ORIGINAL ARTICLE School-Based Group Interventions for Children Exposed to Domestic Violence E. Heather Thompson & Shannon Trice-Black Published online: 6 March 2012 # Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012 Abstract Children exposed to the trauma of domestic vio- lence tend to experience difficulties with internalized and externalized behavior problems, social skills deficits, and academic functioning. Mental health practitioners in the school setting, including school counselors, school psycholo- gists, and school social workers, can address developmental concerns that impede development through group counseling interventions that include both structured activities and play therapy. The school environment offers an ideal setting in which to work with child survivors of trauma, as all students have accessibility to school mental health resources. This article outlines the primary objectives and corresponding pro- cedures for a developmentally- appropriate group interven- tions for elementary-aged children who have been exposed to the trauma of domestic violence. Keywords Domestic violence . Children . Counseling Nearly four million children in the United States struggle with a diagnosable mental disorder that significantly hinders various areas of functioning which impacts their ability to be successful at school (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 1999). Less than 20% of those children will get the mental health services they need (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 2000). Many of the urgent mental health needs of children are first recognized and addressed in the school setting (Farmer et al. 2003; Salmon and Kirby 2008). Recent research indicates the importance of provid- ing mental health services for children within their schools in order to help them succeed academically and socially (Baker et al. 2006; Farmer et al. 2003). School mental health professionals often provide preven- tive and responsive interventions to student needs (American School Counselor Association [ASCA] 2005; National Association of School Psychologists 2010). In fact, the ASCA (2005) recommends that school counselors spend at least 80% of their time in direct contact with students. Based on this, schools counselors often are faced with the wide- reaching problem of domestic violence which affects ap- proximately 15 million children each year (McDonald et al. 2006). Children who reside in homes marked by domestic violence are exposed to various forms of aggression which may include repeated physical assaults, mental humiliation and degradation, threats and assaults with guns and knives, threats of suicide and homicide, and destruction of property (McClosky et al. 1995). Investigation of the negative effects of children’s exposure to domestic violence reveals a link between witnessing violence in the home and a wide array of adjustment problems. Child-witnesses of domestic violence often experience chaotic, distressing events, of which .

1. ORIGINAL ARTICLE
School-Based Group Interventions for Children Exposed
to Domestic Violence
E. Heather Thompson & Shannon Trice-Black
Published online: 6 March 2012
# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012
Abstract Children exposed to the trauma of domestic vio-
lence tend to experience difficulties with internalized and
externalized behavior problems, social skills deficits, and
academic functioning. Mental health practitioners in the
school setting, including school counselors, school psycholo-
gists, and school social workers, can address developmental
concerns that impede development through group counseling
interventions that include both structured activities and play
therapy. The school environment offers an ideal setting in
which to work with child survivors of trauma, as all students
have accessibility to school mental health resources. This
article outlines the primary objectives and corresponding pro-
cedures for a developmentally- appropriate group interven-
tions for elementary-aged children who have been exposed to
the trauma of domestic violence.
Keywords Domestic violence . Children . Counseling
Nearly four million children in the United States struggle
with a diagnosable mental disorder that significantly hinders
various areas of functioning which impacts their ability to be
successful at school (U.S. Department of Health and Human

2. Services 1999). Less than 20% of those children will get the
mental health services they need (U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services 2000). Many of the urgent mental
health needs of children are first recognized and addressed
in the school setting (Farmer et al. 2003; Salmon and Kirby
2008). Recent research indicates the importance of provid-
ing mental health services for children within their schools
in order to help them succeed academically and socially
(Baker et al. 2006; Farmer et al. 2003).
School mental health professionals often provide preven-
tive and responsive interventions to student needs (American
School Counselor Association [ASCA] 2005; National
Association of School Psychologists 2010). In fact, the
ASCA (2005) recommends that school counselors spend at
least 80% of their time in direct contact with students. Based
on this, schools counselors often are faced with the wide-
reaching problem of domestic violence which affects ap-
proximately 15 million children each year (McDonald et al.
2006). Children who reside in homes marked by domestic
violence are exposed to various forms of aggression which
may include repeated physical assaults, mental humiliation
and degradation, threats and assaults with guns and knives,
threats of suicide and homicide, and destruction of property
(McClosky et al. 1995). Investigation of the negative effects
of children’s exposure to domestic violence reveals a link
between witnessing violence in the home and a wide array of
adjustment problems. Child-witnesses of domestic violence
often experience chaotic, distressing events, of which they
have very little control or comprehension. Expressions of
hostility between intimate partners are often followed by
what appear to be loving exchanges, which may inhibit
children’s abilities to trust, develop a sense of personal
control, or develop a sense of safety and security in the world
(Campbell and Lewandowski 1997; Tyndall-Lind 1999).

3. Emotional problems related to children’s exposure to domes-
tic violence include depression, anxiety (Litrownik et al.
2003), somatic complaints, sleep disturbances, separation
anxiety, and withdrawal (Margolin and Gordis 2000; Pepler
et al. 2000). Child-witnesses of domestic violence also may
E. H. Thompson
Counseling Department, Western Carolina University,
Candler, NC 28715-8945, USA
S. Trice-Black (*)
Counselor Education Department, College of William and Mary,
Williamsburg, VA 23187-8795, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
J Fam Viol (2012) 27:233–241
DOI 10.1007/s10896-012-9416-6
have feelings of self-blame for the abuse of a household
member (Sullivan et al. 2004). Witnessing domestic violence
is also associated with increased risks for suicidal behaviors,
phobias, and decreased self-esteem (Fantuzzo and Mohr
1999). Furthermore, research has shown that children ex-
posed to domestic violence may externalize their emotional
problems behaviorally exhibiting problems in hyperactivity,
reduced impulse control, temper tantrums, aggression, bul-
lying, and cruelty to animals (Fantuzzo and Mohr 1999;
Pepler et al. 2000).
Additionally, children who reside in families character-
ized by violence often exhibit decreased levels of social
competence, which is evidenced by diminished interper-
sonal sensitivity, empathy, and appropriate interpersonal
problem-solving skills (Margolin and Gordis 2000;
Fantuzzo & Mohr, 1999). Childhood exposure to domestic

4. violence is related to the attitudes that children develop
regarding the use of violence as an appropriate strategy for
stress reduction and an acceptable approach to conflict
resolution (Hay-Yahia and Dawud-Noursi 1998; Mihalic
and Elliot 1997). Poor conflict resolution skills or the
avoidance of conflict all-together can hinder the develop-
ment of significant interpersonal skills. Any feelings of
grief, anxiety, helplessness, and isolation in conjunction
with maladaptive externalizing behaviors such as bullying,
aggression, disobedience, and difficulty concentrating may
further exacerbate a lack of social competence.
Furthermore, children exposed to domestic violence
have a greater risk of developing Posttraumatic Stress Dis-
order (PTSD), which may further exaggerate developmental
problems related to exposure to domestic violence. Physio-
logical responses to repeated exposure to domestic violence
elevate the stress feedback system in the brain and heighten
the child’s perception of danger (Mohr & Fantuzzo, 1999).
This heightened awareness may be evidenced by trauma
symptoms such as hypervigilance, exaggerated startle re-
sponse, anxiety, poor regulation of affect, and depression
which may worsen externalizing behavioral problems,
decrease academic functioning, and hinder social skill
development.
The ramifications of exposure to domestic violence often
follow children into adolescence and adulthood. For exam-
ple, it frequently leads to problematic behaviors in adoles-
cence such as substance abuse, aggressive and antisocial
behavior, interpersonal problems in school, and decreased
academic functioning (Fisher 1999; Maker et al. 1998). In
early adulthood, Evans and Sullivan (1995) found that un-
dergraduate college students who witnessed abuse experi-
enced higher levels of depression, trauma-related symptoms,
and lower self-esteem than non-witnesses. As adults, the

5. ramifications of childhood exposure to violence include
increased risk for violent behavior, criminal activity, and
poor parenting practices (Margolin and Gordis 2000).
Research on domestic violence interventions with chil-
dren indicates the benefit of treatment early on (Suderman et
al. 2000; Sullivan et al. 2004). Child-witnesses who partic-
ipate in group counseling interventions experience a reduc-
tion in internalizing and externalizing behavior problems, an
increase in self-esteem (Kot et al. 2005), diminished feelings
of self-blame, and increased safety knowledge (Suderman et
al. 2000; Sullivan et al. 2004). Elementary school interven-
tions for children exposed to domestic violence, such as
small group counseling, can provide support, assist with
emotional and problem-solving skills, and help prevent
problems later in life.
The majority of families in the general population who
are affected by domestic violence do not receive clinical
services (Huth-Bocks et al. 2001). The current economic
struggles have impacted many domestic violence shelters,
and the services they provide. As a result, many children
exposed to violence may not receive therapeutic services. In
order to reach the vast number of children exposed to
domestic violence, supportive services may be provided in
the school setting. School mental health professionals, such
as counselors, psychologists, and social workers can provide
services to child-witnesses of domestic violence in order to
help them succeed socially, personally, and academically.
The school environment offers an ideal setting in which to
work with children exposed to domestic violence, as all
students have access to school mental health resources.
Domestic violence counseling in the school setting reduce
limitations of accessibility, transportation, and scheduling
that are often an obstacle when children are in need of
services (Huth-Bocks et al. 2001).

6. Although school mental health professionals often cannot
change the home and community environments in which
child-witnesses live, they can create a safe environment for
the development of affirmative and encouraging relation-
ships, emotional and academic support, and healthy models
of interaction styles. Clinicians within the school can play
an integral part in bolstering resilience and healthy coping
skills in children exposed to domestic violence in order to
promote academic and social successes (Dean et al. 2008;
McAdams et al. 2009; Silva et al. 2003).
Group counseling is one of the most efficient ways in
which school mental health professionals can promote the
growth and development of children exposed to domestic
violence. This form of treatment enhances relatedness be-
tween and among children within a supportive social system
that permits mutual aid which empowers children to be
sources of assistance to each other as well as recipients of
support (Emshoff and Jacobus 2001). Research indicates
that group counseling is an effective approach to addressing
developmental issues related to exposure to domestic violence
(Huth-Bocks et al. 2001; Kot et al. 2005; Sullivan et al. 2004).
Through group counseling, children can contribute to the
234 J Fam Viol (2012) 27:233–241
development of one another as the adverse effects of exposure
to domestic violence are explored (Huth-Bocks et al. 2001;
Kot et al. 2005; Sullivan et al. 2004). The group setting, as
opposed to one-on-one counseling, is often less threatening to
child-witnesses, which may reduce anxiety while stimulating
activity and spontaneity among the group members (Landreth
and Sweeney 1999). A group environment helps bridge the

7. gap in trust for child-witnesses by forming a safe and nurtur-
ing environment in which group members can learn to reach
out and connect (Nisivoccia and Lynn 1999). The group also
provides a forum for children to develop new patterns of
interactions that enhance social skills and the development
of empathy for others (Landreth and Sweeney 1999).
The purpose of this article is to illuminate the ways in
which school mental health professionals can facilitate
group interventions that address the social, emotional, be-
havioral, and cognitive development of elementary-age
children who have been exposed to domestic violence. The
group intervention outlined in this article includes evidence-
based interventions and techniques that promote the well-
being of children exposed to the trauma of domestic vio-
lence (Suderman et al. 2000; Sullivan et al. 2004). This
particular model emerged from a qualitative study detailing
the interactions of children engaged in counseling groups
for child-witnesses of domestic violence (Thompson 2011).
The child-witnesses who participated in this domestic vio-
lence group, which included many of the structured and
non-structured interventions discussed in this article, devel-
oped protective factors such as the ability to trust, share,
offer support to others, take perspective, solve problems,
assert themselves, voice attitudes against violence, and cor-
rectly attribute of blame.
School-Based Group Interventions
Selection of Group Members
Classroom guidance lessons provide an appropriate venue
for school mental health professionals to present safety
planning and prevention of abuse for all students. One
way to present this material, in an elementary setting, is to
begin a classroom lesson with a therapeutic story such as,

8. Mommy and Daddy are Fighting, which is written from the
perspective of a child who witnesses a fight between her
parents (Paris 1986). The school mental health professional
can help the students process the story through discussion
and drawing pictures of the story and of their own
experiences.
Children who reveal exposure to violence in their homes
can have an opportunity to meet with a school mental health
professional for a more formal intake to determine the
appropriateness of the counseling group for the child.
Child-witnesses of domestic violence may also be referred
for a formal intake with the school mental health profes-
sional through self-referral, teacher referral, and parent re-
ferral. The following questions can assist in the discussion
of domestic violence: “Who do you call family?”, “Who
lives with you?”, “Have you ever seen grown-ups fight?”,
and “What happens when they fight?” (Thompson, in press).
Informed Consent and Confidentiality
Prior to starting the group, a full explanation of the group in
order to obtain parental permission is important for pre-
group screening and informed consent (American Counsel-
ing Association [ACA] 2005; ASCA 2010). Consent forms
can be sent home to the parents/caregivers of children ex-
posed to violence who do not currently reside with an active
perpetrator. It may not be safe for children who reside with
an active perpetrator to participate in a domestic violence
group. These child-witnesses may be safer working with
school mental health professionals individually or partici-
pating in other counseling groups such as self-esteem or
friendship groups. As part of informed consent, school
mental health professionals are required to explain the
parameters of student confidentiality to student participants

9. as well as their parents/caregivers (ASCA 2010). School
mental health professionals can explain confidentiality to
students in child-friendly language such as, “What is said
in here stays in here.” Exceptions to confidentiality should
also be explained to group members. As with all types of
counseling, confidentiality for group members cannot be
guaranteed. Efforts that can help maintain confidentiality
include continual discussions, explanations, and references
to confidentiality throughout the group sessions.
According to the Code of Ethics of the ACA (2005) and
the ACSA’s Ethical Standards for School Counselors
(2010), school counselors are expected to protect student
confidentiality unless information is deemed to be of clear
and imminent danger to the student or to others, or it is
legally required to break confidentiality. Notes or documen-
tation regarding the counseling group can be considered part
of a student’s record, and therefore, accessible by parents, as
outlined in the federal law of Family Educational Rights and
Privacy Act (FERPA 1974). School mental health profes-
sionals should be familiar with their state’s mandated report-
ing laws for child maltreatment. Some children who are
exposed to severe violence at their home are at significant
risk and should be reported to child protection agencies
(Edleson 1999).
Parental Participation
Support services for non-violent parents and caregivers can
be provided while their children participate in group
J Fam Viol (2012) 27:233–241 235
counseling. Domestic violence interventions for non-violent

10. parents or caregivers can provide validation and support, as
well as education about domestic violence, conflict resolu-
tion, normative child development, empowering parenting
practices, and safety planning. While concurrent caregiver
and family sessions are recommended best practices, it is
not always feasible, due to reasons such as a lack of personal
readiness on the part of the parent/caregiver for counseling,
inability to participate because of work schedules, and/or
possible transportation issues. Children should not be de-
nied services because of limited parental/caregiver involve-
ment. In such cases, school mental health providers can
schedule brief weekly phone conferences to communicate
support, validate parent/caregiver experiences, and discuss
group objectives, activities, and ways to cement their child’s
learning at home.
Group Interventions
The foundation of this group intervention is based on
evidence-based practices in the field of domestic violence,
the facilitation of numerous domestic violence groups in
school settings, and a thorough understanding of the litera-
ture on domestic violence. Within the group setting, school
mental health professionals can offer both structured inter-
ventions and non-structured play therapy, in order to provide
children with a safe environment in which to explore their
personal feelings and experiences and learn safety skills.
The following are descriptions of group play therapy and
structured group interventions for use when working with
children exposed to domestic violence.
Structured Interventions
Structured interventions aimed at the amelioration of the
developmental consequences of exposure to violence in
the home can benefit children exposed to domestic violence

11. (Sullivan et al. 2004). Structured interventions refer to a
variety of techniques such as problem-solving role-plays
and the identification of feelings and safety measures
through games, puppets, stories, videos, and art projects.
With structured group interventions, group members can
work together to discuss common problems and to create
social, emotional, and behavioral skills to promote resiliency.
Role-plays, games, and discussion can be used to address
issues related to labeling feelings, self-esteem, coping skills,
safety planning, attitudes about violence, and dealing with
loss (Jaffe et al. 1986).
Bibliotherapy
Bibliotherapy, through the use of stories and videos, has
been shown to be an effective tool in helping children
exposed to family violence and in teaching children nonvi-
olent means of conflict resolution (Butterworth and Fulmer
1991). There are several therapeutic stories and videos for
children who have been exposed to domestic violence. A
video used by the first author, in the domestic violence
groups she facilitates is Tulip Doesn’t Feel Safe, which is a
12-minute video designed to help children develop safety
plans, label and express feelings, and explore alternative
responses to domestic violence (Prin 1993). Examples of
books for children’s domestic violence groups include: A
Terrible Thing Happened, (Holmes 2002), Mommy and Dad-
dy are Fighting (Paris 1986), and Something is Wrong at My
House, (Davis 1984).
School mental health professionals can assist members in
meeting the group objectives by processing the content and
messages presented in videos and books. Group facilitators
can ask questions about the characters, explore possible
feelings expressed or experienced by characters, and en-

12. courage children to draw pictures of personal experiences
related to those of the characters. Simple, yet effective
exploration of feelings with children can be facilitated with
the choice of four feelings: sad, mad, glad, or scared. Facil-
itators may also use these opportunities to help reinforce
safety plans for group members.
Play Therapy
Through play therapy, school mental health professionals
can enter the world of elementary school students by using
children’s play and toys as a common language (Landreth et
al. 2009). The Piagetian perspective of development empha-
sizes the power of play as a natural form of communication
for children to express their thoughts, feelings, and experi-
ences (Sweeney and Homeyer 1999). Based on Piagetian
tenets of cognitive development, play is the most develop-
mentally appropriate means of communication for young
children (Kot et al. 1998; Landreth 2002). Children’s
responses to traumatic experiences such as exposure to
domestic violence are influenced by their developmental
stage (Bokszczanin 2007; Gumpel 2008; Lieberman and
Knorr 2007; Solberg et al. 2007). Unlike adults, young chil-
dren are significantly limited in their ability to use abstract
cognitive verbalization as their primary means of communi-
cation. Play, however, bridges the developmental gap between
concrete and abstract thought. Through the vehicle of sym-
bolic representation in play, children may be able to commu-
nicate feelings associated with traumatic life experiences, such
as domestic violence (Sweeney and Homeyer 1999).
In play therapy, children gain emotional distance from the
anxiety-provoking past experiences by using toys to explore
and discharge hidden fears and emotional tensions related to
intense traumatic experiences (Doyle and Stoop 1999;
Robinson 1999). By projecting intense feelings and

13. 236 J Fam Viol (2012) 27:233–241
emotions towards toys, and experiencing control and mas-
tery over situations in fantasy, children experience empow-
erment rather than helplessness (Robinson 1999; Webb
1999). As the feelings of mastery become incorporated in
the child’s sense of self, the child’s self-concept and self-
efficacy are enhanced (Kot and Tyndall-Lind 2005; Schaefer
and Carey 1994). During play therapy in the group session,
members may be permitted to shape the direction of the
group through play and interactions. Play therapy can also
assist with reduction in self-blame by providing a safe venue
in which to overcome feelings of shame and guilt (Namka
1995; Carmichael and Lane 1997).
Through the provision of a wide variety of toys, children
may experience and demonstrate responsibility and
decision-making in the safety of the group setting. Utiliza-
tion of crayons, play dough, and blocks, which can be
mastered and manipulated easily, can help facilitate the
development of a positive self-image (Landreth 2002).
Real-life toys such as dolls, animals, puppets, cars and
trucks, and a phone may allow group members to express
lived-experiences. Aggression-release toys such as an alli-
gator puppet, a boxing glove, and soldiers provide avenues
for children to express hostility and anger. Power and con-
trol toys such as handcuffs and a rope allow for the expres-
sion of power. Nurturing toys, which may include a medical
kit, kitchen set, baby bottle, and baby doll, can also be
provided. As the group facilitator, the school clinician can
rely on limit setting and the reflection of feelings to help
children learn to identify and express their emotions in a
socially appropriate manner (Landreth 2002; Webb 1999).

14. Limits can be set in the form of choices, thereby honoring
the child’s natural ability to make positive behavioral
choices.
Group Objectives
Through both play therapy and structured interventions,
school mental health professionals can focus on primary
objectives related to areas of concern commonly experienced
by young children exposed to domestic violence. The over-
arching goals of the group should be to improve children’s
emotional, behavioral, social, and academic development.
The primary objectives could include: (a) conflict resolution
and problem solving (Margolin and Gordis 2000; Mohr and
Fantuzzo 2000); (b) identification and expression of feelings
(Schewe 2008); (c) reduction in self-blame (Schewe 2008;
Fosco et al. 2007); (d) safety planning, which includes the
development of protective coping strategies and the identifi-
cation and utilization of supportive adults (Schewe 2008;
Peled and Edleson 1998); (e) increased knowledge, aware-
ness, and attitudinal changes about the use of violence
(Schewe 2008; Wilson et al. 1989); and (f) enhanced self-
concept (Schewe 2008; Holt et al. 2008).
Objective 1: Conflict resolution and problem-solving
The ability to resolve conflict through the assertive
expression of needs and feelings is an important attri-
bute to the overall healthy development of children.
Poor conflict resolution skills or the avoidance of con-
flict hinders the development of significant interpersonal
skills that are necessary for success in school. Children
can grow in areas of social competence, which enhances
conflict resolution skills, by: (a) using words to solve
conflicts, (b) acknowledging and appropriately respond-
ing to the feelings of others, (c) verbalizing needs, (d)

15. verbalizing feelings, and (d) sharing and taking turns
(Stevahn et al. 2000). These skills can be enhanced
through games, role plays, and interventions occurring
in the here-and-now (Stevahn et al. 2000).
Additionally, visual tools, such as that of a stoplight, can
enhance the teaching and learning of conflict resolution. The
use of a stoplight is a structured intervention influenced by
the work of the Exchange Club Family Center in Memphis,
Tennessee (The Exchange Club Family Center 2004). The
stoplight can be used to demonstrate appropriate choices
when confronted with intense emotion. By applying the
stoplight to problem-solving scenarios, children can learn
the importance of stopping their actions (red light), thinking
of a good choice (yellow light), and selecting the good
choice (green light). As the group facilitator, the school
mental health professional may tailor specific problem sce-
narios to pertinent issues in her or his group.
Objective 2: Identification and expression of feelings
Through art and play, children can learn about and explore
difficult feelings related to personal trauma (St. Thomas and
Johnson 2007). Group facilitators may assist children in
their exploration and discovery of their feelings by asking
questions such as: “How did you feel when that happened?”,
“Can you show me an (angry, sad, scared, happy, etc.)
face?”, “Show me where the (anger, sadness, fear, happi-
ness, etc.) goes in your body.”, “How do you get those
feelings out?”, “How do you feel now that you talked
about…?”, “What is one thing you can do to feel better
when…happens?”, “Draw me a picture of a time you
felt….”, and “What made you feel…?” Through the reflec-
tion of group members’ feelings in structured exercises, as
well as that of play therapy, children can learn more about
their own feelings and develop empathy for the feelings of

16. others. Reflecting feelings through play therapy can help
children use words to share their internal experiences (Land-
reth et al. 2009). Structured interventions, such as teaching
coping mechanisms to deal with intense emotional experi-
ences, can contribute to the reduction in externalizing
behaviors exhibited in the classroom.
J Fam Viol (2012) 27:233–241 237
Objective 3: Reduction in self-blame
Children who witness domestic violence often struggle with
feelings of self-blame, guilt, and desires to intervene in
fights at home which may stem from child-witnesses’
beliefs that they are responsible for preventing or ending
fights that occur in the home (Fosco et al. 2007). Correct
attribution of blame can be enhanced by asking questions
about culpability related to a child’s drawings and stories of
domestic violence. The group facilitator might ask: “Who
caused the fight to happen?”, “Are children to blame for
fights?”, and “Who is to blame when adults choose to hit
another person?” Self-blame should be assessed and cor-
rected continuously throughout the group process.
Objective 4: Safety planning
Children who are exposed to domestic violence often report
feelings of personal responsibility to intervene in violent
conflicts (Burgess et al. 2006; Gumpel 2008; Laumakis et
al. 1998). Compelled by a sense of obligation, children may
go to courageous lengths to protect loved ones from abusive
adults, which jeopardizes the physical safety of children.
Children can be provided with the knowledge to engage in
the creation of a safety plan, modified for their own personal

17. and unique circumstances (Cohen and Mannarino 2008).
Research indicates that elementary- and middle school-
aged children, who have been exposed to trauma, can de-
velop a sense of empowerment and control through the
creation of individual safety plans (Brown et al. 2006).
Safety knowledge can be enhanced through structured inter-
ventions in which group members are encouraged to do the
following: (a) identify people in their lives who can provide
support in dealing with problematic situations related to
domestic violence, (b) list both safe and unsafe places to
go when fighting occurs in the home, and (c) distinguish
when it is appropriate and how to call 911. Safety planning
questions might include: “Can you remember a fight that
happened at your house?”, “What did you do when…?”,
“What would you do now to be safe?”, “Who can you talk to
about fights?”, and “How would you start to talk to them?”
The use of puppets and drawing may also help children
demonstrate safety skills.
Group members should be taught when and how to call
911. Group members can practice choosing when to dial 911
using a structured technique such as, “Stop, Think and Go,”
in which school mental health professionals create different
scenarios based on the experiences of group members
(Exchange Club Family Center 2004). For example, the
school mental health professional might provide a concrete
example such as, “Your mom’s boyfriend is yelling at her
because she spends too much money at the store. You feel
scared. STOP! THINK of a good choice. Do you (a) call
911, (b) stand there and watch, or (c) go outside and play or
go to a neighbor’s house until the fight ends? GO with the
best choice.”
Facilitators may want to give each group member a
sticker labeled with his or her address and encourage them

18. to place the stickers in easily accessible areas, such as the
refrigerator, in order to provide a 911 operator the necessary
information. Group members should complete a visual
safety plan after practicing calling 911. A sample safety
plan might include the following: (a) When I get scared,
I can think about ___________, (b) When there is a
fight at my house, I can go to ___________, (c) In case
of an emergency, I can call _____________, and (d) my
address is ______________. Group members should be
encouraged to identify a neighbor or family member
whose house they may go to in an emergency. Each
child’s safety plan should be personalized because chil-
dren who live in rural areas may not live close to others
and not all children have access to a phone.
Safety plans are important tools for use in enhancing a
child’s ability to cope with aggressive disruptions in the
home. Other coping mechanisms that empower young chil-
dren who are exposed to domestic violence include the
identification of adults who can provide guidance, reassur-
ance, and a model of appropriate interpersonal responding.
School mental health professionals can help children iden-
tify realistic and accessible support people, a means in
which to contact that person, and examples of times when
they have talked to this person about difficulties. Group
facilitators can role-play conversations with children and
the support people they have identified. Puppets may be
helpful in getting children to role-play the initiation of
potential conversations with their identified support person.
Creating safety plans, practicing coping skills, and identify-
ing support people may empower children by helping them
feel better prepared to cope. Children who feel more
empowered to cope with aggressive family disruptions
may in turn feel decreased powerless and fearfulness mak-
ing them better able to focus and succeed in other areas of
their life including school.

19. Objective 5: Knowledge, awareness, and attitudes about
domestic violence
The group setting provides a social microcosm in which
children can learn to deal with conflict. Group facilitators
can set limits, which communicates to group members that
certain behaviors such as hitting, kicking, and pushing are not
appropriate ways to express oneself (Landreth et al. 2009).
First, facilitators can verbalize the limit (“People are not for
hitting”) and then redirect the child to an appropriate outlet for
her or his aggression, such as a pillow or punching bag. The
facilitator should then use empowering language to
238 J Fam Viol (2012) 27:233–241
acknowledge the child when the behavior changes (“You
chose to hit the bag instead of your friend. That is a safe
choice.”). The manner in which the limits are set communi-
cates the boundary without embarrassing or shaming the child
for her or his behavior. Acknowledging the child’s choice to
change her or his behavior communicates to the child that she
or he has the power to make good choices. The group setting
provides an opportunity for the facilitator to actively take
advantage of opportunities to facilitate constructive problem-
solving conversations between and among group members
who are in conflict. In addition to these structured interven-
tions, group facilitators can allow non-structured time in each
group session, in order to permit the natural emergence of
conflicts and the proceeding facilitation of conflict resolution
in the here-and-now.
Objective 6: Self-concept

20. Child-witnesses often reside in home environments charac-
terized by negative messages resulting in the internalization
of negative ideas as part of the child’s self-concept. Enhanc-
ing a child’s self-concept can serve as a protective factor that
improves children’s abilities to cope with domestic violence
(Tyndall-Lind 1999). Group facilitators should make a con-
certed effort to do this by giving praise and calling attention
to prosocial behaviors exhibited by group members. These
behaviors may include sharing, taking turns, waiting pa-
tiently, supporting another group member, offering a com-
pliment or advice to another group member, asserting
personal needs, verbalizing feelings, appropriately express-
ing feelings, and exercising self-care or self-soothing behav-
iors. Group facilitators should offer acknowledgement and
encouragement for good choices and appropriate social
interactions. For example, the group facilitator might say,
“You chose to share the markers and that was kind of you,”
or “You really want to play with that, and you are waiting
patiently for your turn.” These are examples of empowering
statements that can be internalized by children and re-
enacted later, which may further facilitate the enhancement
of self-concept.
Discussion
The need for therapeutic interventions that address develop-
mental problems and adjustment concerns related to domes-
tic violence is evident. Although limited in nature, findings
from research on the effectiveness of domestic violence
group interventions with children indicate that children ben-
efit from early interventions (Suderman et al. 2000; Sullivan
et al. 2004; Wagar and Rodway 1995). School counseling
groups facilitated by school-based counselors, social work-
ers, and psychologists can provide structured interventions
and play therapy for young children exposed to domestic

21. violence. Schools provide an ideal setting for an interven-
tion, as all children have access to school mental health
professionals; whereas many children may not have access
to supportive services outside of the school environment.
While a wealth of research indicates that domestic vio-
lence can significantly impact the overall functioning of
young children, many school mental health professionals
may not feel prepared to address issues regarding children
exposed to domestic violence because information on spe-
cific interventions is not easily accessible. This manuscript
provides school mental health professionals with informa-
tion on the effects of domestic violence on children and
specific, detailed interventions that can help identify and
assist elementary-aged child-witnesses in a counseling
group setting. Providing young child-witnesses with a sup-
portive environment in which to explore and share experi-
ences, identify and express feelings, enhance social skills,
create personalized safety plans, develop coping skills, and
internalize experiences of success, mastery, and acceptance,
will help promote the personal, social, and academic success
of children exposed to domestic violence.
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c.10896_2012_Article_9416.pdfSchool-Based Group
Interventions for Children Exposed to Domestic
ViolenceAbstractSchool-Based Group InterventionsSelection of
Group MembersInformed Consent and ConfidentialityParental
ParticipationGroup InterventionsStructured
InterventionsBibliotherapyPlay TherapyGroup
ObjectivesObjective 1: Conflict resolution and problem-
solvingObjective 2: Identification and expression of
feelingsObjective 3: Reduction in self-blameObjective 4: Safety
planningObjective 5: Knowledge, awareness, and attitudes about
domestic violenceObjective 6: Self-
conceptDiscussionReferences