1. Introduction of observational study
2. Advantages
3. Disadvantages
4. Application
5. Types of observational study
1) Cohort study
2) Case control study
3) Cross sectional study
Bangalore Call Girl Whatsapp Number 100% Complete Your Sexual Needs
observational study.pptx
1. Prepared By – Undhad Tushar C.
Masters Of Pharmacy Sem – 2
(Pharmacology) R.K. University
Under The Guidance Of
Dr. Pravin R. Tirgar
Ph D, M. Pharm - Pharmacology,
Professor, School Of Pharmacy,
RK University
1
2. 1. Introduction of observational study
2. Advantages
3. Disadvantages
4. Application
5. Types of observational study
1) Cohort study
2) Case control study
3) Cross sectional study
TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 2
3. INTRODUCT
ION
Definition: The population
is observed without any
interference by the
investigator.
A type of study in which
individuals are observed
or certain outcomes are
measured. No attempt is
made to affect the
outcome (for example, no
treatment is given).
TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 3
4. WHY
OBSERVATIO
NAL STUDIES
Cheaper
Can examine long
term effect
Hypothesis generation
Sometime,
experimental study are
not ethical
TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 4
7. 1. COHORT
STUDIES
A cohort study is an
observational study in
which participants are
selected and followed
forward in time, to see
how likely disease is to
develop within the
group.
Other name of cohort
study are longitudinal
study, incidence study
and forward-looking
study.
TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 7
8. 1 •Selection of study population
2 •Obtaining data on exposure
3 •Selection of comparison grp
4 •Follow up
5 •Analysis
TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 8
9. TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 9
Total 1000
population
Disease
(Lung cancer)
300
Non disease
200
Disease
(Lung cancer)
120
Non disease
380
Smoker
500
Non
smoker
500
11. TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 11
Relative risk or
Risk ratio =
Incident rate among smoker
Incident rate among nonsmoker
=
60
24
= 2.5
Means smoker having 2.5 times more
chances of developing lungs
carcinoma than nonsmoker.
12. ADVANTAGE
S
Incidence rat, relative
risk, attributable risk
can be calculated.
Provide direct estimate
of risk.
Multifactor can be
studies
simultaneously.
Minimizes recall bias.
TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 12
13. DISADVANT
AGES
Large population is
needed.
Not suitable for rare
disease.
It is time consuming
Expensive.
Certain administrative
problem like loss of
staff, loss of funding.
Ethical problem.
TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 13
14. A case control study is
define as an researcher
start by picking up case
who have already developed
particular disease and who
have not developed disease
but similar to group.
The study proceeds
backward from effect to
cause.
TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 14
15. A case control study involves two population case
and control.
Case: A person in the population or study group
identified having the particular disease, health
disorder or condition under investigator.
Control: It use a control or comparison group to
support inference.
Control must be ideally matching with the cases by
age, sex and other characteristics except the control
must not be suffering from disease.
TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 15
16. 1. Selection of case
2. Selection of controls
3. Information on exposure
4. Analysis
TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 16
17. 1. Selection of cases
Preferably new cases or incidence case.
Random selection, Convenient selection.
2.Selection of control
Control must be ideally matching with the cases by
age, sex and other characteristics except the control
must not be suffering from disease.
Hospital control, Random selection, Friend and
relative.
Control from general population.
TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 17
18. 3. Information on exposure
Observation
Interviews
Examination of records
4. Analysis
Exposure rates among the disease(case)
Exposure rates among the non disease
Odd s ratio
TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 18
19. TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 19
Total 200
population
Smoker
(80)
Nonsmoker
(20)
Smoker
(50)
Non smoker
(50)
Disease
(lung-cancer)
(100)
Non-disease
(100)
20. Disease condition smoking
Present Absent Total
Present
Lung cancer
80(a) 20(b) 100
(a+b)
Absent
Non cancer
50(c) 50(d) 100
(c+d)
TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 20
Exposure ratio among
disease (case)
=
𝑎
𝑎 + 𝑏
𝑥 =
𝑎 (80)
𝑎 + 𝑏 (100)
∗ 100 = 80%
𝑥 =
𝑎 (50)
𝑎 + 𝑏 (50)
∗ 100 = 50%
=
𝑐
𝑐 + 𝑑
Exposure ratio among non
disease (control)
21. TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 21
Odds ratio =
𝑎𝑑
𝑏𝑐
=
80 ∗ 50
20 ∗ 50
∗ 100 = 4%
Disease condition smoking
Present Absent Total
Present
Lung cancer
80(a) 20(b) 100
(a+b)
Absent
Non cancer 50(c) 50(d)
100
(c+d)
Interpretation those who are smoking having 4 times
higher chances of developing lung cancer than non smoker.
22. Minimal ethical problem
Efficient for the study of chronic disease
Less expensive than alternative designs
Multiple risk factor can be examine
Easy to carry out
Rapid and inexpensive
Rare disease investigation
No risk to subjects
TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 22
23. Selection of an appropriate comparison group may
be difficult.
Control selection is difficult.
Susceptible to recall bias.
TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 23
24. Evaluating vaccine effectiveness
Evaluation of treatment and program
Evaluation of screening
Outbreak investigation
Occupation health research
TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 24
25. Introduction:
In cross sectional study both exposure and disease
outcome are determine simultaneously for each
subject.
Cross sectional study is a study in which all the
measurement are taken particular point in time.
We identify prevalent cases of disease.
When study only measure health outcome it is
known as descriptive cross sectional study.
TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 25
26. When a study measure both exposure and health
outcome at same time it is known as analytical cross
sectional study.
Snapshot studies
Observational at a single hypothetical point in time.
TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 26
28. TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 28
Total 200
population
Disease
(80)
Non Disease
(20)
Non smoker
(100)
Disease
(50)
Non disease
(50)
Smoker
(100)
29. TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 29
Prevalence rate =
Number of prevailing cases of disease (old
and new )existing at given point of time
*1000
Estimated population at the same point of time
(multiloading factor can be chosen as appropriate )
30. TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 30
Disease condition smoking
Present Absent Total
Present
Lung cancer
80(a) 20(b) 100
(a+b)
Absent
Non cancer 50(c) 50(d)
100
(c+d)
Prevalence in non expose=
50
100
= 0.5
Prevalence in expose=
80
100
= 0.8
Prevalence ratio=
0.8
10.5
= 1.6
31. Useful in hypothesis formation
Easy to obtain prevalence (outcome and exposure )
Provide estimate of disease burden
Relative short duration
Easy and quick
Less costly
TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 31
32. With no comparison group, no formal assessment of
relationship between exposure and outcome
Not suitable for rare disease
Recall bias
TUSHAR UNDHAD Observational studies 32