Quality assurance in education; case of nsq in nigeria

1
A STUDY ON QUALITY ASSURANCE IN
EDUCATION; THE CASE OF NATIONAL
SKILLS QUALIFICATIONS IN NIGERIA
By:
KHALIL Yusuf Adamu
PGD (EDUCATION)
(MATRIC NO. – NOU174005722)
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
DECEMBER, 2018

2
A STUDY ON QUALITY ASSURANCE IN
EDUCATION; THE CASE OF NATIONAL
SKILLS QUALIFICATIONS IN NIGERIA
BY:
YUSUF ADAMU KHALIL
(MATRIC NO. – NOU174005722)
A THESIS WRITTEN IN THE FACULTY OF EDUCATIONIN
PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE
AWARD OF POSTGRADUATE DIPLOMA IN EDUCATION OF
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

3
DECEMBER, 2018
CERTIFICATION
We certify that this study on “The study of Quality Assurance in Education; Case of National
Skills Qualifications (NSQ) in Nigeria” was carried out by Khalil, Yusuf Adamu in the faculty
of Education, National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN).
-------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------
Prof. Dorcas (Igonoh) Oluwade Dr. (Mrs.) Kolawole
Supervisor Study Centre Director
Date ---------------------------------- Date ----------------------------------
-
--------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------
-
Prof. (Mrs.) Charity Okonkwo External Examiner
Deen, Faculty of Education
Date -------------------------------------- Date ----------------------------------

4
DEDICATION
This Project Research is dedicated to my late mother, FATIMA MUSA ADAMU KHALIL
for her dedication in my upbringing and Training. Without her effort, I would not have been
what I am today. May her soul rest in perfect peace.

5
AKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, my sincere gratitude and praise is to the Almighty God who is the gracious
and the merciful. It is by His grace and mercy I am able to live and succeed all through. It is
He, the Almighty who made it possible for me to study and understand without
misconception, identify without confusion, realize without doubt and comprehend all
concepts and contexts without jeopardy. All praise are due to Him, the master of the worlds
and the omnipotent.
My parents deserve my sincere gratitude for bringing me up in such a wonderful manner and
catered for my studies at all levels. May God grant them better here and hereafter. My family
who stood by my side through all situations and persevere during my study in general and the
project research, in particular are indebted to my appreciation, too.
My able supervisor, Prof. Dorcas O. Oluwade (Igonoh) deserve the most sincere thanks for
her tireless effort to make sure this project becomes a success despite her tight schedules and
busy tasks. She reads through every line, provide necessary guide, correct all mistakes and
above all act as a mother throughout the process of the task. I cannot thank her enough but
pray that God, the Almighty bless her family and make her succeed in all her endeavours.
Other lecturers and staff of National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN), especially Wuse
study centre, Abuja deserve my appreciation for working towards my success right from the
admission process to this point and beyond.
I am indebted to appreciate the contributions of National Board for Technical Education
(NBTE) management and staff, especially Engr. S. M. Yusuf, the desk officer of the National
Skills Qualifications (NSQ) who provided me with relevant documents and materials.

6
My colleagues in National Power Training Institute of Nigeria, who contributed in one way
or the other are worthy of my thanks, as well as my course mates whom we interacted to
benefit each other. May God bless all.
It is quite impressive for me to get to this point of achievement and have to thank all those
who contributed to the achievement in any way, who are numerous to mention here.
Thank you all.

7
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Approval page ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Table of contents v
Abstract vi
Chapter 1; Introduction 1
1.1 Background to the study 1
1.2 Statement of the problem 4
1.3 Purpose of the study 5
1.4 Research Questions 5
1.5 Hypothesis of the study 6
1.6 Significance of the study 7
1.7 Scope/Delimitation of the study 8
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms 9

8
Chapter 2; Review of Related Literature 11
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Conceptual Framework 13
2.3 Theoretical Framework 18
2.4 Extent of NSQ Conceptualization in Nigeria 21
2.5 Current Process of Assuring Quality in NSQ 23
2.6 Improving the Quality Assurance of NSQ 25
2.7 Conceptual and Contextual implications of NSQ 28
2.8 Summary of Review 29
Chapter 3; Research Methodology 32
3.1 Introduction 32
3.2 Research Design 33
3.3 Population of the Study 34
3.4 Sample Size/Sample Techniques 35
3.5 Instrument for Data Collection 37
3.5.1 Validity of the Instrument 37
3.5.2 Reliability of the Instrument 38
3.6 Method of Data Collection 39

9
3.7 Method of Data Analysis 40
Chapter 4; Data Presentation and Analysis 41
4.1 Introduction 41
4.2 Data Presentation and Analysis 41
4.3 Test of Hypothesis 52
4.4 Discussion of Results 53
Chapter 5; Summary of Major Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations 55
5.1 Introduction 55
5.2 Summary of Major Findings 56
5.3 Conclusion of the Study 59
5.3.1 Implication of the Study 59
5.4 Recommendations 60
5.5 Contribution to Knowledge 63
5.6 Limitation of the Study 63
5.7 Suggestion for further Research 64
References
Appendix

10
ABSTRACT
National Skills Qualifications (NOS) which is a concept for training, accessing, monitoring,
evaluating and certifying vocational education is new in Nigeria, hence requires critical
analysis to ensure its successful take-off by maintaining standards and integrity of
certification. The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore quality assurance
practices and perspectives in National Skills Qualifications in Nigeria and provides
information that can promote understanding of some of the key issues relevant to the design
and implementation of a viable quality assurance system for NSQ based education and
training. The qualitative study used a collective case study approach. Multiple sites
(individual cases/training centres) were studied to gain insight into the larger case which is
the National Skills Qualifications system involving Training providers, sector skill councils,
awarding bodies and regulatory bodies. The study generated data on the perceptions of
Assessment team and centres’ quality assurance practices using structured interviews via
questionnaire with 20 stake holders (Quality Assurance Assessors, Internal Quality Assurers
and Trainee External Quality Assurers) from the training centres, sector skill councils,
awarding bodies and regulatory body, analysis of documents related to NSQ policies and
practice, and on-site visits to some training centres. The study confirmed that Quality
Assurance of National Skills Qualifications was conceptualized on benchmarking, i.e.
Comparing evidences to the standard. The Evidence ≤ Standard. Equally important is the fact
that almost the same and similar implications of the concept and contexts of the NSQ quality
assurance were identified by stakeholders. The process of assessment in all the centres seems
to be the same except when there are deviations to the laid down guide lines and set
procedures and all participants believed that the current method of assuring quality in NSQ is
good to be maintained with some suggested areas of improvement. Concerns that have to do
with Assessors workload due to inadequate assessors, low participation due to unawareness,
lack of appropriate funding which jeopardises the assessment process, inadequate
infrastructure and machineries to cater for current trends of technological advancement were
the major problems raised by respondents.

11
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the study:
As education shifts from being primarily a private enterprise to taking on significant public
importance, countries world-wide are paying greater attention to the regulation and promotion
of quality within their education sectors. They have good reasons to do so. According to
Blackmur (2007), governments’ regulation of education quality is often associated with
policies aimed at promoting economic development and equity, increasing accountability and
transparency, responding to public opinion, preventing market failure, or protecting
consumers. Faced with rapid globalization and economic uncertainty, governments and
educational leaders also endeavour to ensure that the quality of their education systems meets
international standards, and does so at minimal cost.
The TVET Sector is faced with the following challenges, amongst others, that necessitate the
formation of the NSQF:
Limited Access; low enrolment particularly Science and Technology-based programmes
and the JAMB ‘bottle neck’. For over 1.5m seeking admission less than 0.5m spaces are
available
Limited Funding
Limited/Obsolescence of Equipment & Tools for Training

12
Skills mismatch. Skills obtained through training and those required by the job often do
not match, resulting in skills shortages in some areas and, simultaneously, a surplus of
workers with skills that are not in demand, contributing to unemployment.
Lack of effective linkages with industries to facilitate staff exposure to use modern
methods, processes and technology in industries.
Dearth of academic staff with cognate industry and academic experience relevant for the
training of students to meet the contemporary needs of employers.
Low societal estimation as an inferior form of education, e.g. B.Sc./ HND dichotomy
Proliferation of Illegal TVET Institutions
Lack of standardization and development of non-formal TVET.
Limited labour market information: with youth unemployment problem soaring every
day, we need a system that will provide skills requirement of employers so as to develop
a strategy of closing the gap. The following issues must be tackled first.
How do we prepare youth for employment or self-employment in the formal or the
informal economic sector?
What are the skills gaps in the labour market?
What sectors are in most need of skills?
What opportunities exist for public and private sector partnership in the delivery of quality
skills training?

13
NSQF is based on National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs), which is a 'competence-
based' qualification. This means that training/learning for such qualification involves a
series of practical, work-related tasks designed to ensure that trainee develops the skills,
knowledge and necessary attitude to do a job effectively.
NVQs are the first national attempt to base vocational qualifications solely on
competences or outcomes rather than inputs or processes
They are based on National Occupational Standards (NOS)
The Federal Executive Council of Nigeria Approved 6-Levels Framework for the
Institutionalisation of NSQF on 10th
April 2013 as outlined in Appendix A.
Assessment in Learning, according to NVQ is concerned with the evaluation of Performance
criteria that has to do with Knowledge, skills and attitude in a particular area of specialization
to prove competence or otherwise.
In NVQF, assessment is achieved by making a comparison between the evidence collected
and Performance criteria or Learning outcomes of Standards (National Occupational
Standard).
EVIDENCE ≥ STANDARD
An in-depth study of institutional perceptions and practices related to quality assurance could
help to create better understanding of the possible opportunities for and potential challenges
to implementing an accreditation system or any other type of quality assurance system in
Nigeria. This information can help to guide stakeholders and policymakers in deciding

14
whether the quality assurance system of NSQ in Nigeria should be improved, amended, or
implemented as is.
1.2 Statement of the problem:
The NSQ in Nigeria was approved by the Federal executive council on 10th
April 2013, as
NVQ then, and flagged off by the Minister of Education, Mallam Adamu Adamu on 15th
February, 2018, as NSQ (amended from NVQ) at the National Universities Commission
(NUC) Auditorium. The programme has started operating with some number of Assessors
(210No), Internal verifiers (90 No) trained while Training of some external verifiers (30 No)
is still ongoing.
With the take-off of the programme, issues regarding the quality assurance of the process of
assessment, certification, integrity of the certificates and its acceptance in the industries, are
of utmost concern to all the stake holders in particular and the public in general.
This research highlights some of the issues involved in terms of quality assurance of NSQ
and provides possible solutions to curtail the fear of the stakeholders, in particular and
Nigerian citizens, in general. This provides information that can promote understanding of
some of the key issues relevant to the design and implementation of a viable quality assurance
system for NSQ based education and training.

15
1.3 Purpose of the study:
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore quality assurance practices and
perspectives in NSQ and provides information that can promote understanding of some of the
key issues relevant to the design and implementation of a viable quality assurance system for
NSQ based education and training.
Categorically speaking, the following are the purpose of the study;
 Determine the extent of NSQ Quality assurance conceptualization in Nigeria
 Determine the extent to which Training providers, awarding and regulatory bodies
currently assure (assess, monitor, improve) quality in NSQ.
 Identify the implications these conceptual and contextual issues have for the quality
assurance system of NSQ
 Identify other measures to be employed to improve the quality of the programme and
ascertain the integrity of its certification
1.4 Research questions:
The central question addressed in this research was “How is quality assurance perceived and
practiced in NSQ system and how can it be improved?”
Sub-questions addressed by the study were:
1. To what extent is National Skills Qualifications quality assurance conceptualized in
Nigeria?

16
2. To what level Nigerian National Skills Qualifications Training providers, Awarding and
Regulatory bodies currently assure (assess, monitor, improve) quality?
3. What implications do these conceptual and contextual issues have for the quality assurance
system of National Skills Qualifications?
4. What other measures can be employed to improve the quality of the programme and
ascertain the integrity of its certification?
1.5 Hypothesis of the study:
The qualitative study used a collective case study approach. Multiple sites (Training
providers, Awarding bodies, Sector skills councils, Regulatory body) were studied to gain
insight into the larger case which is the NSQ system of Nigeria. The system comprises of the
candidates; Training providers with their respective Quality Assurance Assessors and Internal
Verifiers; Sector skill councils with their developed standards; Awarding bodies and their
External verifiers; as well as the Regulatory body.
The study used the following strategies to generate data on the perceptions of the stake holders
and institutional quality assurance practices:
1. Formal in-depth interviews with 20 participants from all NSQ stakeholders such as
Assessors, Internal quality assurance officers, Centre Managers and Coordinators;
2. Analysis of documents related to Training organizations policies and practices. These
documents included (a) Candidate handbooks; (b) guidelines for program review, Training

17
assessment documents and staff professional continuing development programmes; (c) self-
study instruments and reflective process; and (d) standardization procedure
3. On-site Visits. The researcher will visit some of the sites to get a sense of the physical,
Social, and cultural contexts in which the institutions are operating.
1.6 Significance of the study:
The objective of the study is not to assess the quality of centres or NSQ Training providers
but rather to identify current quality assurance practices, as well as to report on system-wide
challenges to quality assurance.
A study on institutional perceptions and practices in relation to quality assurance could prove
valuable to policy makers in deciding whether or not to operationalize the National Skills
Qualification as it currently exists, to make revisions to the existing system, or to develop a
completely different system for quality assurance. It also can help to guide decisions on the
general approaches that will be used to assure quality and the expectations that Training
providers will be required to meet. Additionally, the study can provide a starting point for the
Regulatory body, NBTE to develop a common position on the issue of quality assurance.
Taken together with future studies involving other stakeholders and aspects of the issue, the
study can contribute to the data needed by policymakers and NSQ stakeholders to develop
and implement a workable and effective quality assurance scheme for the NSQ in Nigeria.

18
1.7 Scope/Delimitation of the study:
The study was designed as a collective (multi-site) case study within the boundaries of the
Nigerian NSQ system; thus, the results of this study are only generalizable to the Nigerian
NSQ context and its unique political, socio-economic, and cultural realities. Furthermore,
only stake holders at the level of Assessors, Centre coordinators/Managers, or
Internal/External verifiers and persons directly involved in quality assurance activities or
initiatives are included in the population studied. Participation of other key stakeholder
groups within Training organizations such as Centre staff beside QAAs, IQAs and candidates,
was not sought. Similarly, the study did not address perspectives from stakeholders such as
the Ministry of Education and other public and private sector stakeholders.
Case study offers a means of investigating complex social units consisting of multiple
variables of potential importance in understanding a phenomenon. Thus, case study was a
good choice for this particular research topic. Nonetheless, there are inherent limitations in
case studies and qualitative research designs in general. These are outlined below:
1. In research designs in which the researcher is the primary instrument of data collection
and analysis, results are dependent on the “sensitivity and integrity” of the researcher
and there is the potential for bias in selecting and presenting data.
2. Reliance on interviews is another limitation since the accuracy of the results depends
greatly on the participants’ willingness to provide the requested information and
ability to communicate what it is that they perceive. The methodology also relies
greatly on the researcher’s ability to understand and interpret the meaning of the
participants’ communication.

19
3. Reliance on documentation to understand institutional processes is another limitation
since documents may describe policies or practices which are outdated or not
implemented as written.
4. Case studies also are limited in that they do not fit into the traditional understanding
of reliability (replication by other researchers), validity (determining truth) and
generalizability (applicability to a larger population).
To minimize these limitations, the researcher committed to the highest level of integrity in
the collection, analysis, and reporting of results. The researcher prepared for the study by
gaining experience in conducting interviews and reviewing institutional documents on related
topics.
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms:
One of the primary aims of the research was to allow participants to generate their own
meanings to the central concepts of the study—quality and quality assurance—and so a
constructivist approach was used; however, it was necessary to begin with the following
definitions in order to frame the study and avoid ambiguity in understanding:
Quality Assurance Assessor- A certified personnel on Level 3 Quality Assurance in
Assessment of NVQF. He conducts the assessment of Education/Training of candidates.
Internal Quality Assurer or Internal Verifier or Internal Quality Assurance Manager- A
certified personnel on Level 4 Internal verification of NVQF. He assures the assessment
conducted by the Assessor (QAA)

20
The following three definitions were derived from UNESCO’s International Institute for
Educational Planning ([IIEP], 2007a):
Quality assurance- “relates to a continuous process of evaluating (assessing,
monitoring, guaranteeing, maintaining, and improving) the quality of a higher education
system, institutions or programs” ([IIEP], 2007a)
Internal quality assurance – “refers to each institution’s or programme’s policies and
mechanisms for ensuring that it is fulfilling its own purposes as well as the standards that
apply to higher education in general or to the profession or discipline in particular” ([IIEP],
2007a)
External quality assurance-“refers to the actions of an external body which may be a quality
assurance agency or another body different from the institution, which assesses its operation
or that of its programmes in order to determine whether it is meeting the standards that have
been agreed on” ([IIEP], 2007a)

21
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE:
2.1 Introduction:
According to Allies (2010), Vocational or skill Qualifications have been a feature of
education and training systems in virtually all countries at least since the 19th century. Most
arose from the specific recruitment needs of employers as well as the efforts of professions
and trades to control entry to particular occupations and maintain standards and their
privileges. Indirectly qualifications acted as a form of quality control in the areas of work
which they covered.
Until the middle of the 20th century, qualifications in most countries still covered only a
relatively small section of the working population (largely the skilled crafts and trades and
professions). They were developed at different levels for different occupations and there was
little if any connection between them. Most were closely linked either to apprenticeships
controlled by Guilds or to the colleges and other educational institutions providing the
programmes that led to the qualifications. It was not until the 1970s and 1980s, when
governments began to see education and training as an important instrument of economic
reform that the limitations of the old systems of qualifications became apparent and the idea
of qualification frameworks covering all qualifications began to emerge. The key change that
qualification frameworks introduced was to define qualifications in terms of their learning
outcomes (or competences) independently any specific educational provision and therefore
of how such outcomes were achieved.

22
One of the earliest outcomes or competence- based framework for vocational qualifications
was the English National Vocational Qualifications (NVQ) framework launched in 1987.
This was followed by a fully comprehensive NQF launched in New Zealand in 1992 and a
similar one in South Africa in 1995. These early frameworks drew their intellectual
inspiration from the competence-based teacher training models that had been established in
the USA. As recently as 2004, only five NQFs were in existence together with a larger number
of competence-based vocational education and training frameworks; the latter were
sometimes limited to one or more industry or occupational sector. Since then 120 countries
are reported as developing some form of qualification framework- some as NVQFs and
restricted to vocational qualifications(like NVQs) and some being comprehensive
frameworks for all qualifications (NQFs). Despite limited evidence supporting the claims
made concerning what NQFs can achieve, they have been taken up with enthusiasm by many
governments (and international agencies). This is somewhat surprising when we note that
neither the USA, nor the economically successful South East Asian countries (with the
exception of Singapore and more recently, Hong Kong) have adopted an NQF or NVQF.
Originally NQFs were a largely an Anglophone phenomenon.
However the decision of the EU to launch a European Qualifications Framework (EQF),
stimulated the 29 EU countries to develop their own NQFs. Furthermore, with the support of
the European Training Foundation (ETF) and other international agencies, countries in the
other continents have followed.

23
2.2 Conceptual Framework:
Neulin (2012) when discussing about quality in education states: “Any useful discussion on
quality assurance in education needs to begin by addressing the fundamental question “What
do we mean by quality?”
Quality is the ‘degree of excellence of something’
Quality assurance is ‘a system of maintaining and improving standards’
‘Quality and quality assurance must be built into centre delivery from the start – it is much
more difficult to audit poor quality out than build good quality in…‘
This needs to be firmly in mind when planning the delivery of the Quality Assurance
qualifications. Quality and quality assurance measures need to be built into all processes in
the learner journey – these include the:
 recruitment process
 induction process
 initial assessment
 learning plans
 teaching
 facilitating learning
 reviews of progress
 assessment processes
 achievement
 progression planning

24
Quality matters everywhere in the ‘Learner Journey’
One comprehensive literature I came across that relates to education is that of Villanueva
(2012). In analysing Quality in education her summary says it all: “Quality as exceptional is
perhaps the oldest known and most widely regarded concept of higher education quality. It
Exceptionality can be described in three ways. Firstly, exceptional can refer to an exclusive,
elitist or “high class” educational institution or system. Accessibility is limited and the few
that are able to engage in such a system have a certain status, a stamp of quality, automatically
conferred on them. Consequently, the idea that such a person received a quality education
often goes unquestioned. Secondly, exceptionality can also refer to excellence, meaning
having extremely high standards which are unattainable by most. The focus in such
institutions and systems is on attracting the best students and providing the best facilities and
services from which quality (excellent results) then is believed to naturally flow. Such
systems and institutions rely on their reputations for producing high achievers to attract more
students and resources. Finally, exceptionality can be viewed in terms of passing a set of
required standards. The institution or program is assessed against established standards for
their inputs and outputs and given a seal of approval if they are found in conformity”
(Vellanueva, 2012).
Harvey and Green’s consideration of quality as transformation, sets aside ideas about
exceptionality, perfection, fitness and efficiency and focuses directly on the outcomes of
education, specifically the graduate. Quality is seen as enhancing or empowering the
participant. The idea is that true quality is determined by measuring the value added to the
student/ participant as a result of the educational experience. This transformation may be
measured by an increase in the knowledge and skills or improvements in behaviours, values

25
or attitudes of students. In this view, a quality institution or educational program is one that
is able to transform the knowledge, skills, behaviours, values and attitudes of its students in
ways that are regarded as relevant and desirable by the institution, society, students or parents.
Even though stakeholders differ in their primary views on quality, there were still a number
of commonalities. For example, the majority of stakeholders agreed that the following
components are essential to quality: (a) adequate physical and human resources; (b) clear
aims and objectives; (c) relevant subject content; and (d) valid, fair and objective assessments.
Participants in the study also mentioned providing students with transferable knowledge and
skills as essential (Vellanueva, 2012).
In the last 20 years more and more governments have assumed that qualifications can be a
powerful instrument for influencing both the public and private sectors of education and
training. At the same time, it became clear that existing qualifications, which were developed
to solve the problems of particular trades and professions, not whole countries, were totally
unsuitable for such a role (Vellanueva, 2012).
It is in this context that Nigeria introduced National Vocational Qualifications Framework
(NVQF), as it is initially called. Later, in 2017 the name was changed to Nigerian Skills
Qualification Framework (NSQF) while the qualification is titled National Skills
Qualifications (NSQ) to encompass all skills whether vocational or otherwise.
Since the early 1990s, many countries have adopted the goal of Lifelong Learning as a key
policy priority. Central to this idea is the principle that learning that leads to qualifications
can take place at any point in a person’s life, not just during childhood or adolescence, and in
any context not just by attending school, college or university. The old qualification systems

26
focused largely on learning that was prior to employment and were tied to learning that took
place in institutions and qualifications were only awarded to those who succeeded at a course
of study; learning that took place outside formal education institutions was rarely recognized
for qualifications. A second influential idea was a growing emphasis in educational policies
on the learner rather than on institutions or programmes. Learner- centeredness became an
increasingly dominant theme in educational policy documents (Vellanueva, 2012).
A qualification framework can be comprehensive (covering qualifications in all educational
sectors and workplaces) or partial (covering one part of the educational system such as
vocational education and training or one industry sector such as construction or engineering.
The most comprehensive literature I came across on the implementation of National Skills or
Vocational Qualifications is the World Bank Vocational Training Improvement Project titled
“The implementation and impact of National Qualifications Frameworks; Report of a study
in 16 countries” The implementation process which encompasses the Quality assurance is
summarised below:
Introducing a NVQF or NQF is not just, or even primarily, a design question. A NVQF or
NQF implies a quite new approach to learning, curriculum and assessment and involves a
process in which the attitudes to the most basic features of a teacher’s work and a student’s
attitude to learning have to change and be shared among the stakeholders involved. This
section discusses some key aspects of this process which are rarely mentioned in most
accounts of implementing a NQF or NVQF.
1. Generating qualifications - supply and demand

27
Traditional vocational qualifications were developed in response to demand, jointly
by professional bodies/guilds/trade unions, schools and colleges, and employers, and
in some countries, Awarding (or certification) Bodies.
2. Stakeholders
One of the aims of NQFs and NVQFs has been to reduce the role of education
providers and broaden the range of stakeholder involvement, especially employers
and trade unions, and professional bodies; in this way it is hoped that more
economically relevant qualifications are developed and take up is increased with
emphasis on quality assurance as more bodies are involved to check met the process.
3. Trust and professional development
However they are designed, qualifications are always only ‘proxies’ for what someone
knows and can do; hence the crucial role of trust and the link between trust and
purposes. The main limitation of the old systems of qualifications was that in many
countries, they only addressed the needs of a small section of the workforce. Their
great advantage was the trust in the qualifications that was built up over time between
employers, trade unions, students, assessors and educational providers in those
sectors.
The most promising approaches to establishing rust in new qualifications are likely to involve:
- New forms of association that are less tied to localities and specific occupations and involve
communities, professional associations, unions and employers and,

28
- Extending professional development beyond teachers and lecturers to include trade unionists
and employers.
- New approaches to the nature of work in previously low skill sectors
The UK initiative to create industry-based ‘skill academies’ as sector specific networks for
different providers and industry professionals is one example of such an initiative.
2.3 Theoretical Framework:
In this chapter, the theories relating to quality assurance are discussed.
Theory of Value-added in Internal Education Quality
According to (Cheng, 2001), the internal quality assurance is based on the theory of value-
added in education quality, assuming that the larger the improvement of internal process of
teaching and learning, the larger the value-added to education quality. As shown, if the
internal process including different components and their relationships can be improved
during a time period T1 to T2, the area of value added in quality will increase as the
achievement of the planned goals is increased. The larger increase in achievement of planned
goals is due to the larger improvement of internal process. Therefore, based on this theory,
the component quality approach, the relationship quality or the total internal quality approach
can add value in quality if it can improve some or all aspects of the internal process of
education.

29
There are eight models of education quality that can be used to understand and manage quality
of education from a perspective taking educational institution and its interface with
environment into consideration.
The first three models, including the goal and specification model, the process model and the
absence of problem model, are concerned with the internal quality assurance focusing on
internal goal achievement, process improvement, and internal problem avoidance. These
models can be used to manage and ensure internal quality in education. (Cheng, 2001)
The Goal and Specification Model. –The goal and specification model assumes that there
are clear, enduring, normative and well accepted goals and specifications as indicators and
standards for education institutions or education systems to pursue or conform. Education
quality defined by this model is the achievement of the stated goals or conformance to the
specifications listed in the institutional plan or program plans. It is a type of internal quality.
Quality assurance by this model is to ensuring achievement of stated goals and conformance
to given specifications. The typical examples of quality indicators to be used may include
students’ standard units and performance criteria achieved, guided learning hours attained,
standardizations achieved and personal developments, staff’s professional qualifications, etc.
The Process Model. - The model assumes that nature and quality of institution process often
determine the quality of output and the degree to which the planned goals can be achieved.
Particularly in education, experience in process is often taken as a form of educational aims
and outcomes. Therefore, education quality defined by this model is mainly the smoothness
and health of internal processes and the fruitfulness of learning processes. The process in an
education institution generally includes management process, teaching/training process, and

30
learning process. Thus the selection of indicators may be based on these processes, classified
as management quality indicators (e.g. leadership, decision-making), teaching quality
indicators (e.g. teaching efficacy, teaching methods, assessment method), and learning quality
indicators (e.g. learning attitudes, guided learning hours). Quality assurance by this model is
to ensure smooth healthy internal process and fruitful learning experiences. It is also a type
of internal quality assurance with emphasis on internal improvement.
The Absence of Problems Model. - The model assumes that if there is absence of problems,
troubles, defects, weaknesses, difficulties, and dysfunctions in an education institution, this
institution is of high education quality. Therefore education quality is defined as the absence
of problems and troubles inside the education institution. Quality assurance relies heavily on
institutional monitoring and reporting to ensure no problems and deficiencies arising from its
operation and structure. This is perhaps the oldest concept of internal quality assurance in use
in industry. Quality control experts tend to look at quality as less scrap, rework, warranty
costs, etc., of the final product. The management team of an education institution may set up
stringent quality assurance and monitoring system in order to ensure a deficiency free
environment. Identifying strategies for internal improvement of an education institution can
be more precisely done by analyzing problems and defects as opposed to education quality.
Therefore, this model is useful particularly when the criteria of education quality are really
unclear but the strategies for internal improvement are needed. External quality assurance
ascertains this in skills acquisition training, like National skills qualifications.

31
2.4 Extent of National Skills Qualifications conceptualization in Nigeria:
Young people out of employment or under employed, having left education too early or
completed and with inadequate skills, are everywhere in Nigeria. They are at high risk of
economic marginalization and social exclusion. Upgrading their skill is essential in helping
them to enter, or return to, the labour market (NBTE NSQ progress report, 2018).
The challenge is hugely depended on how Nigeria can transform its youthful population into
highly skilled and competent citizen. A major part of the responsibility for preparing such a
workforce rests on our Nation’s education and training systems.
A large number of actors in skills delivery i.e. federal ministries, agencies, states and local
governments, NGOs, international and national development partners, employers, etc are
involved in skills development. Their efforts often overlap and are not standardised,
regulated, controlled and not well coordinated. Furthermore, there is a growing sense that past
strategies of skills development are inadequate to deal with the new challenges which the
economy faces.
According to the Progress report of NBTE in 2018 on Institutionalization of National Skills
Qualifications (NBTE 2018), the following were achieved so far;
 The six level NVQ Framework has been developed and approved. The Federal
Executive Council at its seating of 14th
April, 2013 approved the six level framework
for Nigeria and the placement of the holders of the qualification in the national scheme
of service.

32
 Trained seven (7) operational staff from NBTE and NABTEB at Interlink College
London.
 Developed and Classify 13No. National Occupational Standards which will
be use for the delivery of NVQs. These standards cover 4 sectors of the Nigerian
economy: energy, hospitality & Tourism, construction and service industry.
The NOS developed include:
i. Plumbing
ii. Block laying, Plastering, Tiling and Stone Decorative Works
iii. Electrical Installation
iv. Carpentry and Joinery
v. Welding and Fabrication
vi. Automobile Mechanic
vii. Hospitality and Catering
viii. Travelling and Tourism
ix. Power System Protection
x. Turbine Maintenance
xi. Mechanical Auxiliaries’ Maintenance
xii. System Electrical Operation
xiii. Electrical Maintenance

33
 Trained 210 No. Quality assurance managers for awarding bodies and some training
centres.
 Developed NVQ National code of practice that guides the conduct and procedure of
the NVQ.
 Approved Sector Skills Councils, Awarding Bodies and Training Centres to
commence operation.
National Board for Technical Education is seeking approval to establish National Council
on Skill, which will be the highest decision making body for the execution of the National
Skills Qualification.
2.5 Current Process of Assuring Quality in National Skills
Qualifications:
A quality assurance system based on meeting standards would assume that if the education
process conforms to established standards then quality can be assured. According to the IIEP
(2007d), conformance to standards is the approach to quality that is used by most regulatory
bodies. Those institutions that conform to pre-determined standards and meet certain
threshold levels receive recognition and approval. If perfection is what is valued, then
consistent compliance with specifications needs to be measured. Assessment of quality thus
takes the form of audits of the process. The objects of measurement are the structures and
processes for assuring quality and not the actual inputs or outputs of the institution.

34
NBTE outlined the monitoring and evaluation process of NSQ in its code of practice (2016)
as below:
1. NBTE will monitor and maintain quality, consistency and integrity of decisions and
practices by Awarding Bodies.
Also, awarding bodies must monitor and maintain the quality, consistency and
integrity of assessment practices and decisions within and between approved centres
offering the same qualification(s).
2. Awarding bodies must provide centres with details of their post-approval monitoring
activities. They must also inform centres of the obligation to provide the awarding
body and the regulatory authorities, upon request, with access to premises, people and
records relating to candidate assessment, achievement and internal verification. If a
centre fails to provide access, the awarding body must suspend the centre’s right to
claim certification until access is provided.
3. Centres must inform awarding bodies of any change affecting their ongoing ability to
meet the centre approval criteria. The awarding body must keep a record of such
information and any remedial action the centre has agreed to take.
4. If an awarding body’s post-approval monitoring shows that a centre is failing to meet
the centre approval criteria, the awarding body must take action to maintain the
integrity of the award concerned. The level of action taken must be in proportion to
the problem and must set deadlines for the problem to be resolved. To ensure that all
awarding bodies respond consistently to specific problems, a tariff of sanctions is are

35
outlined. These sanctions explain the actions that the regulatory authorities expect
awarding bodies to take.
5. Where the nature of a centre’s failure requires the awarding body to withdraw
approval for a particular NVQ, the awarding body must inform the relevant regulatory
authorities. The information provided by the awarding body must include the centre’s
unique identifier, its name and address and the title, level and qualification number of
the NVQ(s) for which approval has been withdrawn.
2.6 improving the quality assurance system of National Skills
Qualifications:
Developing countries are characterized by severe resource constraints and highly competitive
political settings. They have poor baselines to start with.
Given these realities, the discussion of quality assurance must be broadened to look at
contextual issues relevant to developing countries. For example, while Globalization affects
education in all countries, as Lemaitre (2002) noted “globalization is not the same in the
developing world as it is in developed countries.” For instance, in Latin America the massif-
cation of enrolment is less pronounced, students do not have adequate access to technology,
and their role in the knowledge economy is often seen in terms of consumers rather than
producers. Lemaitre also asserted that “developing countries are in a much more difficult
position: not only do we have to assure quality, we must develop the conditions that make
quality possible”.

36
Every model is made up of a significant cluster of elements, some of which are essential to
the substantive aspects of the model, others being part of the context in which those essential
elements acquire meaning or are able to operate. When a model is imported, the significant
cluster is broken, as the context in which those essential elements acquire meaning or are able
to operate.
Yet, the practice of mimicry by the governments of developing nations is not uncommon.
When the self-studies use international criteria to measure institutional performance, local
problems may not get the attention that they merit while less relevant issues become priorities.
No allowance was made for national or institutional culture or for the lack of familiarity with
this kind of program. (Reisberg, 2007)
To assess the relevance of quality assurance programmes for improving the quality of
education in developing countries, three steps have to be taken;
The first is to identify the conditions that must be in place for such programmes to work,
The second to see if these conditions are present in the educational system in developing
countries, and
The third to assess if the total or partial absence of these conditions render the use of quality
assurance programmes ineffective.
The assessment methods used with students or Learners or candidates must be agreed upon
in Planning and may be within the following:
 Planning

37
 Observations
 Oral and written questions
 Professional discussion
 Reflective account
 Witness testimony
 Work product
 Simulation
 Assignment
 Project/Case study
The method(s) selected must provide valid, reliable, sufficient, authentic, current and fair
judgement.
The weakness of one method can be strengthened by another. There may not be a single
method to adopt and fit for each case unless complemented by another, but all the same
Observation and Professional Discussion are more reliable methods in most industries.
The key concepts and principles of assessments are embedded, notably in the following to
support the Learner achieve his needs:
 Motivation which is the process of providing support to the Learner.
 Teaching which is about importing the skills and knowledge required by the Learner
to accomplish task(s).

38
 Counselling which is achieved by establishing trust and open relationship with the
candidate or Learner and maintaining confidentiality.
 Coaching which is about supporting candidate to overcome performance difficulties.
 Others include Guidance, Advise, Door opening, Role modelling and Referral.
Holistic approach is used to enable the use of different methods for various assessment criteria
and easy accomplishment of the process, in terms of time and cost, as well as more reliable
judgement. The limitations of a particular method could be minimized by the strength of
another in the holistic approach process.
2.7 Implications of the conceptual and contextual issues in National Skills
Qualifications:
Even though a lot of things have so far been achieved, there are numerous challenges
associated with the conceptualization and contextualization of the National Skills
Qualifications.
There is the challenge of the source(s) of regular funding for the trainers and trainees until
the project will be in the position of self-funding.
Another challenge is the need to fast track the placement of the holders of the qualification in
the National Scheme of Service in accordance with Council’s approval.
Additionally, some sectors of the economy have expressed their reservations in respect to the
use of the word ‘vocational’ in the framework. To this effect, the management of NBTE at

39
its 65th
meeting consider and ascent to their request and changed the nomenclature from
vocational to skills. The framework is now called Nigerian Skills Qualifications Framework
(NSQF) and the qualification obtainable is termed National Skills Qualification (NSQ)
Some critical outstanding activities for full implementation of the framework include:
 Development of 50 additional occupational standards dictated by the industry.
 Training of 1000 assessors and 200 verifiers for each occupations spread across
the country.
 Development of a comprehensive data bank to ensure credibility, accountability,
security, integrity and probity of the qualifications and standards. Ongoing.
 Enhanced publicity.
 State Government to identify their skills needs and map out enterprises available
within their States for enhanced coordination, opportunities and partnership to
support skills training.
2.8 Summary of the Review:
Several deductions can be drawn from the literature review. These include:
1. There is no one definition for quality. Quality can be defined in various ways and its
definition is influenced by the person who is providing the definition and his/her position in
relation to the education system.
2. Conceptions of quality have implications for how quality is assessed. Concepts determine
the focus of assessment and the methods used for evaluation.

40
3. There are many options to consider when choosing a quality assurance system. These
include, but are not limited to, the purpose of quality assurance (e.g. quality control,
accountability, or improvement), the affiliation of the quality assurance agency (e.g.
government controlled versus autonomous), the approach used (e.g. audit, assessment, or
accreditation and voluntary versus compulsory), and relationship to public funding (e.g. direct
funding or incentives).
4. Existing quality assurance models continue to evolve in response to criticisms from
external stakeholders for greater transparency and increased attention to learning outcomes.
A single model is unlikely to address the needs and expectations of all stakeholders.
5. External quality assurance is linked to internal quality assurance. It is possible for
institutions to comply with accountability requirements without making significant
improvements in quality; however, establishing academic structures and implementing
procedures that encourage institutional learning and a culture of evaluation is important for
quality improvement.
6. Aspects of institutional culture can influence the implementation of quality assurance. For
example, organizational leaders’ attitudes, responses and support can greatly influence the
failure or success of quality initiatives.
7. Institutions in developing countries face considerable constraints in adopting the quality
assurance schemes used in developed countries. There is need to pay attention to the national
conditions, cultural attributes and institutional and systemic contexts and to modify the
design, expectations and requirements of such systems as appropriate.

41
The aim of this study was to explore how education quality is defined and assessed within
Nigerian NSQ Framework. The research also aimed to build understanding of the contexts
(internal and external) under which NSQ operates and are expected to assure quality.
Subsequently, these elements—concepts, practices, and contexts—were considered in light
of the prospect of implementing quality assurance system of NSQ.

42
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction:
perspectives in NSQ and provides information that can promote understanding of some of the
key issues relevant to the design and implementation of a viable quality assurance system for
NSQ based education and training.
The central question addressed in this research was “How is quality assurance perceived and
practiced in NSQ system and how can it be improved?”
Sub-questions addressed by the study were:
1. To what extent is NSQ quality conceptualized in Nigeria?
2. To what level Nigerian NSQ Training providers, Awarding and Regulatory bodies
currently assure (assess, monitor, improve) quality?
3. What implications do these conceptual and contextual issues have for the quality assurance
system of NSQ?
4. What other measures can be employed to improve the quality of the programme and
ascertain the integrity of its certification?

43
3.2 Research Design:
The study was based on a qualitative research design. Hatch (2002) in his summary of
commonly cited sources on the topic of qualitative research, lists the following common
characteristics of qualitative studies: (a) natural settings, (b) participants’ perspectives, (c)
researcher as data gathering instrument, (d) extended first-hand engagement, (e) the centrality
of meaning, (f) wholeness and complexity, (g) subjectivity, (h) emergent design, (i) inductive
data analysis, and (j) reflexivity.
The researcher sought to provide a rich description of participants’ perspectives regarding
concepts of NSQ quality, internal and external quality assurance practices, in Nigeria and
how these can possibly be maintained or improved. The research relied on a constructivist
paradigm that regards knowledge as a “human construction,” that recognizes “multiple
realities,” and sees the research as a process through which the “researcher and the
participant co-construct understandings” (Hatch, 2002).
In qualitative studies the researcher enters the research site with no explicit expectations or
interest in controlling variables. No hypothesis is offered or tested. The approach is primarily
inductive; pulling detailed pieces of information from one or a few cases to paint an overall
picture of a context or phenomenon (Hatch, 2002). Unexpected variables are not controlled,
being recognized as potential important parts of the whole. The design of qualitative studies
is emergent and flexible and also responsive to changing conditions of the study in progress.
This research is also a case study and there is no one accepted definition or conceptual
framework for case study research. As Creswell (2007) explains, case study research can be
conceptualized “as a strategy of inquiry, as a methodology or a comprehensive research

44
strategy”. On the other hand, Robert Stake, as quoted in Creswell (2007), regards case study
research “not as a methodology, but a choice of what is to be studied”. Yin (2009) refers to
case study as “an empirical inquiry” that “investigates a contemporary phenomenon in depth
and within its real-life context”.
A case study design is employed to gain an in-depth understanding of the situation and
meaning for those involved. The interest is in process rather than outcomes, in context rather
than a specific variable, in discovery rather than confirmation.
In case studies, issues provide the conceptual structure. The most suitable issues for case
study research are those that are potentially problematic and deeply connected to the contexts
of the case. Qualitative case studies also treat uniqueness of individual cases and contexts as
important to understanding. A holistic treatment of phenomenon is necessary and should
include consideration of various aspects of the particular context such as temporal and spatial,
historical, political, economic, cultural, social and personal.
3.3 Population of the study:
In the present study, each awarding body was treated as a case, covering 9 Sectors of the
economy with 210 trained Quality assurance managers. The phenomenon under study was
quality assurance, the population was Training providers, Sector skills councils, Awarding
bodies, Regulatory authority and the general condition related to contextual issues in the NSQ
learning environment. Within each individual case, the perceptions of Centre
heads/coordinators/managers, internal quality assurance structures and processes, external
quality assurance processes and relevant contextual issues were explored. Although there was

45
an interest in understanding the perceptions, practices, and context of the individual cases,
the greater interest was in the patterns and trends of the overall population.
3.4 Sample Size/Sampling Techniques:
Both Awarding bodies, Sector Skills Councils and Training providers/centres were used as
units of analysis in the study. The study invited the participation of all awarding bodies/Sector
skills councils — 1 Regulator, 3 awarding bodies, 3 sector skills councils—in Nigeria.
There are a total of 210 Quality Assurance Managers trained to cover these bodies and 20
Participants within approved bodies were selected through purposeful (also known as
purposive) sampling. Purposeful sampling is defined by Richards and Morse (2007) as a
process whereby “the investigator selects participants because of their characteristics.”
Spradley (cited in Richards & Morse, 2007) states that “Good informants/participants are
those who know the information required, are willing to reflect on the phenomena of interest,
have the time, and are willing to participate.”
Purposeful sampling is based on the assumption that the investigator wants to discover,
understand, and gain insight and therefore must select a sample from which the most can be
learned. Criteria for selecting the purposeful sample in this study were as follows:
1. Position within the body
The researcher sought to describe the perspectives of persons fitting the description of, at
least, a certified Assessor and possibly Internal or External verifier within the NSQ system
because of their potential impact on policy decisions and policy implementation in NSQ

46
Additional participants were considered if they had direct responsibility for some aspect of
quality assurance within a participating organization. At the time of the study, 30 persons fit
the criterion of certified QAAs, IQAs and undergoing EQA training from all the Awarding
bodies, Sector Skill Councils, Regulatory body and The Training Providers.
2. Some centre Managers/Co-ordinators/Heads for their familiarity with the day-to-day
activities of the centres.
The second research question sought to describe current quality assurance practices, therefore
it was important, that for each awarding body/centre, participants were included who were
familiar with the day-to-day activities of the NSQ.
The investigator believed that the third research question would benefit from perspectives
informed by a broad understanding of the NSQ system and its context. The regulatory body,
NBTE, is saddled with this responsibility in Nigeria, hence it was assumed that representative
of NBTE would be better able to contribute to the study because of their familiarity with
current system-wide issues.
Within-site sampling of documents was needed to make the data collection and analysis
relevant and manageable. Participants were asked to provide the investigator with documents
that would promote understanding of the awarding body/centre’s conceptions of quality and
internal quality assurance structures and processes. These documents fell into the following
three broad categories:
1. Manuals: e.g., student, faculty, and staff manuals
2. Policies and Guidelines: e.g., Appeal procedure, standardization minutes and quality
assurance policy like equality and diversity.

47
3. Evaluation instruments: e.g., Tools for assessment, sample of approved folders, and sample
of ongoing folders.
3.5 Instrument for Data Collection:
The first step in data gathering was gaining access and permissions. This step allows the
researcher to become familiar with people and spaces. It also allows potential actors and
others to learn about the nature of the case study and specifics of the research design. Updated
names and contact information for approved Awarding bodies/Sector skills councils and
Centers were obtained from NBTE.
Three data collection strategies typically used in case study research were used in this
particular study. These were (a) interviews, (b) documentation, and to a lesser extent, (c)
observations. The aim of using multiple strategies was to thoroughly understand the case and
to increase the validity of the findings.
3.5.1 Validity of the Instruments:
An instrument is said to be valid if it fits for the purpose in which it was used.
Interviews capture the “unique experiences” and “special stories” of interviewees. The case
study researcher’s task is then to use this information to portray multiple views of the case.
Interviews are good sources of data for case studies because they focus directly on case study
topics and provide insight into “perceived causal inferences and explanations” (Yin, 2009).
The strengths of documentation as a source of data lie in its stability, unobtrusiveness,
exactness, and broad coverage (Yin, 2009).

48
In this study, documents such as manuals, guidelines, and self-evaluation instruments
provided insight into institutional processes which could not be observed directly by the
researcher.
Additionally, as Yin (2009) notes, “For case studies, the most important use of documents is
to corroborate and augment evidence from other sources” (Yin, 2009).
In this particular multi-case study, documents were used to corroborate and augment
interview responses related to institutional purpose, concepts of quality, and internal quality
structures and processes.
Observations can be used to gather data specific to both the case and the issues in questions.
Considering these, I felt using these methods is valid for this research.
3.5.2 Reliability of the Instrument:
An instrument is said to be reliable, if it can provide the same result under normal
circumstance. Interviews, Documentation and Observation have these capacities.
Interviews are important in obtaining descriptions and interpretations of others which are
central elements in case study research.
The strengths of documentation as a source of data lie in its stability, unobtrusiveness,
exactness, and broad coverage (Yin, 2009).

49
Observation provides the researcher with the opportunity to see things for himself, the tools
used for quality assurance, the infrastructure of the training to ascertain the quality, the
environment that fits the training/assessment, etc.
With these, it is obvious that these instruments are reliable in this kind of research.
Triangulation, which implies the use of multiple approaches in the same study is a good tool
in conforming to reliability of research and that’s why these 3 methods are used in this
research.
3.6 Method of Data Collection:
The first step in data gathering was gaining access and permissions. This step allows the
researcher to become familiar with people and spaces. It also allows potential actors and
others to learn about the nature of the case study and specifics of the research design
Updated names and contact information for approved Awarding bodies/Sector skills councils
and potential centres were obtained from NBTE. A letter of request approval and a copy of
the NBTE’s letter of endorsement was sent to each Awarding body addressed to the person
responsible for approving research.
Three data collection strategies typically used in case study research were used in this
particular study. These were (a) interviews, (b) documentation, and to a lesser extent, (c)
observations. The aim of using multiple strategies was to thoroughly understand the case and
to increase the validity of the findings.

50
Some interviews were conducted on-site and visits included a tour of facilities. This allowed
the researcher to observe the centre’s physical infrastructure and to develop general
impressions of the centre’s culture and setting, as well as that of the surrounding local
communities. The researcher recorded observations and reflections after each site visit.
3.7 Method of Data Analysis:
There is no particular moment when data analysis begins. Textual data are typically reviewed
with predetermined issues and variables in mind or what Stake refers to as etic issues. The
interview transcripts, documents and observations in this study were analysed for
descriptions and patterns related to three primary areas: (a) conceptual issues (definitions of
quality, purposes of NSQ, relevance, purpose, and mechanisms of quality assurance); (b)
descriptions of structures and processes used to monitor, assess, or improve quality
(specifically in reference to curriculum and programs, candidates’ learning, training and
decision-making processes); and (c) contextual issues (internal and external factors that
impact on quality assurance).
In addition to the theoretical analytic framework, care was taken during analysis to look for
emic issues and codes which normally emerge from inside the case as the study evolves.
Two strategic ways to analyse cases: (a) direct interpretation of the individual instance and
(b) aggregation of instances were used in this multi-case study.
The final stage of analysis was synthesis of the major patterns and themes to gauge their
applicability to theory and to generate recommendations related to the study.

51
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
20 participants were expected to respond to the structured interview questionnaire.
The questionnaire was sent to 70 participants, 40 Quality Assurance Assessors (QAAs), 30
Internal Quality Assurers (IQAs), as well as Trainee External Quality Assurers (IQAs), out
of which only 25 responded.
4.2 Data Presentation and Analysis
The data presentation and analysis is as discussed below.
Research Question #1—Conceptualization of Quality assurance
To what extent is quality assurance in National skills qualifications conceptualised?
Although one might argue that National Skills Qualification in Nigeria is exclusive and elitist
by the mere fact of its low participation rate, the data from interviews, institutional
documents, and observations proves its acceptability and practice is progressively moving.
What was found was not a selective system with exceedingly high entry requirements or wide
disparities in cost between various training centres and awarding bodies; rather, what became
apparent was a system that was slowly redefining its identity, purpose, and definition of
quality in response to changing socioeconomic and demographic factors. This is not to say

52
that traditional views on quality were not apparent in the data. On the contrary, such
traditional ideas as excellence and having exceedingly high standards, appeared to be deeply
entrenched in some parts of the system.
For example, one participant noted, “I think as a system, the thrust is more towards defining
quality based on standards and being exceptional, the need for excellence in everything.
The findings indicate that National Skills Qualifications pursue excellence and recognition in
two major ways, the most common of which is through learners’ achievement on the
performance criteria proved by the assessment process and the internal verification. The other
been the integrity of the certification through external verification process. One participant
explained the benefits of the external verification as follows:
The external assessment helps us to evaluate ourselves because when you are
starting at the bottom, you do not have that reputation or strong foundation and so
basically even your own people don’t know what you are doing or they don’t
recognize it, but when the external agency confirms the learners’ achievement
it makes people look at that Skills system and say,
“You must be doing something good,”
Similarly, another respondent said:
“We encourage our learners, support them and acts as role models and mentors to
them to make sure that they achieve. Our assessment and internal verification is
rigorous and firm so that it conforms to standard, as this is what is ascertained by the

53
external quality assurers.”
Nevertheless, the limitations of the assessment process, and by extension the external quality
assurance process, as a measure of quality were acknowledged by several participants. For
example, a participant from one of the institutions commented,
“The problem of funding is a great set back to the quality assurance process of
National Skills Qualification. Where several visits for internal and or external quality
assurance managers is required, it may be limited to few number of times, if not once
due to lack of fund. A times it takes longer than necessary to conduct the visit simply
because the external verifiers are not paid or the payment seems too low for the
assignment.”
Another participant echoed the same sentiments when she made the following statement:
‘The time taken for the verifiers to attend to some candidates takes longer than
necessary and this jeopardises the quality. A times, they will be in a hurry to finish up
and leave because of the low payment or lateness in the payment and leave some
aspects not well scrutinized to ascertain quality.”

54
A more recent strategy for pursuing excellence is for Training providers to adopt externally-
derived standards. Although very few of the local centres were accredited at the time of the
study, some of them tried to align themselves with the standards or systems thought to be of
higher quality. For example, a participant from one such institution stated, “To me, quality is
[making] sure we are delivering the programs that meet standards that are universally
accepted”
Another participant said,
“I think for better or for worse, if you use world-class standards… we can’t go
Wrong. We have to be careful of the cultural nuances of their standards but once
we take account of that, those standards are solid and even if we never apply to
Awarding bodies for accreditation, those standards will serve us well.”
While the concepts of quality as excellence and having high standards appear to be deeply
entrenched, contextual issues such as the expansion of skills opportunities have created the
need for more flexibility on the part of Training providers and awarding bodies, in the way
they perceive quality. This transition was explained by one participant as follows:
“While the Training providers aspire to maintain quality, there is need standardized
documentation and folder arrangement that does not seems too cumbersome and hard
to go by. There are some issues that doesn’t seems to be necessary and constitutes
hardship in the folder documentation. A typical example is tracking and referencing
by page numbering of all pages and a times lines and referencing them. I don’t see

55
this necessary so long as the evidences are in the folder and tracked to the performance
criteria.”
The conceptualization of National Skills Qualification in Nigeria, some respondents believed
it has gone along way. They states;
“
Given the stringent measures and rigorous evidences that must be achieved by any
learner or candidate, it will ultimately ensure that only competent and qualified
candidates are awarded the NSQ certification.”
Another respondent states as follows:
“National Skills Qualification may be considered as a system of learning whereby an
individual learns a professional skill in a practical way through a structured program
of on-the-job training. It usually involves acquiring knowledge, mechanical skills and
the development of an attitude or discipline for a particular skill. It’s a combination
of training and related technical instruction in which Apprentice learn the practical
and theoretical aspects of a skilled occupation, craft or trade. It also incorporates a
system of guidance and counselling as most apprentices are required to live with their
masters so as to acquire through a process of acculturation the necessary altitude,
diplomacy and appropriate social behaviour required for the Trade. It is the
combination of these transformation that make graduates of apprenticeship training
entrepreneurs instead of job seekers. It’s also a program of training through which
learners pass to an intended goal. This means that all the activities done by the

56
apprentice or experiences acquired by him/her in or outside the workshop under the
guidance of his master constitute his training program and thus his curriculum.”
Another respondent has his idea expressed as;
“In Nigeria, apprentices lived with their masters and received no pay except
maintenance and training. After their period of training and after satisfying the
required standard of ability, skill and competence in that particular trade, the
apprentice then graduates to a journeyman status. The journeyman is a worker who
has passed from the stage of apprenticeship but is not yet qualified to be a master, they
work under a master to receive more experience especially in management, leadership
and customer handling. The journeyman receives a fixed wage for his labour.”
Research Question #2— Quality Assurance Strategies
To what level is National skills qualifications currently assured (assessed, monitored,
improved) to ascertain quality?
The process of assuring quality in all the centres visited happens to be the same except that
some problems may warrant the approach to differ. A typical example is the problem of funds.
A respondent answered the question on the current process of quality assurance as follows;
“I ensure that the apprentice produce all the evidences accordingly, and make sure

57
evidences are Valid, Authentic, Sufficient, Current and Reliable as required by the
appropriate authorities”
Another one puts it this way;
“(I assure the quality) by following the stipulated guidelines and requirements of the
NOS (National Occupational Standards) to assess and judge my learners.”
The standard referred to as National Occupational Standard (NOS) is developed by
collaborating with all stake holders, then makes it a yard stick or bench mark for the
Assessment to ascertain quality.
One respondent clarified this in the following statement;
“(The standard are developed through collaboration with the relevant stakeholders,
like the trade association, NBTE, Awarding bodies, sector skill council.... Etc”
On responding to how the standards as bench mark are developed, another respondent states;
“Its usually a collaboration with Curriculums development expert, Trade expert and
appropriate authorities.”
The procedure adopted, according to the NSQ documents consulted and stakeholders
interviewed, generally speaking, is summarised in the following serial items:
1. Registration of Learners in a Training centre or provider registered and approved by
an Awarding body.
2. Induction of the Learners or candidates and Initial Assessment

58
3. Training of the Learners in the appropriate Units of the Standard and Level
4. Planning for the assessment of the Learners at Intervals
5. Assessment of the Learners (Formative assessment) using appropriate methods,
recording the evidences and using the standards as Barometer
6. Giving feedback to Learners for achievement, progress, support and correction of
deviations to standards.
7. Number of formative assessments are conducted until all performance criteria are met
in line with the awarding body, centre and regulatory body guidelines
8. Conduct Summative assessment to ascertain Final achievement and competence.
9. Internal Quality Assurer or Internal verifier verifies the assessment conducted by the
assessor
10. The awarding body sends External verifier or External Quality Assurer or Manager to
verifier the entire process.
11. There is provision for Appeal if the candidate or learner is not satisfied with any
decision of the assessment.
12. If the evidences of the candidate were ascertained by both the Assessor, Internal
Verifier and External Verifier as Valid, Authentic, Sufficient, Current and Reliable
under fair judgement, the candidate is signed off and certified by the awarding body.

59
Research Question #3—Implications of the conceptual and contextual
issues on National Skills Qualifications quality assurance
What implications do these conceptual and contextual issues have for the quality assurance
system of the National Skills Qualifications?
The participants saw a need for a system that would function to ensure that Training centres
improved their quality beyond these minimum standards so that the sectors could achieve
high levels of effectiveness and efficiency. The need for centres to be more responsive and
accountable to stakeholders was also mentioned by several participants.
Funding, which was a major concern was cited by participants.
Participants made it clear that they wanted a system that was autonomous but with input,
cooperation, and representation from the government and other stakeholders.
Systems based on individual institutional missions and focused on improvement rather than
accountability, such as in the U.S. Regional Accreditation system, usually rely on the
existence of mature institutions that have the capacity to evaluate themselves, enough
financial resources to fund the operations of the accrediting body, and a large enough pool of
expertise to conduct the peer review process. Serious consideration has to be given to the
current ability of Training providers to evaluate themselves and to contribute to the external
quality assurance system either by way of finance or human resources.
Institutions reported serious resource constraints. One participant noted,

60
“Maintaining quality costs money and schools, especially ours, doesn’t have that
money…”
Inadequate facilities were observed during site visits and were also highlighted by many of
the participants.
Another participant also noted the rigorous documentation involved,
When you look at assessment and accreditation standards and how they are normally
conducted, there’s a huge requirement for documentation. You have to be able to think
it out well ahead of time…. Now if I am not in the habit of keeping this kind of record,
we won’t make it. So already, I’m anticipating that need to set up some information
files and I can’t do it manually. We wouldn’t
have space here to put all of that stuff and so I need to do it digitally...
The major problems/implications highlighted by participants are summarised as follows:
1. Limited access and enrolment. This is due to low awareness and acceptability
2. Skills mismatch between the training provided and industry requirement
3. Lack of effective linkages with industries
4. Proliferation of Illegal TVET Institutions
5. Limited labour market information
6. Lack of adequate funds for the entire process
7. Too much work load for Assessment team due to low number of trained Assessors
and Verifiers

61
8. Lack of Qualified External Verifiers in the country, although about 20No are
undergoing the training currently for 3 existing awarding bodies and some sector skill
councils and are expected to finish by the end of the year, 2018.
9. Too much and rigorous documentation involved
10. Lack of resources, tools, materials and technological machineries to cater for all
professions and levels
Research Question #4 – Measures to improve Quality Assurance of National
Skills Qualifications:
What other measure(s) can be adopted to improve the quality assurance system of NSQ?
All the respondents to the structured interview questionnaire believed that the current process
of assuring quality in the National Skills Qualification is good, commendable and befitting.
All the same, they made some suggestions as ways for betterment and improvement.
A respondent puts it this way;
“(To improve the quality assurance of National Skills Qualifications, there is need to)
Improve awareness of the NSQ and its implementation, Offer
adequate training to all stakeholders in the QAA circle and
Ensure adequate funding of the exercise.”
Another one states;
“Emphasize the use of ICT during the assessment activity,
Adopting current E-portfolio process and

62
The Federal and State Governments in their desire to achieve the objectives of the
National Policy actually reorganized and substantially expanded technical and
vocational institutions”
Other measures noted by another respondent are as follows;
“Review National Occupational Standards every 5 years,
assessors should be engaging in CPD and
Regular standardization meeting”
In summary, measures to improve the Quality Assurance of National Skills Qualifications
given by all respondents are summed up as;
1. Improve and provide more awareness on NSQ
2. Provide adequate training to all stake holders especially those in the assessment cycle
3. Ensure adequate funding
4. Emphasize the use of ICT and adopting e-portfolio
5. Review National Occupational Standards every 5 years
6. Conduct Regular standardization meeting
7. All Assessment team and Trainers must engage in adequate Continuing Professional
Development activities
4.3 Test of Hypothesis
The qualitative study used a collective case study approach. Multiple sites (Training
providers, Awarding bodies, Sector skills councils, Regulatory body) were studied to gain
insight into the larger case which is the NSQ system of Nigeria. The system comprises of the

63
candidates; Training providers with their respective Quality Assurance Assessors and Internal
Verifiers; Sector skill councils with their developed standards; Awarding bodies and their
External verifiers; as well as the Regulatory body.
The study used the following strategies to generate data on the perceptions of the stake holders
and institutional quality assurance practices:
1. Formal in-depth interviews with 20 participants from all NSQ stakeholders such as
Assessors, Internal quality assurance officers, Centre Managers and Coordinators; The
participants were selected from the size of the study, 210No Quality Assurance Managers.
2. Analysis of documents related to Training organizations policies and practices. These
documents included (a) Candidate handbooks; (b) guidelines for program review, Training
assessment documents and staff professional continuing development programmes; (c) self-
study instruments and reflective process; and (d) standardization procedure
3. On-site Visits. The researcher visited some of the sites to get a sense of the physical, Social,
and cultural contexts in which the institutions are operating.
4.4 Discussion of Results
20 participants were expected to respond to the structured interview questionnaire.
The questionnaire was sent to participants; Quality Assurance Assessors (QAAs), Internal
Quality Assurers (IQAs), as well as Trainee External Quality Assurers (IQAs), out of which
the 20 responded.
All the respondents believed that the Quality Assurance of National Skills Qualifications

64
was conceptualized on benchmarking, i.e. Comparing evidences to the standard. The
Evidence ≤ Standard.
Equally important is the fact that almost all of them listed the same and similar implications
of the concept and contexts of the NSQ quality assurance.
The process of assessment in all the centres seems to be the same except when there are
deviations to the laid down guide lines and set procedures and all participants believed that
the current method of assuring quality in NSQ is good to be maintained with some
suggested areas of improvement.
Concerns that have to do with Assessors workload due to inadequate assessors, low
participation due to unawareness, lack of appropriate funding which jeopardises the
assessment process, inadequate infrastructure and machineries to cater for current trends of
technological advancement were the major problems raised by respondents.

65
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF MAJOR FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Introduction
perspectives in National Skills Qualifications (NSQ) of Nigeria. The central question
addressed in this research was “How is quality assurance perceived and practiced by Training
providers of National Skills Qualification in Nigeria?” Sub-questions addressed by the study
were (a) To what extent is quality conceptualized in National Skills Qualifications? (b) How
and to what level do training providers currently assure (assess, monitor, improve) quality?
(c) What implications do these conceptual and contextual issues have for the quality assurance
system of National Skills Qualifications? and (d) What other measures can be employed to
improve the quality assurance of the National Skills Qualifications?
The qualitative study used a collective case study approach. Multiple sites (individual
cases/training centres) were studied to gain insight into the larger case which is the National
Skills Qualifications system involving Training providers, sector skill councils, awarding
bodies and regulatory bodies. The study generated data on the perceptions of Assessment
team and centres’ quality assurance practices using structured interviews via questionnaire
with 20 stake holders (Quality Assurance Assessors, Internal Quality Assurers and Trainee
External Quality Assurers) from the training centres, sector skill councils, awarding bodies
and regulatory body, analysis of documents related to NSQ policies and practice, and on-site

66
visits to some training centres.
5.2 Summary of Major Findings
The major findings for the first objective of this study reveals that the quality assurance of
the National Skills Qualifications is well conceptualized to encompass maintaining standards,
through comparison of evidence gathered against the set standard or benchmark.
This concept provides good practice in both the Training and assessment process of the NSQ.
As for the second objective of the study, the procedure adopted, according to the NSQ
documents consulted and stakeholders interviewed, generally speaking, is summarised in the
following serial items:
1. Registration of Learners in a Training centre or provider registered and approved by
an Awarding body.
2. Induction of the Learners or candidates and Initial Assessment
3. Training of the Learners in the appropriate Units of the Standard and Level
4. Planning for the assessment of the Learners at Intervals
5. Assessment of the Learners (Formative assessment) using appropriate methods,
recording the evidences and using the standards as Barometer
6. Giving feedback to Learners for achievement, progress, support and correction of
deviations to standards.
7. Number of formative assessments are conducted until all performance criteria are met

67
in line with the awarding body, centre and regulatory body guidelines
8. Conduct Summative assessment to ascertain Final achievement and competence.
9. Internal Quality Assurer or Internal verifier verifies the assessment conducted by the
assessor
10. The awarding body sends External verifier or External Quality Assurer or Manager to
verifier the entire process.
11. There is provision for Appeal if the candidate or learner is not satisfied with any
decision of the assessment.
12. If the evidences of the candidate were ascertained by both the Assessor, Internal
Verifier and External Verifier as Valid, Authentic, Sufficient, Current and Reliable
under fair judgement, the candidate is signed off and certified by the awarding body.
Considering the third objective, there are numerous problems identified as implications of the
concept and context. The positive implications are maintaining standard to ascertain quality
in training and integrity in certification.
The major problems/implications highlighted by participants are summarised as follows:
1. Limited access and enrolment. This is due to low awareness and acceptability
2. Skills mismatch between the training provided and industry requirement
3. Lack of effective linkages with industries
4. Proliferation of Illegal TVET Institutions
5. Limited labour market information

68
6. Lack of adequate funds for the entire process
7. Too much work load for Assessment team due to low number of trained Assessors
and Verifiers
8. Lack of Qualified External Verifiers in the country, although about 20No are
undergoing the training currently for 3 existing awarding bodies and are expected to
finish by the end of the year, 2018.
9. Too much and rigorous documentation
10. Lack of resources, tools, materials and technological machineries to cater for all
professions and levels
On the last objective, all participants believed that the current process of quality assurance is
fit for purpose and is good enough to be maintained.
All the same, suggestions were made to improve it further;
1. Improve and provide more awareness on NSQ
2. Provide adequate training to all stake holders especially those in the assessment cycle
3. Ensure adequate funding
4. Emphasize the use of ICT and adopting e-portfolio
5. Review National Occupational Standards every 5 years
6. Conduct Regular standardization meeting
7. All Assessment team and Trainers must engage in adequate Continuing Professional
Development activities
8. Standardization is required to lessen the numerous number of forms and tools for
induction, assessment, feedback and sampling to make the documentation easier to
both Learners and Assessment team.

69
5.3 Conclusion of the study
A flexible and less prescriptive system may be a choice model for National Skills
Qualifications based on cultural and historic factors. NSQ developed independent of any
direct guidance from the state. Given this culture of independence, there is certain to be
considerable resistance to impositions on institutional missions and practices if a dictatorial
approach was chosen. This enables reduction in the tedious documentation in the system, as
complaint by most respondent.
The process must involve both private and public sectors, as well as all stake holders in each
occupational area.
The Assessment team are the major role players in the process, hence must always maintain
standard, keep up to date with technology and other trends in their area of expertise.
Standardization meetings, peer review, reflective practice and Continuing Professional
Development (CPD) must be taken with utmost importance to make the National Skills
Qualifications always current, up to date in line with today’s technological trends and
changes in all fields of expertise and professions.
5.3.1 Implication of the study
The International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP, 2007a; 2007b) has advised small
states to consider several major organizational choices in setting up external quality

70
assurance systems. These include the purpose or purposes of the quality assurance agency
(i.e., whether it will be quality control, accountability/guidance, or improvement), its
affiliation (i.e., whether it will be governmental, quasi-governmental, or owned by the
educational institutions or by private groups), the general approaches (for example,
whether participation will be compulsory or voluntary), and linkage to public funding (i.e.,
whether there will be direct public funding of the system, public incentives for positive
outcomes, or no connection to public funding).
Participants expressed the view that it is necessary to implement quality assurance system
that can accomplish all three purposes—controlling quality, fostering quality improvement,
and making institutions accountable to the public; however, they identified the greatest need
as that of establishing minimum standards and monitoring entry into the system (quality
control). Although most stake holders would prefer an external quality assurance system that
is independent of government, they see government as a major player in the establishment
and sustainability of the system. Thus their vision is for a quasi-governmental entity that
would be funded by the government, but be fully autonomous in its operations.
5.4 Recommendations
The take-off of the National Skills Qualifications in Nigeria is a huge success. There are
practical problems, though. While most participants feel confident that the issues of concern,
the possibility that there will be significant challenges is real. Some of the more important
factors to consider are as follows:

71
1. Staffing of the external quality assurance agency and Regulatory body: This must
be done with extra. Persons holding key positions such as the Executive Director or
Secretary will need to be above reproach. They must be able to engender confidence
and trust in both themselves and the agency. Proper policies and guidelines for the
conduct of agency operations must be put in place and strictly monitored for
compliance to ensure that the agency gains respect both locally and internationally.
2. Internal quality assurance infrastructure: The few institutions that have begun
quality review exercises report the need for additional personnel, supporting
databases, and changes in institutional culture. Case of MAFITA was cited as an
example on such concerns. These could prove to be formidable challenges if
institutions try to do it alone. The small size of most institutions should make it easier
for a quality culture to spread throughout the centre. Therefore, large and elaborate
quality assurance structures may be impractical and unnecessary for most institutions.
Furthermore, the cost of quality improvements such as training of personnel and
development of databases can be reduced through partnerships and collaboration
among institutions.
3. External Review: Regardless of the particular model chosen—accreditation,
assessment, or audit—external review will be a critical and integral part of the process.
There are benefits of using local reviewers because it facilitates knowledge transfer
among institutions; however, the increased chance of bias in a small society is real.
Therefore, the composition of the review team needs to be considered carefully. As

72
some participants suggested, reviewers need not only be local. A combination of local
higher education faculty, professionals from the private or public sector, and foreign
experts may be the best way to go.
4. The lessons learned from neighbouring countries include paying attention to
cultural and historic factors and spending sufficient time promoting education and
awareness in order to build support among stakeholders and minimize resistance.
There is bound to be opposition unless institutional players (Assessment team and
Sector skill councils) see the benefits of quality assurance and feel respected and
included in shaping its development. Collaboration between the external quality
assurance agency and stakeholders in the development of criteria and design of
processes can go a long way in building a sense of shared ownership.
5. Financing of the system is another dominant factor. It is unlikely that the external
quality assurance agency can become operational without substantial investments in
infrastructure and training. This is not money that is readily available from either the
government or registered Training centres. Loans or grants must be sought for these
initial stages. Careful attention must be paid to the size and scope of the agency so
that long-term sustainability can be attained.
6. There are substantial institutional improvements that need to be made to get
institutions to the level where they can become comfortable with evaluating
themselves and, in the longer run, to being evaluated by outsiders. An informal system
of peer evaluation operated through the Awarding and Regulatory Body can serve as
a precursor to the work anticipated to take place by the external quality assurance

73
agency. It would be a non-threatening, voluntary, learn-at-your-own-pace strategy
that would help institutions get ready for the implementation of a more high-stakes,
compulsory system. Also, the process could lead to the development of standards and
a pool of reviewers from which the external quality assurance agency could eventually
draw.
5.5 Contribution to knowledge
This study is the first broad-based research done on quality assurance practices and
perspectives in National Skills Qualifications in Nigeria. It is timely as the NSQ is taking off
and requires input to implement trends in line with best practices.
The validity, authenticity, reliability, currency and sufficiency of the Quality assurance
process of the National Skills Qualifications was ascertained.
Additionally, suggestions on how to improve the Quality Assurance Process, considering the
challenges were preferred in this research work.
5.6 Limitation of the study
This Research is limited to Quality Assurance practice in National Skills Qualifications in
Nigeria. It may not be applicable to Traditional system of learning.
Additionally, the study is generic in nature hence does not address peculiarities of Training

74
Providers, Sector Skill Councils, Awarding Bodies, Regulatory Bodies in their entities, even
though it serves as guide in solving the peculiarities based on general principles.
5.7 Suggestion for further Research
Each of the major areas of this research—quality concepts, internal quality assurance
practices, and options for external quality assurance—deserve further exploration. Definitions
espoused by academic leaders and institutional literature are not necessarily the same as those
held by external stakeholders or other stakeholders within institutions. The perspectives of
those from institutions that were not included in this study (i.e., private, transnational, and
offshore institutions) also need to be taken into account. Future research must include both
qualitative and quantitative studies with other stakeholders such as occupational areas,
candidates, and the private and public sectors as well. Once the concepts and contexts have
been thoroughly explored and debated, a comprehensive feasibility study needs to be done to
determine the actual cost of establishing and sustaining various options for a national quality
assurance system for NSQ in Nigeria.

1
REFERENCES
1. Blackmur, D. (2007). The public regulation of higher education qualities:
Rationale, processes, and outcomes. In P. Maassen & J. Muller (Series Eds.) &
D.F. Westerheijden, B. Stensaker, & M. J. Rosa (Vol. Eds.), Higher Education
Dynamics: Vol. 20. Quality assurance in higher education: Trends in regulation,
translation and transformation (pp. 15-46). Netherlands: Springer.
2. International Institute for Educational Planning. (2007a). Module 1:
Making basic choices for external quality assurance systems. In External
Quality Assurance: Options for Higher Education Managers. Paris: UNESCO.
3. Allais S. (2010), The implementation and impact of National Qualifications
Frameworks;
Report of a study in 16 countries, International Labour Office (ILO), Geneva,
skills and employability Department.
4. Villanueva N N. (2012). Assuring Qualitiy in Belizien Higher Education:
A collective case study of Institutional perspectives and practices, University of
Nebrasaka-Lincoln (http://www.newsday.co.tt/news/print,0,103720.html)
5. Cheng Y. C. (2001), Paradigm Shifts in Quality Improvement in Education:
Three Waves for the Future, Invited Plenary Speech Presented at The
International Forum on Quality Education for the Twenty-first CenturyNCo-
organized by UNESCO-PROAP, National Commission for UNESCO of
Ministry of Education, and National Institute of Educational Research, Beijing,
China, 12-15 June 2001.
6. NBTE (2018), Institutionalization of National Skills Qualification in Nigeria,

Quality assurance in education; case of nsq in nigeria

Quality assurance in education; case of nsq in nigeria

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (20)

Similar to Quality assurance in education; case of nsq in nigeria

Similar to Quality assurance in education; case of nsq in nigeria (20)

More from Yusuf A. KHALIL

More from Yusuf A. KHALIL (7)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Quality assurance in education; case of nsq in nigeria