Project Report on Monoclonal antibodies By Vanshika

1
A PROJECT REPORT ON
MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES
(HYBRIDOMA TECHNOLOGY)
Dissertation
Submitted in partial fulfilment of requirements for the
Master Degree of Science in
Zoology
by
Vanshika Beniwal
under the supervision of
Assistant Professor Meenu
[E-mail: meenupachouri@gmail.com]
Department of Zoology
Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak

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DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE
This is to declare that, I, VANSHIKA BENIWAL, a student of M.Sc.
Zoology (4th Semester), MKMKM, Maharshi Dayanand University,
Rohtak, Haryana have completed dissertation project at MKM, Hodal
from April 2021’ to June 2021’ under the supervision of Assistant
Professor Meenu, Department of Zoology, Maharshi Dayanand
University, Rohtak.
Vanshika Beniwal
M. Sc. Zoology (4th Semester)
MKMKM, MDU, Rohtak

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My work would not have been possible without the help of many people. I would like to
thank Assistant Professor Meenu, Department of Zoology, Maharshi Dayanand
University, Rohtak, for the opportunity to join the lab, sincere guidance, faithful advice,
assistance, and every help through the work. A debt of gratitude is owned to Meenu
Ma’am for every kind of academic, moral and lab facilities support. Thanks for correcting
me for the points I was wrong.
My appreciation also extends to my batch fellow. Their encouragement has been
especially valuable for sustaining a positive atmosphere. I could not have hoped for a
more welcoming and supportive group of peers.
Thank you, Department of Zoology, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak, for keeping
me safe through so many months of quarantine and for being the absolute best.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Particulars Slide No.
DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS 4
MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES 5-38
Abstract 6
Keywords 7
Introduction 8-11
Antibodies 8
Monoclonal & Polyclonal 8
Structure of an antibody 9-11
Analysis 12-37
History and Development 13
Preparation of Monoclonal Antibodies 14
Practical steps for production 15
Hybridoma Technology Principle 16-17
Production of Monoclonal Antibody 18-21
Physicochemical characterization 22
Immunological properties & Biological activity 23
Purity, impurity and contaminants & Quality 24
Specifications & Identity 25
Purity and Impurities 26
Potency & Quantity 27
Types of Monoclonal Antibodies 28
Major Applications 29-33
Applications & Characters of Monoclonal Antibodies 34-35
Current scenario and Future perspective 36
Advantages & Disadvantages of using Monoclonal Antibodies 37

Monoclonal Antibodies
ABSTRACT:
 Monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) are a kind of immunological instrument that has
been employed in immunology, biotechnology, biochemistry, and applied biology for a
protracted time.
 Georges Kohler of West Germany and Cesar Milstein of Argentina spearheaded the
creation of monoclonal antibodies using hybridoma innovation in 1975.
 Modern MAb research from laboratories all around the world is revealing new uses in a
variety of fields.
 MAbs have recently become popular in the realm of clinical medicine . MAbs presently
make up 33% of all new restorative treatments for bosom malignancy, leukemia, joint
inflammation, relocate dismissal, asthma, and psoriasis, with a lot more late-stage
clinical preliminaries in progress.
 We will examine (I) MAb make, (ii) MAb application, (iii) counter acting agent
designing, and (iv) MAb drug applications in this survey. The utilization of monoclonal
antibodies as a particle for comprehension and checking infection science, just as their
inclusion in research, clinical, demonstrative, scientific, and drug applications, is the
future capability of this audit.
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Keywords:
 Monoclonal
 Antibodies
 Clinical Research
6

INTRODUCTION:
Antibodies:
 Antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system that help it recognize and
neutralize foreign substances such as bacteria and viruses.
 Each antibody identifies a distinct antigen specific to its intended target. Antibodies
have a high specificity, making them an effective tool for detecting and measuring a wide
range of targets, including medicines, serum proteins, and microbes.
 Antibodies can be utilized to accelerate dissolvable antigens, cluster cells, opsonize
and eliminate microorganisms with the assistance of supplement, and kill drugs, harms,
and infections in vitro explores.
 An epitope is a specific area on an antigen that an antibody binds to. Multiple epitopes
for distinct antibodies can be found on a single antigen.
Monoclonal & Polyclonal:
 Monoclonal antibodies are indistinguishable antibodies created by a solitary kind of
safe cell (B cell), which are all clones of a solitary parent cell.
 Polyclonal antibodies are antibodies produced by many clones of B lymphocytes and
bind to a variety of epitopes, such as IV Immunoglobulin.
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Structure of an antibody:
 220 amino acid light chains that are identical VL (variable domain) CL is a constant
domain.
 2 hefty chains (440 amino acids each) that are identical VH 3 is a variable domain.
CH1, CH2, and CH3 are constant domains. Disulfide bonds between cysteine residues
that are covalent. “Hinge region” that is adaptable.
 Antibodies have two main purposes:
a) Antigen recognition and binding
b) After binding, trigger immunological responses.
c) The variable region determines a certain antigen's affinity.
d) Absolute specificity for an antigen is conferred by the variable region. After binding,
the constant region mediates the immunological response.
e) Isotypes are produced by distinct classes of constant areas.
f) Antibody isotypes differ in their characteristics. Function of Antibodies Region that
does not change region that is changeable.
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Antibodies as Medicines Antibodies are found in nature, and the discovery of their
inherent features hinted at their enormous therapeutic potential. Binding with a high
degree of specificity Already existing in the body, it has the ability to activate and couple
immune system components. Antibodies have become a feasible modern medication
due to structural changes and refining of production methods.
Paul Ehrlich introduced the concept of a “magic bullet” at the turn of the twentieth
century, claiming that if a molecule could be created that selectively targeted a disease-
causing bacterium, then a poison for that organism might be supplied alongside the
selectivity agent. Greg Winter and his team were the first to develop strategies to
humanize monoclonal antibodies in 1988, reducing the responses that many monoclonal
antibodies provoked in some patients.
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ANALYSIS:
Hybridoma Technology was invented in 1975. Cesar Milstein and George Kohler found a
way for obtaining huge volumes of a MAb The Nobel Prize in Medicine was awarded in
1988.
Greg Winter and colleagues pioneered the technology for humanizing monoclonal
antibodies in 1988. Muromonab-CD3 was the first monoclonal antibody to hit the market
in 1986.
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History and Development:
 The term “magic bullets” was invented by Paul Enrlich around the turn of the twentieth
century, and he proposed that if a molecule could be created that selectively targets a
disease-causing organism, then a poison for that organism may be supplied alongside the
selectivity agent.
 Multiple myeloma, a B-cell malignancy, was first discovered in the 1970s. It was previously
thought that all of these malignant B-cells produced the same sort of antibody (a paraprotein).
 Kohler and Milstein got the Nobel Prize in 1984 for providing the most remarkable
demonstration of the clonal selection hypothesis by fusing normal and malignant cells
(Hybridoma technology) in 1975.
 In 1986, the FDA authorized the first monoclonal antibody.
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Preparation of Monoclonal Antibodies:
 Cell lines or clones derived from vaccinated animals with the compounds to be
examined are used to manufacture monoclonal antibodies, or mAb.
 B cells from the immunized animal are fused with myeloma cells to create cell lines.
 The cells must be cultured in one of two methods to produce the necessary mAB: in
vivo (injection into the peritoneal cavity of an appropriately prepared mouse) or in vitro
(tissue culture).
 The procedure utilized when the cells are cultured outside the mouse's body in flask is
known as vitro tissue culture.
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Practical steps for production:
1. Vaccination of the animal is required.
2. Spleen cells should be isolated (containing antibody-producing B cell).
3. Fusion of spleen and myeloma cells (using PEG).
4. Allow the B cell that hasn't fused to die.
5. Aminopterin is added to the culture to kill unfused myeloma cells.
6. Clone the leftover cells (insert one cell per well and enable each cell to grow into
clones).
7. Check each clone's supernatant for the presence of the required antibody.
8. Indefinitely grow a selected clone of cells in tissue culture.
9. Antibody can be extracted from the culture. 1000-2000 dollars per milligrams.
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Hybridoma Technology Principle:
Myeloma cells have lost the ability to coordinate hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyl
transferees (HGPRT), a compound key for the salvage association of nucleic acids,
which awards cells to arrange purines utilizing an external wellspring of hypoxanthine as
a predecessor through the salvage pathway.
HAT media is the name of the selective culture media (Hypoxanthine, Aminopterin, and
Thymidine). Because unfused myeloma cells lack HGPRT, they are unable to proliferate.
On account of their short life expectancy, unfused typical spleen cells can't develop
consistently.
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PRODUCTION OF MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY
Ab titre reached in Serum
PRODUCTION OF MONOCLONAL ANTIBODYHYBRIDOMA TECHNOLOGY
Step 1: - Inoculation of mice and determination of a mouse contributor for Hybridoma cell
creation. Serum Antigen (Intact cell/Whole cell layer/microorganisms) Ab titre accomplished +
ADJUVANT (emulsification).
HYBRIDOMA TECHNOLOGY
Step 2: - Following half a month of immunization, mice were tried for immunizer creation.
Antibody Titre in Serum Determination (ELISA/Flow Cytometry) Titre is too low; Titre is too
high; Titre is too low; Titre is too high; Ti IMPROVE (Pure antigen) IMPROVE (Pure antigen).
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PRODUCTION OF MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY HYBRIDOMA TECHNOLOGY
Step 3: - Azaguanine +8 Myeloma Cell Preparation Myeloma Cells HGPRT-High Viability
and Rapid Growth Myeloma Cells Immortal Lymphocyte Tumor Myeloma Cells HGPRT-
High Viability and Rapid Growth.
Step 4: - Myeloma Cell Fusion with Immune Spleen Cells and Hybridoma Cell Selection
PEGFUSION is a term used to describe the process of SPLEEN CELLS FROM
MYELOMA Plating of Cells in HAT Selective Medium Feeder Cells Growth Medium
HYBRIDOMA CELLSELISA PLATEHAT Medium Scanning of Viable Hybridomas.
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Step 5: - Cloning of Hybridoma Cell Lines by "Restricting Dilution" or Expansion is the fifth
step.
A. Make a clone of each +VE Culture.
B. Antibodies should be tested in each supernatant.
C. Increase the number of +ve clones Method of Tissue Culture Method for Ascites in Mice.
PURIFICATION TECHNIQUES
Cells, cell trash, lipids, and coagulated material are ordinarily taken out first utilizing an um
channel.
Chromatography: The majority of charged impurities, such as nucleic acids and endotoxins,
are anions. Particle trade chromatography is oftentimes used to isolate them.
Protein A affinity chromatography is a considerably faster method of separation. Since the
counter acting agent ties to Protein A lone, an undeniable degree of immaculateness is
accomplished. This approach, however, is not recommended for antibodies that have a short
half-life.
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Process and Evaluation:
Characterization of monoclonal antibodies:
 Physicochemical characterization
 Immunological properties
 Biological activity
 Purity, impurity and contaminants
 Quantity
Specifications:
 Identity
 Purity and impurities
 Potency
 Quantity
 General tests
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Physicochemical characterization:
 A physicochemical characterization programme will typically comprise determining the
monoclonal antibody's class, subclass, light chain composition, and main structure.
 The heavy chain of an antibody determines its class or subclass. Antibodies are
divided into five categories: M, G, A, E, and D. Depending on the class, different
methods of antibody purification will be used.
 DNA sequencing ought to be utilized to decide the amino corrosive grouping, which
should then be approved tentatively utilizing suitable strategies (for example peptide
planning, amino corrosive sequencing, mass spectrometry investigation).
 The variety of N-and C-terminal amino-corrosive arrangements (for example C-
terminal lysine(s)) ought to be explored.
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Immunological properties:
 To assess partiality, enthusiasm, and immuno-reactivity, restricting tests of the counter acting
agent to unadulterated antigens and determined segments of antigens ought to be performed
whenever the situation allows (counting cross reactivity with other fundamentally homologous
proteins).
 It’s important to keep track of unintentional reactivity/cytotoxicity in human tissues that aren't
the intended target.
 It is necessary to define the epitope and the molecule that bears the relevant epitope. To the
degree conceivable, this ought to include biochemical recognizable proof of these
constructions (e.g., protein, oligosaccharide, glycoprotein, glycolipid) just as related portrayal
examinations (amino corrosive arrangement, starch structure).
Biological activity:
 Appropriate in vitro assays should be used to determine biological activity (i.e., a product's
specific aptitude or capability to generate a defined biological effect) (s).
 In cases where in vivo assays are required, their usage should be adequately supported.
 The method of action, as well as the significance (or repercussions) of the product’s effect or
functions in terms of the product's safety and efficacy, should be discussed.

Purity, impurity and contaminants:
 The assurance of physicochemical boundaries like sub-atomic weight or size, elimination
coefficient, electrophoretic profiles, chromatographic information, and spectroscopic profiles
are generally instances of these techniques.
 Utilizing chromatographic methods, potential cycle related pollutants (for example HCP, have
cell DNA, cell culture deposits, downstream handling buildups) ought to be distinguished and
examined subjectively or potentially quantitatively.
 Impurities, which incorporate any incidentally presented things that are not proposed to be
important for the creation cycle (e.g., microbial species, endotoxins), ought to be kept away
from and additionally fittingly managed.
Quality:
 A physicochemical and/or immunochemical assay should be used to determine quantity.
 It must be shown that the amount values obtained are proportional to those acquired using
the biological assay.
 When this link exists, it may be more suitable to employ amount measurement rather than
biological activity measurement in product labeling and production operations like filling.
23

Specifications:
 Specifications are one aspect of a comprehensive control approach aimed to maintain
product quality and consistency, and the product should meet its specifications when tested.
 Determinations ought to be set up, and significant quality credits recognized in portrayal
studies ought to be thought of.
 The tests to be remembered for the necessities are picked dependent on the item.
It’s important to explain how the acceptable range of acceptance criteria was determined.
Identity:
 The personality test(s) ought to be unmistakable and dependent on remarkable parts of the
item's sub-atomic design and additionally other particular attributes (for example peptide map,
hostile to idiotype immunoassay, or other suitable technique).
 Since the consistent spaces of various antibodies are so comparative, more than one test
(physicochemical, natural, as well as immunochemical) might be needed to decide character,
and such test(s) ought to have the option to recognize different antibodies delivered at a
similar office.
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Purity and Impurities:
 Monoclonal antibodies, as referenced in the portrayal area, can have a perplexing
immaculateness/debasement profile that ought to be surveyed utilizing a blend of
symmetrical techniques, and for which individual or potentially aggregate
acknowledgment rules for important item related variations ought to be set up.
 Partition techniques dependent on charge heterogeneity, for instance, are utilized to
screen charge variety quantitatively and subjectively.
 Given that glycosylation may influence the item's pharmacokinetics and change its
immunogenic characteristics, satisfactory worthiness models for this component ought to
be assessed. Moreover, such assessments will guarantee the item's consistency.

Potency:
 Strength is a quantitative proportion of natural action dependent on an item trait
connected to the organic characteristics being referred to. A significant intensity measure
ought to be remembered for the necessities for the medication substance and
additionally drug item, and it ought to preferably reflect natural action in a clinical setting.
 At the point when appropriately advocated, a power test that evaluates restricting to
the objective (for example restricting measure) is appropriate for antibodies whose
clinical viability is exclusively founded on restricting/killing characteristics.
Quantity:
 The amount of the medication substance is resolved chromatographically utilizing a
reference standard, which is usually founded on protein content (mass).
 Assam downtown University's Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science 35 2.5 General tests
Where suitable, the appearance, solvency, pH, osmolality, extractable volume, sterility,
bacterial endotoxins, stabilizer, and water are assessed.
26

Types of Monoclonal Antibodies:
Counter acting agent from a mouse The whole neutralizer is gotten from a murine
source. Decreased cytotoxicity incitement is one of the significant issues related with
murine antibodies. Complex development with continued dosing, hypersensitive
reactions, and anaphylactic stun are generally potential results.
Murine variable regions are fused to human constant regions to create chimeric
antibodies: Antibodies are comprised of around 65% human cells. Accordingly,
immunogenicity is decreased, and serum half-life is expanded.
Humanised Mab: Humanized antibodies are made by joining hyper variable amino
corrosive areas from mice into human antibodies. Thus, the particle has a human
beginning of around 95%. These tight spot to antigens just inconsistently.
Human Monoclonal antibody: Human monoclonal antibodies are made by
embeddings human immunoglobulin qualities into the murine genome, at that point
immunizing the transgenic mice against the antigen of interest, bringing about the age of
monoclonal antibodies.
27

Major Applications:
(1) Diagnostic Applications: Diagnostic Applications consists of Biochemical analysis
and Diagnostic Imaging
(2) Therapeutic Applications: Therapeutic Application consists of Direct use of MAbs as
therapeutic agents, as well as MAbs as targeting agents.
(3) Protein Purification
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Biochemical analysis
 In the laboratory, it’s commonly employed in radioimmunoassays (RIA) and enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assays (ELISA).
 Insulin, human chorionic gonadotropin, growth hormone, progesterone, thyroxine,
triiodothyronine, thyroid stimulating hormone) and a variety of other tissue and cell products
(blood group antigens, blood clotting factors, interferons, interleukins, tumour markers) are all
measured in these assays. Pregnancy, for example, can be detected by measuring the levels
of human chorionic gonadotropin in the urine. In colorectal cancer, plasma carcinoembryonic
antigen is estimated, whereas prostate specific antigen is estimated in prostate cancer.
Diagnostic imaging
 MAbs that have been radiolabeled are utilised in immunoscintigraphy, which is a tool for
diagnosing illnesses. Iodine—131 and technetium—99 are two radioisotopes routinely used to
identify MAb. The radioisotope-tagged MAb is administered intravenously into the patients.
 These MAbs bind to specific places (such as a tumour), which can be detected by
radioactivity imaging. Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) cameras have
been adopted in recent years to provide a more sensitive three-dimensional appearance of
spots localized by radiolabeled—MAbs.
 Myocardial infarction, DVT, atherosclorosis, and so on.
29

Direct use of MAbs as therapeutic agents:
• MAbs aid in the destruction of disease-causing organisms by promoting effective
opsonization (the coating of pathogenic organisms with antibody) and phagocytosis.
• In the immunosuppression of organ transplantation: Immunosuppressive medications such
as cyclosporin and prednisone are commonly used in medical practice to prevent organ
transplant rejection. MAbs specific to T-lymphocyte surface antigens have been employed for
this purpose in recent years.
• Cancer treatment: MAbs that target antigens on the surface of cancer cells are effective in
cancer treatment. The antibodies bind to cancer cells and kill them in a variety of ways.
• In the fight against AIDS, geneticists have succeeded in attaching the Fc component of a
mouse monoclonal antibody to a human CD4 molecule. This complex binds to the membrane
glycoprotein gp120 of virus-infected cells with a high affinity. The Fc fragment causes HIV-
infected cells to be destroyed by cell-mediated mechanisms.
30

MAbs as targeting agents
 The medications can be combined with MAb (antibodies directed against a cell surface
antigen of the cells, such as a tumour) and tailored to the exact site of action. For example,
alkaline phosphatase is used to convert phosphate pro-drugs. Inactive carboxyl pro-drugs
are converted to active medicines by carboxyl peptidase. Lactamase is an enzyme that
hydrolyzes antibiotics with a -lactam ring.
 MAbs in blood clot dissolution: Fibrin is a significant component of blood clots that is
destroyed by plasmin. Plasmin is generated when plasminogen is activated by
plasminogen activator. Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) is a therapeutic drug that can be
used to dissolve blood clots.
 When specific lipid molecules are exposed to an aqueous environment, liposomes
develop as sacs or vesicles.
 For therapeutic delivery, medication entrapped in liposomes coated with MAbs directed
against tissue-specific antigens is being tested.
 Unfortunately, this method has made little headway since such liposomes do not reach
the target cells. They are usually retained and destroyed in the liver and spleen
(reticuloendothelial cells).
31

Protein Purification
 Any protein can be made into monoclonal antibodies. And the MAb created in this
manner can be used to purify the protein against which it was created.
 MAbs columns can be made by combining them with Sepharose activated with
cyanogen bromide (chromatographic matrix). This approach of immobilizing MAbs is
highly useful for purifying proteins using the immuno-affinity approach.
 MAbs have a number of advantages when it comes to protein purification. The Mab’s
selectivity in binding to the targeted protein, very efficient elution from the
chromatographic column, and high degree of purification are just a few of them.
32

Applications of Monoclonal Antibodies
Applications for Diagnostics Microarrays & Biosensors Applications in Medicine Rejection of a
transplant Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a condition that affect Inflammatory illness,
Cancer, Infectious Diseases Applications in the Clinic Future Applications: Purification of
medicines, Imaging of the target Bioterrorism must be combated.
Characters of monoclonal Antibodies
 Monoclonal antibodies (mABs) are identical antibodies directed against a single epitope
(antigen, antigenic determinant) and produced by B-cell clones from a single parent or a single
hybridoma cell line.
 The fusion of one B-cell lymphocyte with a myeloma cell produces a hybridoma cell line.
 Single mAB antibodies are naturally synthesised by some myelma cells.
33

Side effects more common side effects
Hives or itching are examples of allergic reactions. Chills, lethargy, fever, and muscle
aches and pains are flu-like symptoms. Nausea, diarrhoea, and rashes on the skin.
Rare – more serious side effects
Reactions of infusion. Severe allergy-like reactions might happen, and in rare situations,
death can result. Low blood cell numbers are extremely dangerous. Red blood cells,
white blood cells, and platelets are all in decline. Problems with the heart Certain
monoclonal antibodies have been linked to heart failure and a slight risk of myocardial
infarction. There is blood on the floor. Some monoclonal antibody medicines work by
preventing cancer cells from establishing new blood arteries. These drugs have been
linked to bleeding in the past.
Monoclonal antibodies for cancer treatment
Mechanisms that might be involved in cancer treatment Blocking downstream signaling
via binding to a key receptor. Receptors are turned off. ADCC Immunomodulation
(Antibody-dependent Cell-Medicated Cytotoxicity).
34

Current scenario and Future perspective
 Market for Monoclonal Antibodies is Growing In the near future, the expanding number of
licensed products on the market will increase the prevalence of monoclonal antibodies.
 The FDA has approved about 75 monoclonal antibodies for human use to treat a variety of
diseases and illnesses, including cancer, chronic inflammatory illnesses, transplantation,
infectious disorders, and cardiovascular illnesses.
 Glenmark is requesting authorization from the Medicines and Healthcare Products
Regulatory Agency (MHRA) in the United Kingdom to begin Phase I clinical trials for one of its
mAb candidates, GBR 900, which targets TrkA, the nerve growth factor receptor, to treat
chronic pain.
Because of its large patient base, increasing economy, sufficient talent, and inexpensive
R&D costs, India is a fertile ground for the mAb market.
35

Advantages of using Monoclonal Antibodies:
 Monoclonal antibodies are less expensive to develop than conventional medications
because they are based on proven technology.
 Using mice-human hybrid cells or antibody fractions, side effects can be treated and
eliminated.
 They bind to diseased or damaged cells that need to be treated.
 They deal with a wide spectrum of ailments.
Disadvantages of using Monoclonal Antibodies:
 This is a time-consuming job that could take anywhere from 6 to 9 months to complete.
 They are quite expensive and require a lot of effort to create.
 Antigens made up of small peptides and fragments may not be suitable because monoclonal
antibodies may fail to detect the original antigen.
 Contamination of hybridoma culture is a possibility.
 The system is only well developed for a small number of animals and not for others.
 During the fusion process, more than 99 percent of the cells die, limiting the number of
effective antibodies that can be generated against an antigen.
 It has the potential to cause immunogenicity.
36

CONCLUSION:
Monoclonal antibodies are immunoglobulins that are identical and are produced from a
single B-cell clone. Unique epitopes, or binding sites, on a single antigen are recognized
by these antibodies. Monoclonal antibodies are distinguished from polyclonal antibodies
by their origin in a single B-cell clone and subsequent targeting of a single epitope.
Antibodies generated from multiple cell lines are known as polyclonal antibodies. Their
amino acid sequences differ.
37

Project Report on Monoclonal antibodies By Vanshika

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