1. Fig 1. Ramsar UK wetland site map.
http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/Files/UK_Ramsar_DATA_20111128.zip
UK Wetlands and Waterfowl decline: WWT conservation efforts
UK Wetlands and the WWT
In accordance to articles 1.1 and 2.1 under the convention on Wetlands created by Ramsar in
Iran in 1971 (Ramsar convention secretariat 2013) a wetland is defined as “.. Marsh, fen,
peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is
static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at
low tide does not exceed six metres.” This may also include “.. riparian and coastal zones
adjacent to the wetlands, and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than six metres at low
tide lying within the wetlands.”
In the UK many of wetland sites are crucial stopover
points and overwintering grounds for many non-native
migratory birds and wildfowl commuting throughout the
East Atlantic flyway (Worral et al 1997). Wetlands also
act as important habitats for some of the most endangered
bird species within the UK such as the Bitten, Hen
Harrier and Great Scaup all of which have been in rapid
population decline over the last decade (Birdlife
international 2001).
Within the UK there are 172 designated Ramsar wetlands
sites (figure 1). The extent of UK wetlands
predominantly comprise of floodplains, estuaries, reed
beds and ephemeral regions. Most of these wetlands are distributed along coastal regions of
the UK, supplying an abundance of physical barriers from tidal disruption as well as acting as
biological filters and sediment traps which sustain large communities of waterfowl and
waders (Ramsar 2015). Some of the most important wetlands in the UK are the Ouse Washes
and the Somerset Levels. The Ouse Washes is a special protection area and a SSSI site due to
its importance as a overwintering ground for in excess of 20,000 birds which include
wildfowl and waders (Simons 2007: Holt et al 2012). The Somerset Levels are a national
nature reserve, special protected area and SSSI site. A number of rare invertebrate species
reside within this habitat as well as the site being important for overwintering wildfowl of
which numbers can exceed 73,000 (Holt et al 2012).

2. Figure 2. WWT wetlands within the UK.
https://www.wwt.org.uk/wetland-centres/
Over the last hundred years the quality and abundance of wetlands within the UK has
deteriorated due to disruption and anthropogenic impacts on wetland hydrology. Land
development for agriculture and urban/industrial practices has led to the drainage of wetlands
so that the area can be used more “productively”, thus removing entire wetland habitats
(Purseglove 1989). These same land-use practices furthermore disrupt and damage wetland
habitat via its production and utilisation of environmentally detrimental chemicals such as
pesticides, which leech and run-off into groundwater and water systems; resulting in poorer
water quality from water sources which supply the wetlands (Callaway et al 1998). In
addition, anthropogenic impacts such as climate change are changing the distribution of UK
wetlands by altering water rainfall patterns, increasing the frequency of severe weather events
such as flooding and contributing to rising sea levels
(Landes et al 2013). Consequently UK coastal wetlands
are threatened by tidal flooding and inland wetlands are
being exploited by draining and flood management
practices which disrupt the naturally occurring habitat.
Decline in wetland habitat threatens almost one third of
British flora which are wetland dependent (Palmer &
Newbold 1983) in conjunction with removing crucial
breeding habitat for migratory and native wildlife.
The wildfowl and wetland trust (WWT) is a conservation
charity whose efforts focus on the protection and restoration of wetland habitats as well as the
conservation and re-establishment of declining waterfowl species within the UK (WWT
2015). The WWT manage nine sites throughout the UK (figure 2) by the utilisation of
specially designed land use practices which aid the restoration of wetland habitats. One such
land use practice is the implementation of reed beds as a natural filtration system, which is
fed sewage water from the wetlands so that it can be purified and returned back into the water
supply (C Whitehead, pers. Comm., 23 February). Species conservation efforts by the WWT
include captive breeding of severely threatened species such as Spoonbill sandpipers and
Hawaiian geese which were close to being extinct in the wild until the WWT successfully
captive bread a number of individuals which were consequently release into the wild (WWT
2015).

3. Plate 3. Hawaiian Goose
(Branta sandvicensis)
http://www.arkive.org/nene/branta-
sandvicensis/image-G1912.html
Endangered species; status, decline and conservation efforts
The Hawaiian Goose (Branta sandvicensis) is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and is similar
to the Canadian Goose in its appearance. The Hawaiian goose has distinctive gold neck and
cheek feathers with a solid black mask and hood (Plate 3). The
geese lay eggs during the winter months with most egg laying
occurring through November to January (Banko et al 1999). On
average females lay three eggs, incubated over 30 days in a nest
made of ground vegetation surrounded by lava rock; as the
females naturally nest around volcanoes occurring throughout
the Hawaiian Islands. Goslings are extremely vulnerable to
predation as they are flightless for three months under the care
of both parents. Hawaiian geese are historically found in rocky,
semi-barren, poorly vegetated terrain commonly occurring on
volcanic gradients (Black et al 1997). However, the species has
adapted to inhabit natural shrubland and farmland. The adult
diet consists mainly of grass and fruit which is the primary reason for their adaptation to
natural shrubland and farmland. The IUCN red list identifies the species as vulnerable,
assessing populations as at risk of further/rapid decline in the wild (Birdlife international
2012). In 2011 over 2000 individuals were recorded in the wild with most of the population
occurring on three islands within the Hawaiian archipelago; Maui, Big Island and Moloka’I
(Birdlife International 2012). The population is currently considered stable on these three
islands however previously captive bred and reintroduced birds located on other islands have
been unsuccessful in breeding in the wild and subsequently species recovery is slow and
under threat. Historically the Hawaiian Goose has been in decline due to anthropogenic
factors such as hunting and habitat loss through increased land use for agriculture and
settlements by the Polynesians and further more so by European settlers (Olson & James
1991). Currently the largest threat to the species is decline of suitable habitat for nesting
which consequently increase exposure to predators such as cats, dogs and an invasive species;
the Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropuncatus) (Black et al 1998). Following the decline of
the Hawaiian Goose population to just 30 individuals in the wild in the 1960’s, the WWT
captive bred 28 birds at their Slimbridge site which were then reintroduced to their natural
habitat in Hawaii in 1962. This effort instigated the recovery of the Hawaiian Goose species
which is now established at over 2000 individuals.

4. Plate 4. Baers Potchard (Aythya baeri)
http://www.arkive.org/baers-pochard/aythya-baeri/image-G18740.html
The Baers Pochard (Aythya baeri) is a diving duck with grey/black head feathers and light
brown/red flight feathers with a white band. They’re most identifiable by their white eye
colouration which is in sharp contrast to its dark head feathers (Plate 4). Baers Pochards settle
in breeding grounds from mid-April to June, with
egg laying occurring from May (Barter et al
2004). Nests are usually close together and in situ
with over species, even sharing nests with
Common Pochard (Birdlife International 2001).
After almost 28 days of incubation both parents
raise the offspring for up to 3 weeks after which
they will be left to learn foraging and diving skills
independently (Collar et al 2013). During the
hatching stage, if the nesting site is disturbed the parents will abandon any remaining
unhatched eggs in favour of moving to a safer site to rear their young (Birdlife International
2001). The Baers Pochard is native to many regions throughout Asia including Thailand,
Nepal, China, India and has even been established within the Russian Federation (Todd
1996). With fewer than 1000 individuals in the wild, the IUCN red list currently identifies the
species as critically endangered, determining a serious risk of extinction in the wild if efforts
aren’t taken to preserve the species (Birdlife International 2013). Rapid decline in population
has been attributed to a number of threats including hunting and wetland destruction; which
the species use as wintering breeding grounds (Chowdhury et al 2012). Hunting occurs
during the breeding season throughout Bangladesh were birds are targeted using poisoned
bait at a number of breeding sites (Chowdhury et al 2012). The complete removal of wetland
habitat via draining or water redistribution has resulted in reduced availability of suitable
breeding grounds for nesting and rearing young.
The WWT has established a captive breeding programme for the Baers Pochard at two sites
in the UK, Slimbridge and Martin mere. Established in 2013, a breeding pair of Baers
Pochard successfully bred a brood of 4 to 8 offspring which remain within the captive
breeding programme at Martin mere. The WWT’s captive breeding programme aims to
establish a safety net population of Baers Potchard in the hope of releasing captive
individuals into the wild in addition to preventing the complete extinction of the species
globally (C Whitehead, pers. Comm., 23 February).

5. Species count and identification of wildfowl and bird species of Martin mere
Table 1. Wildfowl
Wildfowl
Migratory
(M) or
non-
migratory
(NM) Count
Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) M 4
Wigeon (Anas penelope) M 9
Teal (Anas crecca) NM 10
Canada goose (Branta canadensis) NM 16
Pink footed Goose (Anser brachyrhynchus) M 21
Pintail (Anas acuta) M 26
Greylag Goose (Anser anser) NM 49
Shelduck (Tadorna tadorna) NM 51
Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) NM 148
Whooper Swan (Cygnus cygnus) M 481
Table 2. Other bird species
Other bird species
Migratory (M) or
non-migratory
(NM) Count
Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea) NM 1
Marsh Harrier (Circus aeruginosus) NM 1
Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) NM 1
Carrion Crow (Corvus corone) NM 2
Raven (Corvus corax) NM 3
Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus) NM 8
Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) M 9
Coot (Fulica atra) NM 10
Avocet (Recurvirostra avosetta) NM 11
Black backed gull (Larus fuscus) NM 27
Oystercatcher (Haematopus
ostralegus) NM 28
Observations from Martin Mere indicate that the diversity of wildfowl species is lower than
other bird species; however the wildfowl species that do occur are greater in abundance and
with more occasions of migratory birds. Wildfowl identified in table 1 are comprised mainly
of migratory bird species, of which nearly all (in particular the Whooper Swan), were present

6. at Martin Mere during the time of the observation primarily due to the time of year (February
2015) and the species utilisation of the wetland as a overwintering or breeding ground. The
presence of large volumes of overwintering wildfowl in combination with the WWT’s
wetland conservation efforts and feeding regime for wildfowl which inhabit the mere during
the winter months could be an indication as to the presence of some of the other bird species
recorded during the observation. In particular the raptors observed were seen to be preying on
Teal that inhabited the reed beds of the mere.
From table 1 there are three species of migratory wildfowl of particular interest to Martin
Mere. The Whooper Swan (Cygnus cygnus) utilise Martin Mere as an overwintering ground
in preparation for the breeding season which occurs on breeding grounds in Iceland
(Stirnemann et al 2012). The Swans migrate back to the breeding grounds in April. This
migratory route causes the birds to collide with power cables during times of low light such
as dawn and dusk, subsequently causing the death of a number of individuals every winter.
Damage done to the power cables as a result of any collision, often leaves local residents
without power. To counteract these impacts the WWT are working with local councils to
install bird deflectors which glow at low light levels (WWT 2015). The Pink footed Goose
(Anser brachyrhynchus) also utilises Martin Mere as an overwintering ground in preparation
for the breeding season which occurs from April to late June on breeding grounds located in
Greenland and Iceland (Scott & Rose 1996). The birds arrive in October at Martin Mere to
utilise the surrounding grassland and farmland for foraging and grazing. In preparation for the
arrival of the geese the WWT annually flood the wetlands to ensure optimal water levels for
the high numbers of overwintering wildfowl. This is maintained and regulated by on-site
pump houses which ensure the wetlands do not flood onto the surrounding agricultural land
(WWT 2015).
The Wigeon (Anas penelope) overwinter on Martin Mere from October until late April, after
which they return to their breeding grounds in northern Russia. The Widgeon is particularly
sensitive to disturbance of its overwintering grounds and has experienced a decline in
population as a result of decreased availability of suitable wintering grounds as a
consequence of wetland drainage for agricultural purposes (Birdlife International 2012). The
Widgeon utilise wetlands for both grazing and protection from predators, using the waters as
a safe haven. The WWT consequently ensure that water levels on the mere are at a sufficient
height to accommodate the Widgeon and protect them from predation from predators such as
the fox (WWT 2013).

7. References
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America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA
Barter, M., Chen, L., Cao, L. and Lei, G. (2004) Waterbird survey of the middle and lower
Yangtze River floodplain in late January and early February 2004. Beijing, China Forestry
Publishing House
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HdbBst92Qgs visited on 25/02/2015
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9. WWT (2015) Wildlife weekly Martin Mere – Episode 15.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BS9o9ncwj8I visited on 25/02/2015