Pelagic environment and ecology (2)
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BASIC LECTURE ON PELAGIC PREDATION
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Pelagic environment and ecology (2)
- 1. Pelagic Ecology and Environments (2): PELAGIC PREDATORS
- 2. Food Chain (Trophic Levels) https://www.britannica.com/science/trophic-level
- 4. Pelagic Predators “Pelagic predators (larger elasmobranchs, teleost fishes, squid, sea turtles, seabirds, and marine mammals) congregate in the photic zone, often in regions of increased primary production such as ocean current divergences or convergences, regions of localized upwelling, fronts, or eddies. They are generally large in body size compared to other marine predators with relatively high metabolic rates. The combination of these factors leads to relatively high average daily prey requirements. ”
- 5. Elasmobranchs Teleost Fishes Squid Sea Turtles Seabirds Marine Mammals Humans
- 7. “The diversity of living fishes. Below is a brief listing of higher taxonomic categories of living fishes, in phylogenetic order. This list is meant as an introduction to major groups of living fishes as they will be discussed in the initial two sections of this book. Many intermediate taxonomic levels, such as infraclasses, subdivisions, and series, are not presented here; they will be detailed when the actual groups are discussed in Part III. Only a few representatives of interesting or diverse groups are listed. Taxa and illustrations from Nelson (2006). “ http://www.sisal.unam.mx/labeco/LAB_ECOLOGIA /Ecologia_de_peces_files/The%20Diversity%20of% 20Fishes%20Biology,%20Evolution,%20and%20Eco logy%20- %20Helfman,%20Collette,%20Fracey%20%26amp %3B%20Bowen,%202009.pdf
- 13. “Geographic Displacement Series of ecological counterparts of the California halibut”
- 15. Some Common Pelagic Prey Species (“Forage Fish”) Anchovies -- Engraulis mordax (“North Pacidic Anchovy” / “California Anchovy”) Sardines -- Sardinops sagax caerulea (“Pacific Sardine”) Herring -- Clupea harengus (“Atlantic Herring”) Shad -- Alosa sapidissima, (Wilson, 1811) (“American Shad”) Flying Fish -- Exocoetus volitans (Linnaeus 1758) (“Blue Flying Fish”) Menhaden -- Ethmidium maculatum (“Pacific Menhaden”)
- 23. Elasmobranchs “Elasmobranchs (sharks and rays) are a key group of marine predators, suspected to mediate trophic cascades as top or meso-predatory species (Myers et al., 2007; Baum and Worm, 2009; Heithaus et al., 2012). In recent years, these species have attracted increasing scientific concern due to the large declines in their population abundances (FAO, 1999; Baum and Myers, 2004; Ferretti et al., 2008, 2010) and a greater understanding of their ecological importance (Heupel et al., 2014) and high vulnerability to extinction risk (Camhi et al., 2008; García et al., 2008; Dulvy et al., 2014).” -- D. Das and P. Afonso “Review of the Diversity, Ecology, and Conservation of Elasmobranchs in the Azores Region, Mid-North Atlantic,” Front. Mar. Sci., 06 November 2017 https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2017.00354/full
- 27. Teleosts [“Bony”] Fishes “Teleosts are the largest and most diverse group of vertebrates, and many species undergo morphological, physiological, and behavioral transitions, “metamorphoses,” as they progress between morphologically divergent life stages. The larval metamorphosis that generally occurs as teleosts mature from larva to juvenile involves the loss of embryo-specific features, the development of new adult features, major remodeling of different organ systems, and changes in physical proportions and overall phenotype. Yet, in contrast to anuran amphibians, for example, teleost metamorphosis can entail morphological change that is either sudden and profound, or relatively gradual and subtle.” -- “Metamorphosis in Teleosts,” K.McMenamin and David M.Parichy Current Topics in Developmental Biology Volume 103, 2013, Pages 127-165 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/teleost
- 34. Pelagic Squid “Cephalopods play an integral role in open-ocean marine ecosystems as dominant prey for many seabirds, marine mammals, and fishes, and as major predators of fishes and invertebrates… “Squid are short-lived ecological opportunists, and extremely rapid growth rates and population turnover rates allow squid to respond quickly to environmental and ecosystem change. Pelagic squid can rapidly respond to ‘vacuums’ created in the ecosystem owing to the removal of predators or competitors by fishing. The effects of rising water temperatures associated with climate change may initially appear predictable, to accelerate their fast life style. However, on closer examination, researchers have predicted an extremely complex response by inshore squid populations to climate change.” http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/PFRP/nov06mtg/squid-meeting-2006-announce.pdf
- 35. “Cephalopods, especially squids, play a central role in many, if not most, marine pelagic food webs by linking the massive biomasses of micronekton, particularly myctophid fishes, to many oceanic predators (Cox et al., 2002; Olson and Watters, 2003; Griffiths et al., 2010). Given the high trophic flux passing through the squid community, a concerted research effort on squids is critical to advancing our understanding of their role as key prey and predators. Renewed interest in squid– ecosystem dynamics is motivated by the recent remarkable range expansions and the increase in biomass of the Humboldt or jumbo squid (Dosidicus gigas) in the eastern Pacific Ocean (Field et al., 2013;Neira and Arancibia, 2013;Zeidberg and Robison, 2007) and speculation about whether climate variability and/or fishing on squid predators and competitors could have promoted the increase (Watters et al., 2008;Zeidberg and Robison, 2008). Characterized by short life spans and fast growth rates, squids may respond more readily to changes in the environment and in the trophic structure than perhaps any other mid-trophic-level organism in the open ocean (Rodhouse, 2013;Pecl and Jackson, 2008). In spite of their importance in pelagic ecosystems, squids are not well understood. In part, this is because of their ability to largely avoid capture by conventional marine sampling techniques. Other factors, such as their complex taxonomy and minimal retention in stomachs (Olson and Boggs, 1986), have meant that detailed information on their role in many ocean ecosystems is lacking. However, a considerable amount of data on squids as prey, based on the presence of indigestible beaks in stomach contents, has been amassed over the last three decades. These data are now being complemented by new technologies, including those able to track squid movements (e.g. archival and satellite tags), and biochemical techniques capable of identifying trophic position and the biochemical traces of squids in the tissues of their predators, are helping to resolve some of the questions surrounding squids.” https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236878111_The_r ole_of_squids_in_pelagic_ecosystems_An_overview
- 36. Squid Fishing at night Catalina Island, Southern California https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Z5-ylCRtfI
- 41. Life Cycle of Sea Turtles https://oliveridleyproject.org/life-cycle-of-turtles
- 43. Green Turtles
- 51. Albatrosses
- 52. Albatrosses (Diomedeidae) “The albatrosses are under extensive taxonomic reclassification, and number between 14 and 24 species. Post-breeding movements of albatrosses are mostly longitudinal; no species undertakes transequatorial movements. These birds range long distances from their colonies during the nonbreeding period as well as during foraging trips undertaken while they are breeding. For example, six wandering albatrosses equipped with satellite transmitters flew 3660–15,200 km during single foraging trips after being relieved by their mates from incubation duties at the nest. Even breeding waved albatrosses (Phoebastria irrorata), with the smallest pelagic range among the group, have a round- trip commute of no less than 2000 km between the breeding colony on the Galapagos Islands and the nearest edge of their foraging area along the coast of Ecuador and Peru. “Most albatross species range farthest from their colonies during the nonbreeding period. In fact, many species are partially migratory (as opposed to being dispersers). As explained above, these species are considered as partially migratory because individuals are found in both the wintering and breeding areas during winter, but do not winter (or winter in small numbers) between the two locations. For example, Buller's (Thalassarche bulleri), Chatham (T. eremita), Salvin's (T. salvini), and shy (T. cauta) albatrosses breed on islands near New Zealand (the first three) and Australia (shy). Although some birds stay near the colonies throughout the year, large proportions of the Buller’s, Chatham, and Salvin's albatrosses migrate at least 8500 km eastward across the South Pacific to the coast of South America, and many shy albatrosses migrate westward across the Indian Ocean to the coast of South Africa. “Three other species, the wandering, black-browed (T. melanophris), and gray-headed (T. crysostoma) albatrosses, have breeding colonies located circumpolarly across southern latitudes near 50°S. The South Georgia populations may be partially migratory, although the distinction from dispersive is not clear. South Georgian wandering albatross fly north to waters off Argentina, and then eastward to important wintering areas off South Africa. Some continue to Australian waters and may even circumnavigate the Southern Ocean. One of several of these birds equipped with a satellite transmitter averaged 690 km/day. A large proportion (c. 85%) of South Georgian black-browed albatrosses also winter off South Africa, and many South Georgian gray-headed albatrosses are thought to fly westward to waters off the Pacific coast of Chile, and then to New Zealand.”
- 59. Evolution of Marine Mammals “Abstract: The fossil record demonstrates that mammals re‐entered the marine realm on at least seven separate occasions. Five of these clades are still extant, whereas two are extinct. This review presents a brief introduction to the phylogeny of each group of marine mammals, based on the latest studies using both morphological and molecular data. Evolutionary highlights are presented, focusing on changes affecting the sensory systems, locomotion, breathing, feeding, and reproduction in Cetacea, Sirenia, Desmostylia, and Pinnipedia. Aquatic adaptations are specifically cited, supported by data from morphological and geochemical studies. ” -- M.D. Uhen “Evolution of marine mammals: Back to the sea after 300 million years,” Anatomical Record Volume 290, Issue 6, [Special Issue: Anatomical Adaptations of Aquatic Mammals] June 2007 Pages 514-522
- 61. D.P. Hocking, et al. “A behavioural framework for the evolution of feeding in predatory aquatic mammals,” 01 March, 2017 Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences Volume 284 Issue 1850 https://royalsocietypublishing. org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.201 6.2750 https://www.researchgate.net/fig ure/Revisions-to-the-prey- capture-stage-to-be-incorporated- into-our-behavioural- framework_fig2_320059166
- 62. https://www.researchgate.net/fig ure/Revisions-to-the-prey- capture-stage-to-be-incorporated- into-our-behavioural- framework_fig2_320059166 D.P. Hocking, et al. “A behavioural framework for the evolution of feeding in predatory aquatic mammals,” 01 March, 2017 Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences Volume 284 Issue 1850 https://royalsocietypublishing. org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.201 6.2750
- 66. “Factory Ships” http://www.marineinsight.com/marine/types-of-ships-marine/what-is-a-factory-ship/
- 67. Fisheries: “HOW IMPORTANT IS FISHING?” “Fishing and the activities surrounding it—processing, packing, transport, and retailing—are important at every scale, from the village level to the level of national and international macroeconomics. For one, fishing generates significant revenue. In 2000, the global fish catch was worth US$81 billion when landed at port; aquaculture production added another US$57 billion (FAO 2002a); and the inter- national fish trade totaled over US$55 billion (FAO 2002a).” http://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/pdf/fishanswer_fulltext.pdf
- 68. “Top Ten Fish Producing Nations (marine and inland, wild capture and aquaculture), 1960 and 2001” http://www.wri.org/sites/default/files /pdf/fishanswer_fulltext.pdf
- 70. “International Trade Increasingly Influences Fishing” “Trade has become a driving force in the global fishing enterprise, influencing the species of fish targeted and farmed, the intensity of fishing pressure, and, in many cases, the incentives for fishing either sustainably or destructively. Whether trade encourages overfishing or is part of its solution can’t be answered with certainty. However, it is likely that trade simply magnifies the environmental effects of existing fishing practices. Where those practices are harmful, the effects of trade will be compounded by for example, expanding the market for fish caught in this way, or by providing easier market access to illegally harvested products. Part of the problem is that the World Trade Organization (WTO) trade rules are often in conflict with trade restrictions that aim to promote sustainable fishing practices. Some steps to reconcile environment and trade rules would require granting observer status at the WTO to the UN Environment Programme and to the secretariats of international environmental treaties, incorporating the precautionary approach into WTO and other trade rules, and reducing environmentally harmful fisheries Subsidies through negotiations within the WTO and other trade bodies…” http://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/pdf/fishanswer_fulltext.pdf
- 75. “…the oceans of the world continue to suffer from the survival of the philosophy of the commons. Maritime nations still respond automatically to the shibboleth of the ‘freedom of the seas.’ Professing to believe in the ‘inexhaustible resources of the oceans,’ they bring species after species of fish and whales closer to extinction.” -- Garrett Hardin “The Tragedy of the Commons” “The Tragedy of the Commons”