is preserved by drying, which deprive mico–organisms of
moisture. The pathogens that infect humans grow best at body temperature of 37*C. Higher temperatures inactivate and kill most of the
micro–organisms, while low temperatures slow or stop their grow. That is why heat is used to steralize objects, while freezing is used to preserve
food. It takes time for the pathogen to multiply to the point where it starts to cause symtomps of infection. This is called an incubation time.
2.2 There are four main ports of entry: – inhalation into the nose, throat and lungs (pathogens in the air or droplets, which can cause e.g. TB), –
ingestion into the stomach and gut (pathogens ingested and swallowed, which can cause e.g. salmonella and norovirus), – sexual contact (pathogens
transmitted in any sexual contact, which can cause e.g. HIV, gonorrhoea),– wounds and breaks in the skin (pathogens enter the body through mucus
membranes, nose, mouth, gut, genital urinary track – catheters, or wounds like surgical incisions which can cause e.g. MRSA).
2.3 The sources of infection can be divided in two main groups. These are exogeneous and endogeneous sources. A source of the infection is

Healthcare Pathogens
Recognition of healthcare systems globally in both high and low income areas is a key component to understanding the health of each country overall.
Each country can only function and be as strong as the weakest country due to communicable diseases that spread worldwide. As technology advances
so do the pathogens that enter each individual's body. In the past pathogens were contained to their country of origin and were not easily spread but in
today's society they can travel within in a matter of hours or minutes. Understanding each healthcare system allows world leaders and healthcare
workers to determine changes that need to be made in order to eliminate health disparities and the spread of various communicable diseases. Analyzing
and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Intensive care units (ICUs) have been shut down due to this shortage of healthcare personnel; there are around 650 ICUs in Greece when 1500–2000
are needed for the population needs. Of the 650 ICUs, 150–200 have been shut down due to the lack of staffing abilities.
Greece has a total of 132 public hospitals under national health service. This total consists of general, university, and specialized hospitals as well as
health centres. There are 23 more hospitals not under operating under the national health service that attend to different populations such as military
and prisoners. Private hospitals make of 26% of the total bed capacity in Greece with 218 designated hospitals. These hospitals benefit the individuals
enrolled in private health insurance. Medical equipment in readily available within Greece. The biomedical technology supply is expensive and
uncontrolled. Among 28 other countries, Greece ranks within the top 10 for number of CT and MRI scanners. Doctors promote the use of this
expensive technology and have a tendency to overprescribe tests and procedures. The internet is not utilized often within the Greece healthcare system.
Only 25% of doctors keep records electronically and only 57% actually use the internet. When the internet is used, it is mainly for consulting research
or current best practices.
Ethiopia
Ethiopia has a population of over 104 million people and life expectancy is on the lower side at approximately 65 years. The fertility rate is

Pathogens Of Salmonella
Salmonella is a group of rod–shaped gram–negative bacteria, which causes a foodborne illness called salmonellosis. Salmonella germs have been
known to cause illness for over 100 years. The Salmonella family includes over 2,500 serotypes of bacteria. Of these, the most common serotypes
associated with human illness are salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium (S.Typhimurium) and S. enterica serovar Enteritidis (S. Enteritidis).
(Kyung–Min Lee, 2015)
Salmonella is widely dispersed in nature. Since it is primarily found in the intestinal tracts of animals, salmonella causes one million illnesses in the
United States every year. In 2013, 1.2 million patients of salmonella infections occur in United States, resulting 378 deaths. The annual cost ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Salmonella spp. are commonly referred to by their serotype names.
In 2007, there were approximately 2600 different serotypes of S. enterica have been identified and about 50 serotypes in them are common causes of
infections in humans and warm blooded animals. Serotyping determines a Salmonella serotype by the unique combination of reactions of cell surface
antigens. And it has been useful during source–attribution investigations, but it's expensive and can take up to 5 days to complete. (Kristyn Franklin,
2011)It also needs specialized expertise and a set of more than two hundreds quality–assured reagents to characterize these thousands different

Oryzae Pathogens
Known more commonly as the pathogenic fungus causing rice blast, M. oryzae was formerly known as Magnaporthe grisae. M. oryzae is the
formal name given to isolates associated with rice blast. (Couch and Kohn 2002). Couch and Kohn discovered a difference of several base pairs in
three loci between M. grisae and M. oryzae. Couch and Kohn also found the two species were incapable of interbreeding in the laboratory.
M. oryzae is an ascomycete belonging to a relatively new family, the Magnaporthaceae, which also includes pathogens of other cereals. Only the
anamorphic1 state has been found in rice fields, but the teleomorph2 can be produced in culture with a pair of isolates having opposing mating types.
The fungus most often presents as diamond–shaped lesions on leaves but is also found on stems, peduncles, panicles, seeds, and has even been
detected on roots (TeBeest et al 2007). These diamond–shaped lesions appear with a white to gray center and brown to reddish brown borders (2016).
Retrieved from http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/r682100611.html.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Perithecia are normally globose to subglobose and brown to black with a glabrous surface. Each unitunicate3 ascus holds eight ascospores with the
apical ring present. Ascospores are hyaline and fusiform, taper at both ends with three septa, and contain haploid nuclei. The mycelium of M. oryzae is
septate with haploid nuclei (Luo and Zhang 2013, TeBeest et al

Mycelial Pathogen
Step 1: Written observation of the symptoms of the fruit and signs of the pathogen.
Symptoms and signs
The fruit that is examined in this study is a strawberry. The infected strawberry in displayed in figure 1, appears to be fully covered in mycelial
growth. Mycelial consists of white filaments also known as hyphae (mould), which seems to be growing on the strawberry. Within the branched hyphae
there are multiple black spores that surround the fruit. Although the fruit appears to be shriveled, there appears to be an access amount of liquid which
remains on the parafilm and the inner components of the fruit are moist and soft. The multiple stages of mycelial that are growing on the fruit in figure
1, demonstrates signs of the pathogen. The ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The slide appears to attain dark hyphae fruiting bodies at the tips. The appearance of spores, sporangiospore and sporangium are visible. Rhizopus is
identified in the microscopic analysis of the fruit. The rhizopus is seen as the branching hypha ends in figure 4. The microscope slide demonstrates
density of hyphae around the mid region.
Do the Pure Culture Symptoms Observations Match? At the beginning of the experiment, the samples had visible hyphae and black fruiting bodies,
which appear to be visible in the re–infected fruit samples. Both the samples have distinct zones of mycelial growth and colonization. In the fruiting
and productive zones both samples appear to have increased hyphae density. When samples are analyzed in the microscope they both have evident
clusters of sporangia and conidia. When comparing the infect fruit samples it is clear that both the original and re–infected samples are quite similar
results including signs and symptoms.
Step 5: Re–isolation of the pathogen in a pure culture and compare to original

Pathogen Analysis
The Evader – Narrated by the Pathogen Humans are lucky because they have an amazing system for fighting and clearing infectious agents from their
bodies. There are many ways in which the immune system, my nemesis, fights off infections to return the human back to his original healthy state.
While the immune system may be smart, I am smarter. Infectious agents, like myself, are continuously developing new ways to evade the human's
immune system. Today, I will give you a glimpse into my life and walk you through how I enter the body and evade the ever–present surveillance of
the immune system. First, I should explain how I get into the body to begin carrying out my diabolical plans of infecting the human host. I spend most
of my time floating ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
I do this by not allowing C3 convertase to act properly via the alternative pathway. In normal cells where C3 convertase activity is not impaired, C3
will be cleaved. C3 and it's cleavage is the process by which C3 convertase is normally made. C3 convertase can then produce C3b, which has the
ability to bind to pathogen surfaces. When C3b binds to the pathogen surface further cleavage can occur and molecules, such as C5b, will be
generated. Molecules like C5b are responsible for forming the Major Attack Complex (MAC). Normally, MAC formation on cell surfaces would
essentially cause a hole to be punched through the cell membrane. The hole causes the cell contents to be released and ultimately the cell will die,
due to the lysis. However, in my case I do not want MAC to be formed to lyse the cells I have worked so hard to make. So I decided that I would
not allow C3 convertase to function properly in the first place. This means that the downstream products, such as C5b, are not made which ultimately
prevents the MAC from forming on cells. This means the cells that I have infected, will not be killed. So my viral DNA will continue to be replicated
in these infected cells

Fungal Pathogens
Opportunistic and invasive fungal infections have increased dramatically in recent years. Candida and Aspergillus spp. are the most famous fungal
pathogens that account for majority of invasive and opportunistic fungal infections, respectively, occurring worldwide. 1This scenario is being
observed among individuals with suppressed immune systems brought about by the use of cytotoxic drugs, immunosuppressive therapy, or human
immunodeficiency virus infection.2 These infections have also been observed in some iatrogenic or nosocomial clinical settings. Autopsy data indicate
that more than half of the patients who die with malignancies are infected with Candida spp., approximately one–third with Aspergillus spp., and
increasing numbers with Cryptococcus... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Log P values of designed molecule and Fluconazole were found to be 2.49 and 0.99 respectively. (Calculated using Chemdraw software). (II) Tertiary
amino moiety as bioisoster was selected to replace tertiary alcohol of Fluconazole. Compared with tertiary alcohol, the tertiary amino group could not
only be liable to form hydrogen bonds, but also accepts proton or form quaternary salts which results in the increase of water solubility or coordinate
with metal ions which probably lead to enhance affinity, selectivity and potency in biological properties.18 (III) Several studies from the past have
demonstrated that incorporating halobenzyl moiety into organic molecules could greatly improve the pharmacological properties.19–21 An enhanced
pharmacological action results from an increased rate of absorption, transport of drugs in vivo, and a higher lipid solubility.22 The greater flexibility
of the benzyl moiety as compared to phenyl group may show improved molecular biological

ESKAPE Pathogens
The aim of this experiment was to find bacteria within the soil that produce antibiotics that are effective against the ESKAPE pathogens. We found that
the CFU/g of the bacteria cultured were largest when they were found close to or directly within the soil of plants likely due to the nutrients they
provide. Of the thirty–three bacteria found to produce antibiotics, sixteen were found to be effective against gram positive bacteria, fifteen were found
to be effective against gram negative bacteria and one was found to be effective against both. Using gel electrophoresis, we identified that the 16s rRNA
gene that was enhanced through PCR was about 1400 base pairs long. Furthermore, through gram staining, we identified that sixteen of the antibiotic ...
Of the thirty–three antibiotic producers found, only twenty–four were tested in the gram staining. There were nine bacteria that were somehow lost
during the course of the experiment. In addition, only eight of the thirty three antibiotic producers were able to be sequenced. This result can be
explained due to the 16s rRNA gene not being successfully enhanced through the PCR. Another inconsistency shown in the data was the prevalence of
gram negative bacteria among the bacteria sequenced, which contradicts O.Connell and indicates that there were possibly significant experimental
errors. Finally, the antibiotics tested against the ESKAPE pathogens indicated that none were effective, contradicting the data found when we initially
tested all of the bacteria. This could result from there not being enough antibiotics plated in the test, meaning that the antibiotic would need to be
present in significant quantities to function properly. Overall these results indicate that our hypothesis was not correct and that the experiment would
need to be run again with different bacteria or the experiment would need to be revised to possibly find better

Air Pathogens
Microbes have been considered responsible for substantial amounts of infections and fatalities within all living organisms .This escalates into a
pandemic when it starts dissemination from person to person through variety of ways, making it a communicable disease. According to the World
Health Organisation (2017) the biggest such pandemic on record being the Spanish influenza, which killed around 100 million people which was at
least 5% of the world's population in 1918. Mayoclinic (2017) describes pathogen as an infectious biological agent that causes disease or illness to its
host, infecting unicellular organisms from of diverse biological species .A lot of medical advances have been made to safeguard human life against the
threat from the Pathogens. However there are some fungi and bacteria which are useful to human life for food and medicinal purposes respectively.
Identify a range of organisms responsible for infectious disease Bacteria are single–celled ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These air pathogens can be accessed through anybody orifice such as the nose or eyes. Contaminated food and drink, or dirty hands can also contribute
greatly to how diseases can enter the body through the digestive. The pathogens are spread through contact of an infected surface and then introduced
into the digestive tract through oral transmission. Another route for pathogens is through the circulatory system and blood transfusions where
hyper–dermic needles and other injuries to the skin which consequently allows the infectious disease to spread more easily causing major effects to the
immune system (Gillespie & Bamford 2012).Harmful pathogens do not enter through the blood only but, many other infectious diseases such as AIDS
can also be spread through sexual contact. Their routes or an avenue of attack is usually the lymph system through the circulatory

Essay on Water Treatment Process
Clean water supply is essential in establishing and maintaining a healthy community. There are two sources of water supply which are the surface water
and ground water. Most natural waters are not suitable for consumption as it is contaminated by pathogens and also natural chemicals and minerals. In
addition, as a city grew, wastes from human activities contaminate most of the water supplies. Water treatment plays an important role to properly treat
a contaminated source of water supply in order to protect the health of consumers. Water treatment process is defined as a process of eliminating
pollutants from untreated water to produce a biologically and chemically risk–free water, which is both potable and palatable for human consumption ...
The second step of water treatment process is aeration. At the aerator, raw water is mixed with air. The aeration process helps to provide oxygen to
the raw water which is needed for the oxidation process of dissolved iron and manganese in order for it to precipitate and therefore enables its
removal through filtration (SAJ Holdings Sdn Bhd., n.d.). Wormleaton and Tsang (2000) stated that for water treatment process and also natural
streams, it is essential to maintain a high amount of dissolved oxygen. Aeration also provides the escape of dissolved gases, such as carbon dioxide
and hydrogen sulphide to reduce the corrosiveness of water, thus controls the tastes and odors of the water (Shun, 2007). Groundwater with high
dissolved carbon dioxide levels or high concentrations of iron and manganese commonly require aeration as well as water drawn from reservoirs that
is low in dissolved oxygen.
Thirdly, the proceeding water treatment step involves coagulation and flocculation. The objective of this step is to produce particles of a size that can
be easily removed by settlement and filtration. Coagulation destabilizes the colloidal particles followed by flocculation whereby larger particles are
formed from small particles through collisions. Conley and Evers (as cited in Hendricks, 2006, p. 277) described coagulation as a process that reduces
the surface charge

Bacteria Pathogens
Introduction Bacteria pathogens have become increasingly resistant to antibiotics. (Vuotto et al. 2014) The purpose of this experiment is to understand
how bacteria are genetically modified in order to better understand the changes going on naturally in such bacteria. Genetic transformation is used in
many sectors of everyday life. From agriculture to medical treatments, this biotechnology is allowing for new findings through science. Three methods
of genetic transformation are projectile bombardment, electroporation, and heat shock. (Weedman 2014) In 2008, Osamu Shimomura, Martin Chalfie,
and Roger Y. Tsien were co
–awarded the Nobel Prize as they first discovered, used, and altered Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP). GFP was extracted
from jellyfish... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The lids were then placed on the tubes, and both tubes were placed in ice. E. coli bacteria cells that had been grown on a media plate overnight, were
then added to each tube and completely circulated throughout the solution using a sterile loop. Both tubes were then returned to the ice. The pGLO
plasmid was then added to one tube and the other acted as the control, and had no pGLO plasmid added to the solution. Both tubes were then placed
on ice for ten minutes, then both tubes were submerged in 42В°C water for 50 seconds in order to shock the bacteria and allow the membrane to
become more permeable. The tubes were then immediately removed from the bath and replaced in ice for another two minutes. Luria Broth (LB) was
then added to both tubes and left at room temperature for ten minutes. The pGLO– solution was added to a LB nutrient agar plate and to a LB nutrient
agar plate that had ampicillin present in it. The pGLO+ solution was added to a LB nutrient agar plate that had ampicillin added to it and to a LB
nutrient agar plate that had ampicillin, as well as arabinose. All four petri dishes were stored inverted at 37В°C for 24 hours. (Weedman

Pathogens Of Pneumonia
An infection of one or both the lungs refers to Pneumonia. The major causes of pneumonia are germs like bacteria, virus, and fungi. The alveoli (air
sacs) of an infected person's lungs are inflated with fluids or pus. Pneumonia spreads in several ways. The viruses and bacteria found in airborne
droplets transmitted due to coughing and sneezing, when inhaled can cause pneumonia. It is also transmitted through blood, especially during and
shortly after birth. Research is still underway on the other pathogens that possibly cause the disease. Watch out for few of these major symptoms that
can mean you have pneumonia. However, these symptoms can range from mild to severe depending on the type of germ causing the infection, age, and
your overall

The Effects Of Dairy Farms On The Dairy Industry
The dairy industry, which includes dairy farms and dairy processing plants, is a major contributor to the economy. Dairy farms are involved in the
production of raw milk, whereas dairy processing plants produce a variety of dairy products (such as processed milk, cheese, butter, yogurt and ice
cream). The dairy industry ranks third (based on farm cash receipts) in the Canadian agriculture sector and Newfoundland has the fewest number
(n=33) of dairy farms of all the provinces (CDIC 2014). Although Quebec and Ontario are the major dairy producing provinces in Canada,
Newfoundland has the highest number of dairy cows and milk production levels per farm (CDIC 2014). The close contact between animals within a
dairy farm can make them prone to... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
2014). Furthermore, some diseases that infect dairy animals can also be transmitted to humans (Bannantine et al. 2014). Therefore, epidemiological
studies are important for successful prevention and control programs. The work described in this thesis will focus on two bacterial pathogens
affecting dairy animals: (i) Klebsiella species, one of the causative agent of clinical mastitis (CM, cases where the cow displays definitive symptoms
of inflammation of the mammary glands and udder tissue) and (ii) MAP, which causes Johne's disease, which is a contagious bacterial disease of the
intestinal tract. The molecular diversity of the pathogens associated with these two diseases has not been examined in Newfoundland previously and
was therefore selected to be the topic of the research project.
1.3Mastitis and Klebsiella species
Mastitis in dairy animals is caused by a number of bacteria that include the major pathogens such as Streptococcus uberis, Staphylococcus aureus and E.
coli. Other mastitis causing pathogens are Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus dysgalactiae, Corynebacterium bovis, Mycoplasma spp.,
Staphylococcus spp., Klebsiella spp., Citrobactor spp., Enterobacter spp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pasteurella spp. and Bacillus spp. Sometimes fungi,
yeasts and moulds are

Pathogens: Mycobacterium Tuberculosis
Although many disease–causing pathogens are rare, it cannot be said that pathogens themselves are rare. In fact, they are rather ubiquitous in nature
and include a wide variety of types such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa, prion proteins, parasites. Pathogens vary in complexity and those that
remain are a direct result of successfully adapting to their environments and evolving over time to overcome selective evolutionary pressures. A more
specific example of how disease causing pathogens can vary in virulence involves the mention of antibiotics and their ability throughout history to
temporary lessening the virulence of bacterial strains. The relationship between pathogens (i.e. bacteria) and hosts (i.e. humans) has been one of
coevolution ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
New discovery of antibiotics has slowed down and the select number of pathogenic bacteria in existence are continuing to increase in virulence due to
increased exposure. Although advances have been made to address the issue of bacterial resistance to antibiotics, remaining exist that may not be as
obvious a threat to fighting especially virulent bacterial

A summary analysis of the article вЂњMicroarray detection of...
Introduction:
In the field of public health, food–borne illnesses are a major concern because it has been estimated that each year 76 million cases occur in the
United States causing 5,000 deaths (Suo et al., 2010). In 2008, the Center for Disease Control and Prevention's FoodNet surveillance program reported
over 18 thousand cases of food–borne illnesses occurred in 10 states (Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2008). According to estimates
from the CDC (2011), the most common food–borne pathogens that maybe seen in the United States are Norvovirus (58%), Clostridium perfringens
(10%), Salmonella (11%), Campylobacter spp. (9%), and Staphylococcus aureus (3%). Among the other 9% (not published) include Escherichia coli ...
The emergence of DNA based technologies such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and microarray analysis have been utilized in the rapid
detection and identification of many pathogenic bacteria (Mothershed & Whitney, 2006; Versalovic & Lupski, 2002). The expansion of these
technologies has significantly enhanced the sensitivity, specificity and the rapid detection of microorganisms (Suo et al., 2010). Microarray
technologies have the potential to perform high–throughput detection of multiple pathogens. Recent work with specific oligonucleotide probes
suggests that pathogen detection can be performed on a sample that contains a mixed culture of bacteria (Kim et al., 2008). This paper will
Purpose of Research:
Previous work with DNA based technologies to accurately detect and identify human pathogens has been demonstrated. Furthermore, three methods
have been utilized: 1) amplification of one or more universal genes (16S rRNA and 23S rRNA) through PCR, 2) amplification of pathogen–specific
markers (toxins, virulence factors) using multi–plex PCR and 3) amplification of random DNA fragments (Kim et al., 2008). Kim et al. (2008) state
that the first two methods is flawed due to the limited number of probes utilized and that the amplification of universal genes would not discriminate
below species level due to the fact that these genes are highly conserved within the genus. On the other hand, Kim et al. (2008) reported that

Bloodborne Pathogens In Hospitals
Bloodborne pathogens are a threat to patients in the hospital. If a patient is not taken well care of with precaution, then they could be affected by this.
A pathogen, in general, is something that can cause disease. A bloodborne pathogen, specifically, is an infectious germ that can flow through the
human body's blood, causing disease. This pathogen has multiple ways of getting spread into the blood and is not only a threat to hospital patients, but
to people outside those walls as well.
There a few common bloodborne pathogens that can be spread throughout hospitals. They are hepatitis B (HBV), hepatitis C (HCV), and human
immunodeficiency (HIV). HIV itself can cause AIDS. A person can be infected with any of these viruses if a needle of... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
HIV is a life changing virus that cannot be reversed. It can be spread by "semen, vagina fluids, breast milk, or amniotic fluid". This virus is a vicious
virus that harms and fights the body immune system. The immune system is the body's healing system that fights off diseases. With a weak immune
system, one is more likely to become infected with diseases and illnesses. There is treatment to help aid the symptoms of HIV, but unfortunately there
is no prevention vaccine for HIV. As for Hepatitis B and C, there can sometimes be no symptoms. However, when there are symptoms, people often
encounter jaundice, stomach pain, loss of appetite, nausea, and fatigue. HBV is the less dangerous hepatitis. It often gets better on it's own and needs
no treatment. However, HBV can also be a long–term infection and eventually end up developing into liver damage. Hepatitis C can also cause liver
damage. Blood pathogens can be specifically dangerous for those who received an organ donor or a blood transfusion before July 1992. Children are
at risk for having hepatitis C if their mother had it. Those who received a blood clotting treatment before 1987 are at risk as well for having hepatitis

Campylobacter Jejuni Essay
Campylobacter Jejuni is the most common type of food poisoning in the world that is widely distributed among domestic animals. Most
Campylobacter cells are curved, S–shaped, or spiral rods that are 0.2 to 0.8 Вµm wide and 0.5 to 5 Вµm long. They are non–spore forming and gram
negative. They are typically motile with a characteristic corkscrew–like motion by means of "a single polar unsheathed flagellum at one or both ends of
the cell" [2]. Cells grow well under microaerophil condition and "have a respiratory and chemoorganotropic type of metabolism" [4]. The optimum
atmosphere for C. Jejuni is 85% N2, 10% CO2, and 5% O2 with temperature 30ВєC to 37ВєC. The natural habitat for Campylobacter is the intestine of
birds and warm–blooded animals ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
At least 80 cases of Campylobacter Jejuni infection were linked to raw milk from Your Family Cow Farm. About 9 people who drank its dairy
product were hospitalized. Lab tests by the Maryland Department of Health and Mental Hygiene found the outbreak strain of Campylobacter in raw
milk collected from customers' homes. The main cause of the contamination was not clearly defined as sources can possibly come from every aspect
of the farm. Illness onset dates for the outbreak range from January 17 to February 1. Therefore, consumers were continuously advised by the health
department to discard any milk from the Family Cow dairy purchased since January 1 [6].
The Your Family Cow dairy, in conjugation with Pennsylvania Department of Health, sent some samples of raw milk that were produced during the
week of outbreak be pathogen tested. However, there was no any single pathogen found in the samples, including Campylobacter jejuni, Salmonella,
Listeria monocytogenes, and Ecoli 0157:H7. Even though their pathogen test didn't show any sign of contamination, the farm had decided to
voluntarily stop their raw milk sale for a moment. After passing a health inspection, on February 6 the farm was allowed to continue production [10].
The Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture will continue to monitor Family Cow's raw milk. They also keep suggesting people to avoid raw milk
even it's legal to drink

Macrophage Pathogen

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