Baking Science

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BPA 1060
How Baking Works
Lab Manual
Sky Schirmer
2016

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Table of Contents
Lecture Day One: Establishing a vocabulary for scientific experimentation and
sensory analysis...............................................................................................4
The effects of using different add-ins on a basic chocolate chip cookie dough. ...................9
Lecture Day Two: Flour ................................................................................... 14
Formula Day 2-Gluten Balls .......................................................................................................17
Formula Day2-Blueberry Muffins................................................................................................18
The effects of different flour types on lean doughs and the rolls that are produced................... 20
Formula Day 2 -Lean Dough ......................................................................21
Lecture Day Three- Fats and Oils..................................................................... 25
Formula Day 3-Simple Icing .......................................................................................................30
Formula Day 3-Pie Dough...........................................................................................................32
Formula Day 3-Oil Pie Dough (group 8 only)..............................................................................32
The effects of different fat and oil types on a basic sponge cake ..................................... 34
Formula Day 3-Liquid Shortening Sponge Cake .........................................................................35
Lecture Day Four- Sweeteners .......................................................................... 39
Formula Day 4-High Ratio Layer Cake Formula ..........................................................................44
Formula Day 4-Fondant ..............................................................................................................48
Effects of sugar levels in a High-Ratio Layer Cake ....................................................... 49
Formula Day 4-High Ratio Layer Cake Formula ..........................................................................50
Lecture Day Five- Eggs and Egg Products........................................................... 54
Formula Day 5-French/Common Meringue ................................................................................57
Formula Day 5-Swiss Meringue ..................................................................................................57
Formula Day 5-Egg Board Meringue ..........................................................................................57
Formula Day 5-Italian Meringue .................................................................................................57
Formula Day 5-Vegan Meringue.................................................................................................58
Formula Day 5- Oatmeal Cookies ...............................................................................................60
Effect of different egg substitutes in a liquid-shortening cake........................................ 62
Formula Day 5-Liquid Shortening Sponge Cake .........................................................................63
Lecture Day Six- Thickening and Gelling Agents ................................................. 67
Formula Day 6- Flavored Liquid .................................................................................................73
Formula Day 6 –Comparison of thickening agents......................................................................73
Formula Day 6- Stabilized Heavy Cream ....................................................................................74
Formula Day 6-Coconut Milk .....................................................................................................76
Formula Day 6-Coconut Jelly ......................................................................................................76
Effect of thickening agents in a basic pastry cream formula.......................................... 77
Formula Day 6- Pastry Cream.....................................................................................................78
Lecture Day Seven: Chocolate and cocoa / Fat Replacers...................................... 82
Formula Day 7- Fudge Brownies.................................................................................................84
The effect of cocoa and chocolate replacements in a basic chocolate brownie formula ...... 86
Formula Day 7-Chocolate Brownies............................................................................................87
Lecture Day Eight- Gluten Free Bread Dough and Chemical leaveners ................... 91
Formula Day 8- Biscuits ..............................................................................................................93
Formula Day 8- Baking Powder Substitute # 1 and Substitute# 2 ................................................93
Formula Day 8- Lean Dough .......................................................................................................96
Formula Day 8- Gluten Free Lean Dough....................................................................................96

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Formula Day 8- Seasoned Gluten Free Dough ............................................................................97
Sky Schirmer ................................................................................................102
Background..........................................................................................................103
Formulas .............................................................................................................104
Control .....................................................................................................................................104
Replacement #1........................................................................................................................104
Replacement #2........................................................................................................................105
Results.................................................................................................................106
Works Cited..........................................................................................................107

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Lecture Day One: Establishing a
vocabulary for scientific experimentation
and sensory analysis
• Scales and accuracy
o Don’t be fooled, the accuracy and precision of a scale is entirely dependent upon the way in
which the scale is designed.
§ Compare a baker’s scale that goes to ¼ ounces to a digital scale that goes to 1g
intervals. Which is more accurate and why?
§ Scale’s readability: what does the following mean?
• 4.0 kg X 7 g?
4 kilograms is the scale capacity (4000g) x 7 grams is the increment (readability
or smallest quantity the scale will display
o Note that 7 grams is about .25 ounces which is the same relative
accuracy as a good baker’s scale
• Conversions:
1 ounce = 28.35 grams (28.4g)
1 pound = 453.6 grams (454g)
• Gram scale versus ounce scale
o Consider that there are 28.35 grams in an ounce
o Thus if you have a scale that has a readability of one gram versus one that has the readability
of 1/4 ounce then it is clear that the gram scale is more accurate.
Heat Transfer
• Four processes we will discuss: radiation, conduction, convection, induction
• Radiation
o The rapid transfer of heat through space from a warmer object to the surface of a cooler one
o Sometimes referred to as an indirect heat because heat energy is transferred without direct
contact.
§ The molecules on the surface of an object absorb heat rays and begin to vibrate.
Consequently, the vibration generates frictional heat within the object.
• Toasters, broilers, heat lamps and conventional ovens all use radiation
o In baking radiant heat is important because a large amount of heat is
radiated off of hot oven walls. This is why there can sometimes be hot
spots, why sheet pans should be rotated.
o Dark surfaces absorb and radiate more heat than shiny surfaces:
consider bricks in a hearth oven
o Realize that radiant heat only heats the surface of the food
o Radiation is also a term used for the transfer of microwave energy. (See page 16 in the book
for more info on microwave cooking)

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• Conduction
o Conduction is what happens when heat passes from a hot area of an object to a cooler area.
The heat is passed from molecule to molecule.
§ One molecule absorbs heat and vibrates and it passes that heat to the next molecule and
so on.
§ Direct contact is needed for this heat transfer to occur so it is called a form of direct
heat transfer. Be aware of carryover cooking
§ Radiant heat heats the sheet pan and it is through conduction that the heat is transferred
through the pan and through the cookies.
§ Radiant heat transfers heat through the air (line of people ball simply tossed from the
first to the last person) while conduction passes the heat from person to person. This is,
therefore, a slower form of heat transfer.
§ But the rate of heat transfer also depends upon the materials through which the heat is
being transferred.
• Solids in which the molecules are closer together usually conduct heat faster
than liquids or air in which the molecules are further apart.
Consider a water bath or a double boiler, both traditional ways of heating up a
Prod
uct slowly and carefully.
The type of bake ware used will also make a difference.
• Consider the difference in temperature of marble or wood or stainless steel. If
they are all in the same bakeshop why do they feel different to the touch?
• It has to do with the speed at which they conduct heat. Marble and stainless
steel, for instance, conduct heat faster away from the body to the marble than
wood. Thus, the marble feels colder to the touch.
• Convection
o Convection involves the constant movement of cold currents of air or liquid toward warmer
currents.
§ It is like an invisible hand because cold currents sink and hot currents rise thus as the
cold currents fall they are falling closer to the heat source, and in turn heating up and
then rising. A constant stirring type of motion.
§ Convection currents of the type described above are at play in all ovens but the same
movement can be exaggerated if the air is forced to circulate. – Fans
§ Advantages and disadvantages of convection oven??
• Induction
o Needs special equipment, a smooth ceramic surface over coils that generate a strong magnetic
field.
§ This magnetic field causes molecules in a pan to rapidly flip, generating frictional heat
within the pan. The pan usually heats up quickly (note the heavy bottoms of induction
pans) and the heat is quickly transferred from the pan to the food via conduction
• First consider that all baking formulas contain the following categories of ingredients:
o Structure builders or Tougheners

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o Tenderizers
o Moisteners
o Driers
• Structure builders/ Tougheners
o These are ingredients that hold the volume and shape of baked goods
o Think of them as the skeletal structure of baked goods. The amount of structure builders in a
product depends upon that specific product too many structure builders will make a product
tough (thus, they are sometimes referred to as tougheners).
§ Can you think of a product where strong structure builders are desirable? What about
one in which they are not?
§ Examples of structure builders:
• Flour, eggs, cocoa powder and starch
• Tenderizers
o The exact opposite of structure builders, they get in the way of structure builders forming any
kind of structure, or a strong structure.
§ Why would a certain amount of tenderizers be a positive? Can you think of an example
where they are not a positive?
§ Examples of tenderizers:
• Sugars, syrups, fats, oils, leavening agents
• Moisteners
o Pretty obvious examples:
§ Water, milk, eggs, cream, syrups, oils
• Driers
o Opposite of moisteners
o They absorb moisture.
o Examples of driers
§ Flour, cornstarch, dry milk solids, cocoa powder
• Notice that one ingredient may be found in more than one category and as we move through the
course you will see that how sometimes the ‘identity’ we give a specific ingredient will change due
to the specific method of preparation in which it is used.
The Baking Process
Realize that although these processes are divided up into separate steps, many of them occur at or around
the same time.
1. Fats melt

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• Exact temperature depends upon the specific fat most melt between 90 and 130°F. Once the fats
melt any trapped air and water evaporate and consequently push against cell walls which can
contribute to leavening (flakiness too). The later the fat melts, the more it will leaven because the
gases are escaping just when the cell walls are strong enough to hold their shape.
• Fats that melt early tend to be tenderizers. They coat the structure builders as they are trying to
establish structure in the product, their interference with that subsequent structure leads to a
tenderer product.
2. Gases form and expand
• Air, steam and carbon dioxide are the three most important gases in baking. Heat causes gases to
expand; they push against cell walls and help with leavening. This expansion of cell walls makes
them thinner which also makes them easier to bite into which means that the product is tenderer.
3. Sugar dissolves
• Sugar is not always completely dissolved at the beginning of the baking process, especially when
a dough or batter is extremely high in sugar (consider cookies). The undissolved sugar at the
beginning of the process helps to thicken batters as the sugar heats up and dissolves it will form a
sugar syrup. This helps to thin out doughs and batters and in the case of cookies, helps with
spread.
4. Microorganisms die
• Different types of microorganisms are present such as yeast, mold, bacteria and viruses. Most die
at about 140°F
5. Egg and gluten proteins coagulate
• Two extremely important structure builders. Once coagulation is underway the final shape of the
product is pretty much set. Egg coagulation 140 –160°F. This will be discussed in much more
detail when we discuss eggs and when we talk about gluten
6. Starches gelatinize
• In order for starches to gelatinize they need water (hydration) and heat. Although starch granules
are hard when raw, as they absorb water and are heated, they swell up and soften. Like the
proteins, once starches gelatinize the structure of the product is pretty much set.
7. Gases evaporate – crust development
• Other gases, such as alcohol (vanilla, yeast) are part of the baking process. At about 160°F, bread
can no longer hold in the CO2 and the gases escape to the surface where they evaporate. A dry
hard crust forms.
8. Caramelization and maillard browning occur on crust
• After the evaporation of water off of the crust stops, at around 300°F, this new high heat breaks
down the sugars and proteins in the crust. The result is a brown color and desirable baked flavor.
a. Sugar breaking down in the presence of proteins is Maillard browning.
These last three are not as important as the first 8.
9. Enzymes are inactivated
10. Changes occur to nutrients – protein in flour becomes more digestible
11. Pectin breaks down
Sensory Analysis

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Top notes
• A top note gives the consumer their first impression of a plate’s flavor. This first impression can
be either a wafting of aroma from the plate, or the first bite of something sweet and/or salty.
• Top notes dissipate quickly, they are not long lasting.
• A top note can appear in three different forms: an ortho nasal aroma, or sweet or salty elements.
o Ortho Nasal: An aroma that comes from outside of your body. Think of the aroma
wafting from a cup of hot tea, or the steam coming off of a pot of crème anglaise as it is
being made.
o Retro Nasal: As food is chewed and warmed in the mouth molecules travel up the back of
the throat and hit the olfactory bulb at the top of the nasal cavity. This perception of aroma
occurs with all foods, whether they are warm or cold.
Middle notes
• A middle note is the lead singer on the plate. It is the note that provides the plate with its staying
power.
• A middle note is the essence of the product’s flavor. In many cases the fat on the plate carries the
middle note. The fat lingers on the palate, along with the flavors of the middle note.
Base notes
• Base notes are the flavor’s last impression.
• Base notes are found in products with sour or bitter elements, or those that trigger a trigeminal
response.
• Consider eating hot, spicy food. Long after the salsa has been swallowed, the heat of the jalapenos
lingers on the tongue.
o Trigeminal Response= is a response in the nerve endings in the mouth to chemicals in the
food being eaten. Examples include the cooling sensation while chewing on menthol gum,
the heat from jalapeno peppers or the burn from fresh ginger.

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Group: 7 BPA1060
Date: 09/06/2016 How Baking Works
Day: Tuesday
LAB REPORT
The effects of using different add-ins on a basic chocolate chip cookie dough.
2. OBJECTIVES
To see which add in to the cookie dough formula will produce a cookie that is acceptable in four different
ways; height, spread, color and taste.
3. HYPOTHESIS
I predict that the cookies with the walnuts will have less spread and more height than the control cookie.
No chips-
Basic sugar cookie
Chunks- Dense, dry
Conditioned Raisins-Very moist cookie
White chips- Lots of spread
Raisins- Dry
4. VARIABLE
Basic cookie dough formula using different substitutes or replacements for the chocolate chips in the
formula.
Our group will be substituting the chocolate chips for walnuts.
5. CONTROL PRODUCT
2 groups will be making the basic cookie formula as our control products.
6. TEST PRODUCTS
Basic cookie dough formula using white chips, walnuts, no chips, raisins, conditioned raisins and
coverture (chocolate chunks) in place of chocolate chips

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7. FORMULAS AND METHOD OF PREPARATION
Formula is taken from the lab manual (see below), with each group replicating the dough in the same way
with the exception of the chocolate chip substitutes.
Chocolate Chip Cookie Dough Experiment
In the following experiment we will replace the chocolate chips with a variety of add-ins to
determine their effect on the formula
Granulated Sugar 40 grams
Brown Sugar 40 grams
Butter 70F 50 grams
Eggs 70F 25 grams
Vanilla 2 grams
Salt 2 grams
Bread Flour 40 grams
Pastry Flour 40 grams
Baking Soda 2 grams
Chocolate Chips 75 grams
Method of Preparation:
1. Gather equipment and ingredients
2. Cream together sugars and butter with paddle; mix speed 2 for 2 min. Scrape bowl.
3. Add vanilla and eggs in stages ( allow 30 sec. between additions)
4. Sift together dry ingredients 3 times; add to bowl, mix speed 1 for 15 seconds then speed 2 for 5
seconds. Scrape bowl. Stir in chocolate chips with a spatula.
5. Using a red handled scoop, portion out 12 pieces on a paper lined sheet pan, 3 X 4. Double Pan
6. Bake at 375°F.
8. COMMENTS AND OBSERVATION
Walnuts were over-toasted in the oven.
In the first control, there was too much vanilla.
The second control was over cooked.
The white chocolate chip cookie had too much salt added.

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9. RESULTS
Chocolate Chip Cookies
Procedure Height-in. Spread-in. Color Acceptability
Control/
Chocolate Chips
1/3 1 ¾ Dark Brown
Too much
vanilla-
No
No chips ½ 3 Light Brown Yes
White chips ½ 1 ¾ Dark Brown
Too much salt-
No
Chocolate chunks/
coverture
5/8 39 Brown
Dense and
heavy-
No
Raisins 5/8 4 1/8 Dark Brown
Raisins too
hard-
No
Control/Chocolate
Chips
2/5 4
Dark Dark
Brown
Crispy and
overcooked-
Yes (Better
control)
Walnuts 5/8 3.5 Brown
Walnuts over
toasted-
No
Conditioned
raisins
1/5 3.5 Brown Yes

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10. OVERALL CONCLUSION
Based on our results, the most acceptable add in to the cookies were the conditioned raisins and the plain
cookie. The conditioned raisins added water content to the cookie that the regular raisins could not,
resulting in a soft and moist cookie.
However, in retrospect, many of the other cookies had issues in their execution, which skewed the results.
For example, the white chocolate cookie may have been acceptable had there been less salt, or the walnut
add in would have not been overpowering had the walnuts not been over toasted. In future experiments,
precautions need to be taken to insure that every product is made the same, with the only exception being
the variables.

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Homework Questions:
1. An electronic scale has 4kg X 2 grams printed on the front. What does each number refer to?
4 K (4000 grams) is the capacity, and 2 grams is the increment of weight
2. A piece of wood, a marble slab and a copper pot are all in the same room, however when you
touch them you notice that they all feel as though they are at different temperatures.
a. Clearly explain why the items feel that they are at different temperatures.
Because of conductivity, the wood will conduct heat faster away from the skin, making it appear warmer
to the touch. On the other hand, marble conducts heat very slowly, giving the sensation that it is cooler
than the other 2.
3. When weighing flour, does it matter if is sifted first? Why or why not?
No, it does not matter as though the appearance of volume in flour may change; the weight is always
constant as flour is not a viscous substance (Like water).

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Lecture Day Two: Flour
• Wheat Kernel
o Endosperm
§ Makes up the majority of the wheat kernel
§ 80%
§ Starch is tightly packed into starch granules which in turn are embedded in protein
pieces
• Glutenin and Gliadin
o Germ
§ Embryo of the wheat plant, i.e. in the right conditions this will germinate into a
new wheat plant
§ Only makes up about 2.5% of the wheat kernel
§ High in proteins, fat and vitamin E
• The proteins do not, however, form gluten
o Bran
§ Outer covering of the wheat kernel
§ High in dietary fiber
§ Not only does it not form gluten, it interferes with gluten development
Components of Wheat Flour
• Starch 71%
o Makes up the bulk of flour, even in bread flour
• Protein 6-18%
o Think of this as the glue that holds the starch granules in place inside the endosperm.
Although there are other proteins in flour, 80% of the proteins in the endosperm are made
up of glutenin and gliadin.
• Moisture 11-14%
o When moisture rises above 14%, rancidity and insect infestation can occur
• Gums 2-3%
o These are a large contributor to flour’s ability to absorb water.
o Pentosan gums in white flour can absorb up to 10 times their weight in water
• Lipids 1-1.5%
o Oil and emulsifiers which help with gluten development. The oil in wheat flour is what
makes it go bad relatively quickly.
• Ash .6%
o This consists of inorganic matter such as mineral salts. It is concentrated in the bran layer
• Carotenoid pigments 1-4 parts/million
o Although they’re in an extremely small amount, they contribute to flour’s creamy color.
Classifying Wheat
• Hard versus soft wheat kernels
o Hard have more protein, and a larger amount of carotenoids and more pentosan gums
which means that they can grab onto more water
o They are often termed strong flours because they form strong gluten strands

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o Conversely soft flours are called weak flours because they form weak gluten strands
Flour Additives and Treatments
• Enriched flour = iron and B vitamins
• Natural Aging = the freshly milled flour is exposed to air
o This whitens the flour
§ By oxidizing the carotenoid pigments
o Strengthens the gluten that can be formed by the flour
o Disadvantages are the time that it takes and the increased chance of mold etc.
• Maturing Agents
o They can either strengthen or weaken the gluten
§ Potassium bromate strengthens the gluten, ‘bromated flour’
§ Ascorbic Acid is also used
§ Chlorine weakens gluten, cake flour is bleached
• Amylase
o Amylase breaks the starch in bread dough into sugar. This, in turn, gives the yeast food for
fermentation, increases browning and slows staling.
o Sources of amylase = diastatic malt syrup, malted flours and various dough conditioners.
• Malted Flours
o Think of these as flours with active amylase activity, barley is the most common grain
used
• Dough conditioners
o Used in large-scale bakeshops especially when automated machinery means that the dough
will be handled roughly.
• Patent Flour
o The term refers to the highest quality flour available
o Innermost part of the endosperm and essentially free of bran and germ
o Types of patent flour include:
§ Bread
§ High gluten
§ Artisan bread
§ Pastry
§ Cake
§ All-purpose
• Clear flour
o Lowest quality of commercial grades of flour
o Milled from outer part of the endosperm
o It is slightly gray in color and, therefore, is often used in the production of whole grain
breads.
Functions of flours
• Provide structure
• Absorbs liquid
• Contributes to flavor
• Contributes color
• Adds nutritional value

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Gluten
• When liquid is added to wheat flour it is absorbed by proteins, glutenin and gliadin, which then
swell.
o Mixing is very important to this process because it moves around the flour particles
constantly exposing new surface areas to the liquid. Thus increasing their ability to absorb
liquid.
o Mixing also incorporates air into the dough which in turn strengthens the gluten as it is
forming.
o Glutenin (strength and cohesiveness)
o Gliadin contributes to stretchiness, elasticity
o But also remember that with the addition of heat, the gluten (a protein) coagulates and
forms the porous structure that will hold its shape.
Factors affecting gluten development
• Type of flour
o Type of grain (wheat, rye, etc.)
o Variety of wheat (soft, hard)
• Amount of water
• Mixing and kneading
• Tenderizers and softeners
• Salt
• Fiber, bran, fruit pieces etc.
• Water hardness
• Water pH
• Batter and dough temperature
• Fermentation
• Maturing agents and dough conditioners
• Reducing agents
• Enzyme activity
• Other structure builders
• Milk

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Formula Day 2-Gluten Balls Yield: 330g 165%
Ingredients Weight, grams Bakers %
Flour (sifted) 200 grams 100%
Water (86°F) 130 grams 65%
1. Place flour in bowl.
2. Add water to flour and combine, making sure to incorporate all of the flour (depending on the flour
you are using you may need to adjust the liquid).
3. Knead for five minutes, and let rest for five minutes.
4. Set up two bowls, one with warm water and one with cool.
5. Wash dough vigorously, alternating between warm then cold water. Transfer any pieces to the next
wash and change the water as it becomes cloudy by first straining it through the fine strainer in your
tool kit ( any material that you catch should be added to the next wash)
6. Continue the alternate washing for 20 minutes or until all of the starch is washed away.( water
remains clear)
7. Weigh gluten. Cover with plastic wrap and rest 20 min.
8. Cut a one ounce piece and shape round, tucking the edges under and pinching. Place on a 1 inch
square of parchment.
9. Cover with a small stainless steel cup to rest for 20 min.
10. I’ll let you know when to place it in the oven to bake with all groups. Be sure to label it!
Group 7 – Instead of making a gluten ball with Bread flour, set up 100 g of vital wheat gluten in a
stainless steel bowl and 400g of water in a quart container along with a whip for demo. Do not mix.

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Formula Day2-Blueberry Muffins
Ingredients Weight
Butter 70F 114 g
Granulated Sugar 114 g
Pastry Flour 200 g
Baking Powder 7 g
Salt 1 g
Eggs 70F 114 g
Milk 70F 114 g
Vanilla 3 g
Frozen Blueberries 75 g
Method of preparation:
1. Cream butter and sugar on 2nd
speed for 3 min.
2. Sift dry ingredients 3x and set aside
3. Scale berries keep frozen till incorporation into batter
4. Combine liquids and set aside
5. Alternately add liquids and dry ingredients to creamed mixture in 3 stages scraping in-between
6. Fold in blueberries by hand using rubber spatula
7. Using blue handled scoop fill muffin cups
8. Bake at 375F till done
(Place on half sheet in deck oven 375F top heat and 350F bottom heat)

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Blueberry Muffins
Type of flour
Height in
inches
Mouth feel (1 to 9)
1 = tough
9 = soft
Pore Size (1 to 9)
1 = large
9 = fine
All-purpose 1 ½ 3 2
Rye 1 ½ 7 2
Whole wheat 1¾ 7 8
Pastry 1 8 2
Semolina 1 4/5 1 9
Bread 2 ½ 9 8
Cake 1 ½ 9 4
Pastry 1 ¾ 9 1

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Group 7 BPA1060
09/06/2016 How Baking Works
Day: Thursday
LAB REPORT
The effects of different flour types on lean doughs and the rolls that are produced
2. OBJECTIVES
To determine which flour type produces a lean dough with the best height, color, and pore size.
3. HYPOTHESIS
Bread flour: Will produce a basic bread that is acceptable all around
Rye flour: Will produce a dense and short bread, with a dark brown color
Whole wheat: Will produce a somewhat dense bread
Cake flour: Will produce a very light and pale bread
Pastry flour: Like cake flour, will produce a very light and pale bread
4. VARIABLE
The variable in our products will be the flour that is used to make the dough, with everything else in the
formula remaining the same.
5. CONTROL PRODUCT
Our control products are two basic lean doughs, as per our formula, and made with bread flour.
6. TEST PRODUCTS
Our test products are to be made per the formula, with the variation being the flour type, and water-as
needed- to produce an acceptable dough.

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Formula Day 2 -Lean Dough Yield: 794g 184%
Ingredients Weight, grams Bakers %
Flour, bread 500 grams 100%
Salt 6 grams 12%
Yeast, instant 8 grams 16%
Water (86°F) 280 grams 56%*
*may need adjustment- See Liquid Adjustment Chart)
1. Gather equipment and ingredients
2. Sift flour and salt onto parchment paper three times.
3. Place flour, salt, yeast and minimum amt. of water from chart below in mixing bowl while mixing
with dough hook.
4. Mix at speed 1 for 1 minute. (This is the pick-up stage and any adjustment to water content
should be made within this 1 minute. Record any additional water added )
5. Stop and scrape bowl
6. Mix at speed 2 for 5 minutes
7. Remove dough from the mixer and transfer to stainless steel bowl
8. Cover and label bowl and place in proof box.
9. Keep in proof box until doubled in bulk (45 minutes).
10. Punch down dough.
11. Divide dough into 3 ounce pieces and round into rolls.
12. Place rolls on sheet pan and label.
13. Proof for 15min. at 86F and 80 % humidity
NOTE: When using a heated cabinet with no humidity for proofing, moisture must be added to
prevent surface drying and cracking.
14. Bake at 425°F for 15-25 minutes or until golden brown.
15. Remove from oven and cool completely before measuring, weighing and cutting
Liquid Adjustment Chart (these are guides only-use “feel” to judge texture). Start with the
Minimum
amount of water and increase as needed. (Record total water addition)
Min.-Max. Min.-Max.
Bread Flour 280g- 337g Hi-Gluten Flour 340g- 397g
Cake Flour 310g- 369g Rye Flour 280g- 337g
*All-Purpose Flour 280g- 339g Pastry Flour 280g- 337g
Semolina Flour 280g- 337g Whole Wheat Flour 310g- 369g
Corn Flour 482g- 540

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The whole-wheat dough was made with far too much flour, which made it difficult to determine the
overall taste. The high gluten bread was underbaked, as it would have normally produced a much more
golden bread.
9. RESULTS
Experiment Rolls
Type of Flour
Height-in. Color
1=white
9=tan
Pore Size
1=coarse
9=fine
Cake
1.5 1 7
Bread 2.25 6 4
Rye 1 2 3
Pastry 1.75 1 2
High gluten
2.25
3 4
Whole wheat 2 9 1
Bread 1.8 5 3
All Purpose 2 4 3

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10. OVERALL CONCLUSION OR WHY WE GOT THE RESULTS WE DID
The best bread, overall, was made with the bread flour. This was due to the flours’ high protein and high
gluten content, which allowed for a high rise and a golden color during baking.
The pastry and cake flours produced very pale breads, due to the low gluten content in these breads. On
the other hand, the high gluten bread dough created a golden brown dough, much more so than the bread
flours.
The rye flour has no gluten content, however, the proteins contained within it allowed the dough to rise
and bake like more traditional bread. Even so, the bread was quite dense, as rye bread is usually mixed
with another flour type.

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Homework Questions:
1. What is the relationship of the size/height of a roll to its gluten content?
The breads containing more gluten had a larger rise, while the low gluten breads, such as rye,
produced a flatter product.
2. What is the relationship of the crust color of a roll to its gluten content?
The breads with higher gluten contents produced a more golden crust, while those with low-such
as cake or pastry- produced a pale bread.

25
Lecture Day 3- FATS and OILS
• Fats, oils and emulsifiers are vital to baking. They are indispensable moisteners and tenderizers.
• Chemistry of fats, oils, and emulsifiers
o Lipids = substances that do not dissolve in water
o Fats = lipids that are solid at room temperature
o Oils = lipids that are liquid at room temperature
§ They are usually from vegetable sources such as soybean, cottonseed, canola and
corn
§ Tropical oils, on the other hand are solid at room temperature but will melt quickly
when in a warm room
• I.e. coconut, palm and palm kernel oil
§ You have all heard of words like saturated and unsaturated fats, Trans fats etc.
Fatty acids can be either saturated or unsaturated
o The more saturated fats in a fat, the more solid it is at room
temperature
o Usually the more saturated, the more solid a fat will be. Saturated
fats are solid at room temperature. These are the fats that raise one’s
blood cholesterol.
o Trans -fatty acids (Trans-fats) are unsaturated fatty acids. (found naturally in dairy
products however not determined to be an issue with heart disease)
• Hydrogenation
o = Fats and oils are hydrogenated by exposing them to hydrogen gas in the presence of high
heat, pressure, and a catalyst, such as nickel.
o This is often done to make the fats easier to work with. It can make a liquid fat or oil more
solid. Hydrogenation also slows down the breakdown of fats meaning that it will take
longer for them to go rancid.
o The problem is with partially- hydrogenated fats and oils that produce saturated fatty
acids (trans-fats) which are thought to increase heart disease etc. This is not the case with
fully- hydrogenated (saturated) fats
Fats and Oils
• Butter = made from heavy cream which is basically an emulsion of butterfat suspended in milk
o Advantages are mouth feel and flavor
§ Final melting point = the temperature at which no solid fat crystals are visible. This
is simply another way of saying that the solid fat is now completely a liquid.
§ Final melting point for butter is 94°F.
o Disadvantages:
§ Price
§ Narrow plastic range
(Plastic fats refers to the consistency of fats when they are a malleable consistency
like play-dough)
§ Spoils quickly
§ Has the highest amount of saturated fat of the fats used in the bakeshop, even
higher than lard

26
o Classifications of butter are determined by the type of cream used in its production
§ Cultured butter: made from sour cream
§ Sweet cream butter: does not mean it has been sweetened but, rather, that it is not
made from sour cream
• Realize that sweet cream butter does not mean that the butter is unsalted.
Sweet cream butter can be salted or unsalted.
§ European style butter: is either cultured or sweet cream with added cultured cream
flavor
o An example would be plugra or cabot 83
§ In the US the minimum is 80% butterfat, European butters have more (82% and up)
§ Butterfat consists primarily of triglycerides
§ The remaining 20% is water, milk solids and salt (usually about 16% water)
• The protein and lactose in the milk solids contribute to Maillard Browning
and the water and a very small amount of air contribute to leavening.
o Reasons why bakeshops use unsalted butter
§ Quantity of salt in the butter can vary from brand to brand
§ Salt is not desirable in all products (i.e. buttercream icings)
§ It is harder to pick up off flavors in the butter if it is salted.
• Lard: by product from the meat industry, rendered from hog fat
o Leaf lard is the highest grade. The various grades come from different parts of the hog
(pig)
o It has unique structure which makes it great for providing flakiness in products like
piecrusts.
o 100% fat
o Sometimes it is hydrogenated which improves its creaming ability (not really an issue with
pie dough) and reduces its greasy mouth feel.
• Margarine: pretend butter made from soybean oil (usually)
o Without added coloring and flavorings it would be white and bland tasting
o Like butter it is about 80% fat and 16% water with a little trapped air just like butter. Think
about it. That means that margarine has the same amount of calories as butter.
§ Reduced fat ‘spreads’ are not really margarine but often rely on ingredients such as
gums and starches to give their product a butter like consistency
o Classifying margarine
§ Classified by its firmness and its final melting point
• Baker’s margarine 90-100°F. It has a soft consistency and a low melting
point although it does not have the clean mouth feel of butter. It is good for
the creaming method.
• Puff pastry margarine 115-135°F. Firm and waxy consistency. Great for the
flakiness it gives to a product but with an awful greasy, waxy mouth feel.
• Roll in margarine 100-115°F. Moderate amount of flakiness without too
much waxiness.
• Shortenings
o The primary difference between shortening and margarine is that shortening is 100% fat. It
contains no water, is white and bland in flavor.

27
o Most are made from soybean oil.
o Classifying shortenings
§ All-purpose shortening
• This shortening has no added emulsifiers. Melting point is between 110°F
and 125°F.
• Contains about 10% trapped air.
• Used for products made with the creaming or run-in methods of
preparation.
§ High-ratio plastic shortening
• Looks like all-purpose shortening but contains added emulsifiers (mono and
diglicerides).
• Used for products that have a fairly high amount of liquid or air. An
example would be a buttercream. Using an emulsified shortening will give
the buttercream more volume as well as give it the ability to accept liquid
ingredients without breaking. (When you remember that an emulsion is the
incorporation of two ingredients that do not want to go together – water and
fat- then this makes sense.)
• Cakes made with high ratio shortening usually have a finer crumb and a bit
moister than cakes make with an all-purpose shortening.
§ High-ratio liquid shortening
• This is also a shortening with added emulsifiers. It is less hydrogenated than
high ratio plastic shortening which means that it is fluid. Consider how
liquid shortening looks and you can see that it does contain some fat
crystals. This is what gives it its creamy, goopy (for lack of a better word)
appearance.
• Used primarily for liquid shortening sponge cakes ( the fluid consistency
allows for a whipping process rather than creaming or blending increasing
volume, emulsification allows for increased sugar content increasing
tenderness and longer shelf life )
• Oil
o Do not let its appearance fool you, oil is 100% fat. It contains no water.
o Most oil used in the bakeshop is derived from vegetable sources (usually soybean).
o Of all of the lipids most commonly used in the bakeshop, oil is the only one that does not
contribute to leavening. This is because it contains no trapped air or water.
o It also has no emulsifiers.
o Baked goods made with oil will have a dense, moist crumb. Quick breads and muffins are
good examples.
o Using oils in place of solid fats/animal fats can improve the nutritional value of products
• Olive oil
o Virgin olive oil is the best classification of olive oils. This oil comes from the first press of
the olives. It is pressed without the addition of heat which allows the oil to retain the fruity
flavor of the olives.

28
o There is a wide range of price points for olive oils however all of the oils lose much of the
flavor when heated. For this reason use a cheaper olive oil when the product made is going
to be exposed to high heat.
• Emulsifiers
o Emulsifiers have many functions in baked goods. In short, they interact with other
ingredients. Some examples:
§ They help to disperse fat and oil more thoroughly in a batter or dough. This, in turn
will lead to a tenderer product.
§ They can affect proteins so that they become stronger and more flexible. This
allows them to stretch farther without breaking. This, in turn, means that cake
batters will be able to hold more air.
§ They affect starch molecules so that they need longer time to stale. This helps
increase the shelf life of products.
Functions of Fats, Oils, and Emulsifiers
• Provide tenderness
o They coat structure builders, which prevents them from hydrating (absorbing liquid) and
forming structure. This holds true no matter the type of structure builder. It can be gluten
proteins, egg proteins, or starch granules.
o Do not assume that a tender product is always desirable. The use of tenderizers must be
balanced with the use of structure builders.
o Consider the name “shortening” it comes from fat’s ability to shorten gluten strands,
resulting in a tender product.
o Consider the name “short dough” it refers to a dough with a large amount of butter which,
in turn, shortens the gluten strands resulting in a tender cookie.
o Not all fats tenderize equally –
§ Fats that are 100% fat will tenderize more than a fat which is 80% fat.
§ Softer fats will tenderize more than harder fats.
• Consider the piecrust experiment and the difference in tenderness between
the dough made with a plastic fat and that made with a liquid fat.
• Also the smaller the pieces of fat in the dough, the more it will tenderize.
Consider a piecrust made with large pieces of fat (extremely flaky) versus a
piecrust made with very small pieces of fat (tender).
• Provides flakiness in laminated dough
o Not all fats provide flakiness. Flakiness will result from using fats that are solid and that
have a high melting point. Additionally for products such as pie dough or lamination in a
croissant the size of the pieces of fat is important. The larger the sizes, the more flakiness
in the end product.
• Assists in leavening
o Fats can help incorporate air into baked goods.
§ Through the creaming method of preparation

29
§ Even without creaming, some fats contain air. Additionally, some fats have water
in them as well. The steam created by the water once the product is in the oven will
also help with leavening. For this reason margarine (with its added water and air)
will leaven a product like puff pastry more than will an all-purpose shortening.
§ Fats with emulsifiers help batter to trap air. This will result in increased leavening.
This is only a factor when high ratio shortening is used.
• Contributes moistness
o Make sure that you understand that moistness and tenderness are not necessarily related
(no matter what the Duncan Hines’ ads want us to believe.).
o A wonderfully tender shortbread cookie is not moist and a chewy, gooey brownie is not
tender.
o The only fats that contribute to moistness in a baked good are those that are liquid at body
temperature, like oil.
o Fats with emulsifiers can also contribute to a product’s moistness.
• Prevents staling
o Consider that lipids interfere with starch gelatinization. (See the section on tenderness).
This also means that lipids have the ability to prevent a product from staling.
• Contributes Flavor
o Butter, olive oil, margarine and lard are all lipids which contribute flavor to the end
product.
o Fats contribute to color in two ways:
§ Butter and margarine have milk solids which undergo maillard browning
§ Products made with fat heat up quicker in the oven this results in increased
caramelization or browning.

30
Formula Day 3-Simple Icing
Ingredients Weight, grams
All-purpose shortening 70F 200 g
Sugar, powdered- sifted 160 g
Corn syrup 122 g
1. Blend fats on 1st
speed for 3 minutes or until smooth and light.
2. Add powdered sugar and blend on low for 1 minute. Stop and scrape bowl
3. Switch to whip and beat on high for 5 minutes, stop and scrape bowl after every 2 minutes.
4. Gradually add corn syrup and continue to beat on high for 2 additional minutes.
5. Place in plastic wrap with twist tie at room temperature until ready to evaluate.
6. Spread on tasting rounds of cake

31
Fats in Icing
Type of Fat
Appearance
1=white
8=yellow
Mouth feel
1=melts easily
8=lingers in the
mouth
Ease in
spreading
1=spreads easily
8=lumpy, does
not spread as
easily
85g AP shortening
115g unsalted Butter
3 6 1
85g AP shortening
115g European butter
3 3 1
All-purpose shortening
200g
1 1 8
85g AP shortening
115g margarine
2 8 6
All-purpose shortening
200g
2 2 8
85g AP shortening
57g butter
57g margarine
2 3 2
50g Hi-ratio shortening
50g butter
50g margarine
50g oil
4 8 1
100g AP shortening
100g lard
1 8 1

32
Formula Day 3-Pie Dough
Pastry flour 170 g
All-purpose shortening 113 g
Salt 4 g (use sub-gram scale)
Water, ice 60 g
Prepare formula and wait for demo
1. Gather equipment and ingredients.
2. Multiple fats should be combined in the mixer using a paddle and added beginning with the hardest fat
and adding softer fats as you go to get a smooth combination. Scrape as you go.
3. Prepare fat for experiment. Freeze (to chill place fat between layers of sheet paper and pin out using
1/8” rolling guides. Freeze for 10-20 min.
4. Sift flour and salt. Place flour on cutting board, remove paper from frozen fat and coat fat on both
sides. Reserve extra flour.
5. Using your French knife, cut the fat into ¼” strips then ¼” squares. Coat with reserved flour.
6. Make a well. Pour ice water into well and incorporate flour/fat mixture from inside of well until
moistened.
7. Use Frasage technique to incorporate ingredients and form dough
8. Form dough into small rectangle. Wrap and refrigerate 10 minutes.
9. Roll out pie dough dusting with bread flour. Use rolling guides- 1/8’’ thick.
10. Cut rounds using biscuit cutters (use no scrap). (freeze if soft to facilitate transfer)
11. Place on half sheet pans with sheet paper.
12. Bake at 425°F until golden (check one for doneness by removing one from the oven and cutting it
in half. Inside should be dry outside crisp!)
Formula Day 3-Oil Pie Dough (group 8 only)
This is a different formula and a different procedure for comparison purposes only and not part of the
experiment
Flavored oil 64 g
Water (ice) 43 g
Salt 1 g
Sugar 4 g
Pastry flour, sifted 156 g
1. Combine water, oil, sugar and salt. Whisk together.
2. Add flour and gently combine till it holds together.
3. Form into small rectangle, wrap and refrigerate for 10 minutes.
4. Pin out this dough between sheets of plastic wrap between 1/8-inch rolling guides.
5. Peel top plastic off, holding plastic flip dough over onto sheet paper. Remove plastic.
6. Cut out rounds using biscuit cutters. Remove scrap

33
Pie dough
Height
in inches
Mouth feel
1=melts quickly
7=lingers
Flakiness
1=flaky
7=tender
All-purpose
shortening 113g
3/8 3 2
Butter 113g
1/8
2 1
Margarine 113g
1/8
3 6
Lard 113g
½
4 1
All-Purpose
shortening 113g
1/8 4 1
All-purpose
shortening 85g /
lard 28g
½
6 5
All-purpose
shortening 85g /
28g butter
¼
7 1
Oil Dough
oil
¼ 6 7

34
Group 7 BPA1060
09/08/2016 How Baking Works
Day: Thursday
LAB REPORT
The effects of different fat and oil types on a basic sponge cake
2. OBJECTIVES
To determine which type of oil or fat produces the most acceptable sponge cake, based on height, pore
size, and moistness.
3. HYPOTHESIS
½ Emulsified Liquid Shortening: Drier, less height
Emulsified Liquid Shortening (Control): A basic sponge cake, moist and fluffy
Emulsified Solid Shortening: Dense, small pore size
½ Emulsified liquid shortening, ½ butter softened 70F: Buttery taste, browner product
Butter 70F: Very moist, oily, good flavor
Vegetable oil: Very moist, oily
Margarine 70F: Very oily, chewy, less height
4. VARIABLE
Basic sponge cake recipe using different substitutes in place of the shortening
5. CONTROL PRODUCT
Our control product is a basic sponge cake, as per the formula, with emulsified liquid shortening
6. TEST PRODUCTS
Our test products are to be made per the formula, with the variation being the oil/fat type, those being as
follows;
½ Emulsified Liquid Shortening, Emulsified Liquid Shortening, Emulsified Solid Shortening, ½
Emulsified liquid shortening and ½ butter softened 70F, Butter 70F, Vegetable oil and Margarine

35
Formula Day 3-Liquid Shortening Sponge Cake
Cake flour 150 g
Baking powder 12 g
Salt 3 g
Sugar 200 g
Emulsified Liquid shortening 90 g
Milk 38F 80 g
Whole eggs 38F 225 g
1. Sift dry ingredients three times.
2. Place milk, eggs, and fat/oil in mixing bowl; add sifted dry ingredients on top.
3. Using whip attachment, blend on low for 30 seconds, stop and scrape whip and bowl.
4. Whip for 3 minutes on high, stop and scrape.
5. Whip for 2 minutes on medium.
6. Portion batter into greased (use spray short) Bake at 375F.
8. COMMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS
Product #6 (Vegetable oil) was over baked, while product #4 (Emulsified solid shortening) was under
baked.
9. RESULTS
Liquid Shortening Sponge

36
Type of fat
Height
in
inches1=tall,
8=short
Pore size
1=small,
8=large/coarse
Moistness
1=moist,
8=dry
½ Emulsified liquid shortening
only (45g)
1.5 9 1
Emulsified liquid shortening
(90g)
2.25 7 2
½ Emulsified liquid
shortening, ½ butter softened
70F
(45g of each)
2.5 7 6
Emulsified solid shortening
(90g)
1.25 9 7
Butter 70F
(90g)
2 8 5
Vegetable oil
(90g)
1.5 3 4
Margarine 70F
(90g)
1 7 5
Emulsified liquid shortening
(90g)
2 6 3

37
The best cake, overall, was made with the emulsified liquid shortening. It is interesting to note, however,
that the cake made with only ½ of the emulsified liquid shortening produced a cake almost as acceptable,
if not better, as the cake made with the full amount of shortening. This is useful when costing ingredients,
as one can save money by using less shortening.
As the results and tasting showed, more oil in a cake leads to more aeration, creating a moist and tender
cake with large pore size. However, this was only seen in the liquid oils, as the emulsified solid
shortening produced the driest cake. The cakes that failed were not made with an oil or fat that
emulsifies, as this recipe was designed to be made with emulsifiers.

38
Homework Questions:
1. What is the relationship between a fat’s melting point and flakiness in pie dough?
The higher the melting point, the flakier the dough, as higher melt point fats make it harder to over
mix a dough, keeping the fat pieces from mixing in with the flour.
2. Do fats with emulsifiers make the best sponge cakes? Why or why not?
Yes, because an emulsifier helps disperse the fat throughout the batter, leading to a tenderer
product. Similarly, they act like a structure builder in that they make proteins stronger and more
flexible, resulting in a finished product with more aeration and larger pore size. In commercial
baking, they also extend the shelf life of baked goods.
3. What is the relationship between emulsifiers and icing?
An emulsifier creates a more spreadable and evenly combined icing.
4. Clearly explain three ways in which plastic fats contribute to leavening in baked goods.
Plastic fats add flakiness, assist in leaving, and prevent staling.

39
Lecture Day 4- Sweeteners
• Types of sweeteners: dry crystalline sugars and syrups
o There is a third category of specialty sweeteners which are sweeteners which do not neatly
fit into the previous two categories.
o Sugars are classified as simple carbohydrates. Sugars are further classified as mono or di
saccharides.
§ The two mono-saccharides are glucose and fructose
o Two mono-saccharides = 1 disaccharide
o Another disaccharide = sucrose the sugar most used in the bakeshop
§ It is one glucose and one fructose bonded together.
o Oligosaccharide or higher saccharides = are made up of 3-10 sugar units bonded
together. These are found in many syrups.
o Polysaccharides = thousands of sugar units bonded together. An example would be starch
Sugar = Hygroscopic
• Sugar is hygroscopic. It bonds and attracts water. Sugar will pull water away from structure
builders and driers such as proteins, starches and gums. Thus they are no longer able to hydrate
and trap water. Instead the water is released to sugar, and forms a thin syrup as part of the batter or
dough.
• Certain sugar syrups containing inverted sugars attract moisture from the atmosphere
• Dry Crystalline Sugars
o Regular granulated sugar
§ Made from either sugar cane or sugar beets it is 99.9 % sucrose.
o Coarse or sanding sugar
§ Large crystals that do not easily dissolve.
§ It has the fewest impurities of all granulated sugars which means they make the
clearest syrups and the whitest fondants.
o Powdered sugar or confectioners’ sugar
§ Usually contain about 3% cornstarch, which is there to help to prevent caking by
absorbing moisture.
o Superfine granulated
§ Somewhere between powdered sugar and regular granulated sugar. It dissolves
more quickly in liquids than regular granulated sugar which allows for the
incorporation of smaller air cells into batters.
o Regular Brown sugar
§ Refers to granulated sugar with a small amount (10%) of molasses. Most of the
molasses is on the surface of tiny sugar crystals so brown sugar is soft, sticky and
tends to clump.
Syrups: Their makeup
• Mixture of one or more sugars dissolved in water with small amounts of other components
o Acids, colorants, flavors, thickeners
o Most contain about 20% water

40
o Many sugars contain higher saccharides. Remember them? They are longer than regular
sucrose. Their larger size makes them slower to move. They are more apt to get tangled up
with each other. This is why they thicken.
§ Groups of two kids with linked arms running around the room.
§ Groups of ten kids with linked arms running around the room.
§ Thus a syrup is not always thicker because it has less water, it might be thicker
because of the presence of higher saccharides.
Types
Simple syrup
o Equal parts by weight of sugar and water.
• Invert Syrup
o Refers to a type of syrup that contains approximately equal amounts of fructose and
glucose.
§ A sucrose solution is treated with an enzyme or heated with an acid.
• Remember sucrose? It is a disaccharide with a fructose and a glucose
bonded together. Heat or enzyme breaks the bond. Now there is a syrup
with equal parts of fructose and glucose dissolved in water. It contains little,
if any, sucrose.
• Uses:
o Keeps fondants smooth and shiny, prevents the formation of ice
crystals in frozen products, and keeps baked goods moister longer.
Sweeter than sucrose and browns much faster.
• Molasses
o Concentrated juice of sugarcane
• Glucose corn syrups
o Clear syrups produces from the breakdown of starch also referred to as hydrolysis.
o Any starch can be used but the most common is cornstarch.
o Starch is a carbohydrate consisting of hundreds/thousands of glucose molecules bonded
together. The starch is heated in the presence of water and acid and treated with enzymes.
This breaks the larger starch molecules into smaller units. The syrup is filtered and refined
and the process is continued.
o Presence of higher saccharides thickens the syrup and gives it body. They interfere with
the movement of molecules so the sugars in the syrup are less likely to crystallize.
o The more hydrolysis the syrup undergoes the higher their conversion. High conversion
syrups are high in sugar and low in higher saccharides. Low conversion syrups are low in
sugar and high in higher saccharides.
• Honey
o Naturally inverted sugar as the enzymes in the honeybee invert sucrose in the nectar to
fructose and glucose.
o Most commonly used honey is clover.
• Maple syrup

41
o Sap from maple tree is boiled and water is evaporated. The sap is only about 2-3% sugar so
it takes about 40 gallons of sap to produce one gallon of maple syrup.
• Malt syrup or extract
o Can be made from any cereal but barley and wheat are used the most.
o High in maltose which improves yeast fermentation.
Specialty Sweeteners
• Dextrose
o Another name for glucose, the monosaccharide. It is used then the monosaccharide is
purchased as a dry sugar. Less sweet than sucrose. Used as a dusting sugar because it does
not easily dissolve.
• Dried Glucose Syrup
o = Glucose corn syrup with the water removed
• Fondant Sugar
o Extremely finely ground, as much as 100X finer than 10X
o Good for making a smooth fondant glaze without any cooking.
• Prepared Fondant
o Used as a glaze when heated and as a center for cream confections
• Isomalt
o Chemically modified sucrose. It is not found in nature. Does not brown, absorb water or
crystallize
• Fructose
o Can be bought as a white powder. Has a sweetness that works particularly well with fruit
flavors.
• Agave Syrup
o Made from the sap of the agave plant. Few higher saccharides mean that the syrup is thin
and easy to pour.
• Rice syrup
o Made from rich starch much like glucose is made from cornstarch. Less refined than most
other syrups on the market.
• High intensity sweeteners (non-nutritive)
o Saccharine, sweet and low, aspartame and Splenda
o Can be up to 200x sweeter than sucrose and their only function is to provide sweetness. As
this is only one of many functions of sweeteners in the baking world it is not used too often
in bakeshops.
Functions of Sweeteners
• Sweetens
o All sweeten but not to the same degree
• Tenderizes
o Once sugars are dissolved they interfere with gluten formation, protein coagulation and
starch gelatinization. In other words, sugars delay the formation of structure and in doing
so they tenderize. The more sugar that is added to a product, the tenderer it will become. If
too much sugar is added there will be little or no formation of structure.

42
• Retains moistness and improves shelf life
o Remember that sugar is hygroscopic. This means that sugar increases the softness and the
moistness in baked goods. It also extends their shelf life by preventing them from staling.
• Contributes brown color and a caramelized or baked flavor
o Some sugars are naturally brown but even those that are not can contribute a brown color
to the products in which they are used through the process of caramelization and Maillard
browning.
o Caramelization
§ Sugars under high heat
o Maillard browning
§ Similar to caramelization but proteins in addition to sugars must be present. Only a
small amount of protein is required to speed up the process so less heat is needed.
• Assists in leavening
o Because sugar crystals are irregular in shape there is air between them. This is not true for
syrups. Thus the addition of a crystalline sugar to a batter also adds a chief leavening
agent, air.
• Provides bulk and substance to fondant and sugar based confections
o Sugar is not a structure builder but consider the following.
§ Fondant. Fondant contains about 90%+ crystallized sugar. Without these solid
sugar crystals, fondant would consist of liquid syrup. In this way sugar provides
substance which defines the size and shape of the product.
• Stabilizes whipped egg foams
o Egg whites beaten properly with sugar will not collapse as soon as egg whites whipped
without the addition of sugar. The same is true of whipped whole eggs and whipped yolks.
This will be discussed more when we discuss eggs.
• Provides food for yeast fermentation

43
Sweetener Evaluations
Sweetener
Description
Of flavor
Appearance
1=white
14=dark
brown
Sweetness
1=not sweet
5=very sweet
Additional
comments
Granulated sugar 1 4
Light brown sugar
Dark brown sugar 11 3
Powdered sugar 1 5
Coarse sugar 1 3
Turbinado 10 5
Sucanet
Like dark
brown sugar
10 5
Texture of
graham
cracker
Glucose
Light corn syrup 1 5
Invert Fake honey 1 5
Molasses 14 1
Maple syrup 4 5
Agave Syrup 4 4
Honey 6 3
Dextrose
Organic cane
Fructose 1 5

44
Formula Day 4-High Ratio Layer Cake Formula
Cake flour 175 g
Emulsified solid shortening 115 g
Granulated sugar 200 g
DMS 20 g
Salt 3 g
Baking powder 5 g
Water 40F 88 g
1. Sift flour, DMS, salt and baking powder together three times
2. Whisk eggs and water together and set aside
3. Place sifted dry ingredients and sweetener in bowl of mixer.
4. Attach with paddle
5. Add shortening and 1/3 egg /water mixture
6. Mix on Speed 1 for 4 min
7. Scrape bowl and between paddle
8. Add second third of egg/water mixture
9. Mix on Speed 1 for 4 min.
10. Scrape bowl and between paddle.
11. Add remaining third of egg/water mixture.
13. Portion into paper lined cup cake pans with a blue handled scoop. Place on half sheet pan.
14. Bake at 375°F till done

45
High-ratio Cake with Different Types of dry sugar and levels of liquid sweeteners
Sweetener
Height
in
inches
Color
1=bright yellow
7=brown
Pore
Size/
Texture
1=fine
7=coarse
Moistness
1=moist
7=dry
Flavor
1=sweet
7=not sweet
100% Powdered
Sugar
substitute (200g)
1 3 2 5 4
50% Coarse Sugar
substitute (100g)
Gran. Sugar(100g)
remains
1 1/8 1 1 2 7
75% Brown Sugar
substitute (150g)
Gran. Sugar (50g)
remains
1 5/8 6 2 7 3
25% Honey
substitute( 63g)
Gran. Sugar(150g)
remains
H20 (74g only)
7/8 7 1 1 4
100%Corn syrup
substitute ( 250g)
H20 ( 38g only)
1 ¼ 6 4 1 5
50%Agave
substitute (125g)
Gran. Sugar (100g)
remains
H20 ( 62g only )
1 3/8 6 3 3 3
12.5%Invert
substitute (31g)
Gran. Sugar(175g)
remains
H20 ( 82g only)
1 ¼ 6 3 2 4
75% Honey
substitute (188g)
Gran. Sugar(50g)
remains
H20 ( 50g only)
Uncontrolled Variable

46
Math related to the substitution of liquid sweeteners for granulated sugar in Hi-ratio cake formulas
100% substitution:
200g (granulated sugar) divided by 0.8 = 250g (liquid sweetener needed) minus 200g (dry sugar
in the formula) = 50g (water to remove) 88g (water) minus 50g (water) = 38g (water remaining
in formula)
0 Granulated sugar remains in the formula
75% substitution:
in the formula) = 36g (water to remove) 88g (water) minus 38g (water) = 50g (water remaining in
formula)
50g Granulated sugar remains in the formula
50% substitution:
in the formula) = 25g (water to remove) 88g (water) minus 25g (water) = 62g (water remaining in
formula)
25% substitution:
50g (granulated sugar) divided by 0.8 = 63g (liquid sweetener needed) minus 50g (dry sugar in
the formula) = 13g (water to remove) 88g (water) minus 13g (water) = 74g (water remaining in
formula)
12.5% substitution:
25g (granulated sugar) divided by 0.8 = 31g (liquid sweetener needed) minus 25g (dry sugar in
the formula) = 6g (water to remove) 88g (water) minus 6g (water) = 82g (water remaining in
formula)

47
Non-nutritive Sweeteners
Non-Nutritive
Sweeteners
Polyals
Sugar alcohols
Sucralose
“Splenda” Isomalt
Aspartame
“Equal” or “Nutra
Sweet”
Sorbitol
Stevia
“Truvia”
“Truvia” is a
combo of
erythetol and
stevia
Xylitol
Acesulfame
Potassium
“Sunett” or “Sweet
one”
Glycerol
Saccharine
“Sweet & Low”
Maltitol
Erythetol

48
Formula Day 4-Fondant
Sugar, granulated 455 grams
Water 114 grams
Glucose, invert or corn syrup 85 grams*
* scale syrup in plastic wrap and twist-tie – to add, puncture wrap and squeeze out into pot
** Glucose or invert syrups can be substituted
*** 5 grams of cream of tartar diluted with a little water can be substituted for the 85g liquid sweetener
however it will be slightly acidic.
1. Clean marble slab 18” sq. and place on a damp towel
2. Combine sugar and water in a pot and heat to dissolve the sugar.
3. Boil until it reaches 225°F.
4. Add the glucose, invert, corn syrup or cream of tartar mixture to boiling solution.
5. Continue boiling it until it reaches 240°F (use appropriate method for washing sides intermittently).
6. sprinkle marble lightly with water and pour out as directed
7. Let the syrup cool to 110°F and do not touch it or move it.
8. When sugar is cooled, work sugar from outside to inside. It will gradually turn white and solidify.
9. Keep the fondant in a plastic bag in a tightly covered container with a damp towel in the refrigerator
overnight after which it’s ready to use
NOTE: By hand, it takes 10 to 12 minutes of mixing.
- This is a ready to eat food so take care and wear gloves to avoid contact if necessary-

49
Group 7
09/9/16
Friday
BPA1060
How Baking Works
LAB REPORT
Effects of sugar levels in a High-Ratio Layer Cake
2. OBJECTIVES
To determine which sugar level produces a cake with the most acceptable height, moistness, color, pore size and
flavor
3. HYPOTHESIS
0g
100g
150g
200g
250g
300g
350g
4. VARIABLE
The amount of granulated sugar in the formula
5. CONTROL PRODUCT
A cake made with 200g of granulated sugar
6. TEST PRODUCTS
Cakes made, as per the formula, with varying levels of granulated sugar as follows;
0g,100g, 150g, 200g, 250g, 300g, and 350g

50
Formula Day 4-High Ratio Layer Cake Formula
Cake flour 175 g
Emulsified solid shortening 115 g
DMS 20 g
Salt 3 g
Baking powder 5 g
Water 40F 88 g
15. Sift flour, DMS, salt and baking powder together three times.
16. Whisk eggs and water together and set aside
17. Place sifted dry ingredients and sweetener in bowl of mixer.
18. Attach with paddle
19. Blend dry ingredients, sweetener,Add shortening and 1/3 egg /water mixture
20. Mix on Speed 1 for 4 min
21. Scrape bowl and between paddle
22. Add second third of egg/water mixture
24. Scrape bowl and between paddle.
25. Add remaining third of egg/water mixture.
27. Portion into paper lined cup cake pans with a blue handled scoop. Place on half sheet pan.
28. Bake at 375°F till done
The cake with 150g was extremely undercooked, resulting in an uncontrolled variable.
The cake with 200g of sugar was oversalted.

51
9. RESULTS
High-ratio Cake with Various Levels of Granulated Sugar
Amount of
Sugar
Height
1=tall
6=short
Moistness
1=moist
6=dry
Color
1=bright
yellow
6=pale yellow
Pore Size/
Texture
1=fine
6=coarse
Flavor
1=sweet
6=not sweet
0g 5/8”
6 1 1 6
100g
1 1/8”
4 4 3 6
200g 1 1/2”
5 4 4 3
250g 1 1 3 3 2
150g
Uncontrolled Variable
200g 3/8”
1 5 5 2
350g
1 ¼” 2 6 6 1
300g ½” 4 4 6 1

52
In conclusion, the cakes that were produced came out with varied results. The one made with the least
amount of sugar turned out to be a very dense, dry and unsweet/unflavorful cake, akin to a biscuit. As the
amounts of sugar inscrease, a trend forms in that the cakes become more moist, attain a browner color,
and produce a larger pore size.
The browning of the cakes is due to the sugars carmelizing in the oven, therefore, the cakes with the most
amount of sugar turn out to have the crispiest and brownest tops.

53
Homework Questions:
1. Why would the crystal size of the sugar used make a difference in the cake’s final height and
texture?
The cakes made with liquid sweetners, such as corn syrup and honey, had a very fine pore size.
The ones made with larger crystals helped trap air, which created larger pores and more structure.
2. Using 3 examples from the types of sugar experiment, how did the type of sugar in each cake
affect their height?
The cake made with honey was the shortest-at only 7/8
”- while the brown sugar cake was the
tallest, at 1 5/8
”. The cakes made with the liquid sweetners of inverted sugar, corn syrup, and agave
maintened an average height of 1 1/4
”. (Honey can’t create air bubbles because of its density)
3. How did the amount of sugar affect the texture of the cakes? Use 3 specific examples from
the experiment in your answer.
The cakes made with none to very little amounts of sugar came out dry, dense, and flovorless. For
example, the cake with 0g sugar resulted in a flat, biscuit like product. The cake made with 100g
of sugar was an improvement upon this, but still not as light and fluffy as the control product of
200g. At the other end of the spectrum, the cakes made with large amount of sugar turned out
almost candy like, with a chewy texture. For example, the 350g had a toffee like consistency. They
undermine structure builders and overtenderize, causing the cake to rise high, and then fall when
cool.

54
Lecture Day 5- Eggs and Egg Products
• Composition of an egg
o Thin white
o Thick white
o Yolk
o Shell
o Air cell
o Chalazae
o Moisture, protein, fat, emulsifiers
• Makeup of a whole egg
o 76% water
o 12% protein
o 10% fat
o 2% sugar
o Note: for substitution purposes 66% whites and 33% yolks
• White
o 90% water and 10% protein
o Ovomucin is the largest protein found in egg whites although we commonly say Albumin
there are more than 6 proteins
o The white has both thick and thin portions, the thick portion will thin as the egg ages
• Yolk
o About 50% moisture
o About 50% yolk solids
§ Proteins, fats, emulsifiers and carotenoids
§ The proteins in yolks are different than the proteins in whites. In yolks the proteins
are lipoproteins which are bound to fats and emulsifiers.
§ Yolks contain about 10% lecithin
• Lecithin = an emulsifier, naturally occurring in yolks, dairy ingredients, soy
beans and cereal grains
§ Flavor and type of feed will affect the yolk’s color and flavor
• The yolks’ yellow color comes from carotenoids
• Air pocket
o Soon after being laid, an air pocket forms between the two protective membranes found
between the shell and the white. The air pocket will increase in size as the egg shrinks as it
ages.
• Chalazae
o White, twisted cords that hold the yolk in the center of the egg. As the egg ages, these
cords start to disintegrate. They are part of the egg white and completely edible although
for some products (crème brûlée) they should probably be strained.
Egg Products
• These are products in which the egg is removed from the shell
Advantages and Disadvantages of Egg products
• + Food safety and labor cost

55
• - The products themselves are usually more expensive than fresh
Frozen Whites
• Often have an added thickener, guar gum which prevents the whites being damaged by ice crystal
formation. Some also have whipping agents (triethyl citrate) added. Remember that that there is
both a thick and thin white, these will separate as the frozen whites thaw so make sure to shake the
container well before use.
Frozen Sugared Yolks
• Can contain up to 10% sugar or glucose corn syrup
o Consider that sugar raises freezing temperature, thus yolks that have been frozen with
sugar will have less ice crystal damage than those that are frozen without. Ice crystal
damage can cause yolks to gel into a thickish solid. This change is irreversible.
Refrigerated liquid yolks
• Usually used in kitchens rather than bakeshops. Because they do not contain sugar to prevent them
from turning gummy, it is best to not freeze these yolks.
Frozen Whole Eggs
• Consist of whites and yolks in their natural proportions.
• May contain a small amount of citric acid which prevents the eggs from discoloring when heated.
o Consider the grayish=green ring around the yolk of a hard-boiled egg. The white contains
sulfur which is released when the egg is heated. The yolk contains iron which when
combined with the sulfur forms iron sulfide which is grayish-green in color.
Dried Eggs
• Dried until there is less than 5% moisture.
• Don’t taste the same as fresh but can be used in baked goods. Dried egg whites are often used for
making meringues, royal icing etc.
Functions of Eggs:
• Provide Structure
o Coagulated egg yolks and whites are important structure builders in baked goods
§ That is as important a structure builder as flour in cakes
§ Ranking of structure building abilities of eggs = whites-whole eggs-yolks
o Coagulated egg proteins also provide thickening and gelling which is a type of structure
o Also considered tougheners because of their ability to provide structure.
o They are probably the only common bakery ingredient containing significant amounts of
both tougheners (proteins) and tenderizers (fats and emulsifiers).
• Aerates
o Eggs can produce a relatively stable foam
o Foam = small air bubbles surrounded by a liquid or solid film. Foams assist in leavening
• Emulsifies
o Emulsifier means that eggs can keep fat and water from separating. Without this ability,
eggs would not be as effective at binding ingredients together in batters and dough.
• Contributes Flavor
o Flavor (and fat) is concentrated in the yolk

56
o Due to yellow orange carotenoids. This can change during the course of the year from
season to season and according to what the chickens are being fed.
• Adds nutritional value
o Proteins, vitamins and minerals
o Carotenoids are antioxidants
o Source of fat and cholesterol
Coagulation
• A description of the process of egg coagulation
o Other words for egg protein coagulation = proteins denature or protein aggregation. When
egg proteins are properly aggregated they form a strong but flexible network that traps
liquids.
o The more the proteins are heated the more they will aggregate and the firmer the product
becomes.
o The proteins can over coagulate which is sometimes called curdling and results in weeping
or syneresis
§ The proteins shrink and squeeze out liquid, which results in pieces of a tough gel
floating in a liquid. In the making of cakes and baked goods, however, the other
ingredients absorb that liquid, although a slightly shrunken and dry product can
result.
§ It is, therefore, really important to pay attention to the way in which egg proteins
are coagulated.
• Factors affecting egg coagulation
o Proportion of egg
o Rate of Cooking
o Part of egg used
o Sugar
o Lipids
o Acid
o Starch
Aeration/meringues
• Process of Egg Foam Formation
o Whipping eggs adds air bubbles and causes certain egg proteins to denature or unfold.
These then move to the surface of the bubbles where they form a thin, filmy network,
neighboring proteins bond with each other
o This flexible film protect the bubbles, making them less likely to collapse, and allowing
more bubbles to be beaten in
o This is similar to what happens when egg proteins are cooked that is the proteins unfold or
unravel and a new structure is formed.
• Factors affecting meringue’s stability
o Sugar
o Lipids
o Acid
o Temperature of whites
o Thickness of whites
o Whipping time

57
Basic Meringue
115g egg whites
115g granulated sugar
1 g cream of tartar
Basic Common Meringue Procedure
1. Bring egg whites to temperature.
2. Whip.
3. Add cream of tartar when whites begin to foam.
4. Add sugar gradually (faster or slower depending on how quickly the whites rise).
5. Reduce the speed as necessary to avoid over whipping.
Formula Day 5-French/Common Meringue
Egg whites (Pasteurized) 115 grams
Granulated sugar 115 grams
Cream of tartar 1 gram
Formula Day 5-Swiss Meringue
Egg whites (Pasteurized) 115 grams
Granulated sugar 115 grams
Cream of tartar 1 gram
Note: Ingredients are carefully heated over a water bath to dissolve sugar. (approx. 110F)
Formula Day 5-Egg Board Meringue
Ingredients
Fresh egg whites 115g
Granulated sugar 115g
Cream of tartar 1 g
Warm water 20 g
1. Combine egg whites, cream of tartar and granulated sugar over a water bath and heat to 160F stirring
constantly using a rubber spatula (care must be taken to avoid a bowl that is too large for the water
bath and will cook the whites)
2. Whip on high speed till thick
Formula Day 5-Italian Meringue
Common Meringue
Egg whites, (Pasteurized) 40°F 230 g

58
Cream of tartar 1 g
Sugar Syrup
Hot water 55 g
1. Boil sugar and water.
2. Cook to 238°F. Start common meringue. Whip to soft peaks and mix on medium speed. Do not over
mix. Excessive mixing will result in loss of volume.
3. Wash sides of pot with water-dipped brush to re-dissolve crystals.
4. Cook syrup to 245°F. Pour into common meringue and mix until cool.
Formula Day 5-Vegan Meringue
Ingredients
Reserved liquid from White Kidney Beans (see group 6)* 115g
Granulated sugar 115g
Vanilla 2g
*(reduce as needed if rendered liquid is less)

59
Meringues
meringue factor or
type
A B C
Mixer speed Speed 3 Speed 2
Type
Thickened faster
and was shinier,
but was also
grainier
More stable, fluffier,
and airier Start on High
Fat 7g shortening 7g yolks
Less lift than starting on low but
more airy
Type
Hard fat stuck to
bowl and
meringue
whipped on top
Runny
Start on Low
Acid
Pinch cream of
tartar
6g cream of tartar Glossy
Type Control Very white and bright
Egg Board
Temp of Fresh
whites
40F 70F
Doesn’t have taste of
pastuerization- much better taste
Type
Thicker, heavier,
with more
volume
Lighter and thinner
Swiss
Fresh vs. frozen 70F 70F Dense and stiff, not as light
Type
Very thick,
whipped better,
better taste
Italian
Speed of sugar
addition/Fresh Whites
dump 45sec. Very fluffy meringue
Type Loose meringue
More stable and
fluffier Vegan
No Sugar Common No sugar
Tastes bean-like, but it’s still a
meringue!
Type Control Drier
French
No cream of Tartar Common No Cream of Tarter Thin, sticky and thick
Type More stable Less white

60
Oatmeal Cookies with Different Egg Replacers/substitutes
Formula Day 5- Oatmeal Cookies
Butter, unsalted 70F 57 g
Sugar, granulated 114 g
Salt 1 g
Eggs, whole 70F 25 g
Extract, vanilla 2 g
Flour, bread 57 g
Cinnamon, ground 2 g
Oats 78 g
1. Gather all the ingredients and equipment.
2. Scale ingredients.
3. In the bowl of a stationary mixer fitted with a paddle, cream the butter, sugar and salt. 2nd
speed for 3
minutes. Gradually add the eggs and vanilla; scrape well.
4. Blend the flour, cinnamon and oats to the creamed mixture and mix until smooth.
5. Use a no. 24 scoop to deposit batter onto parchment-lined sheet pans.
6. Slightly flatten the cookies.
7. Double pan-Bake in a 350°F oven until lightly golden brown.
Set top heat to 350F and bottom heat to 325F
Replacement Combinations for Oatmeal cookie formula:
Tapioca Starch 12g / Water 12g
Garbanzo Bean Flour 12g / Water 12g
Flax seed Meal 7g /Water 19g
Dry Egg Replacer 7g / Water 19g

61
Oatmeal Cookies with Different Egg Replacers/substitutes
Height
Moisture
1=moist
7=dry
Color
1=light
7=brown
Flavor
Egg beaters
25g
½ 2 4
Chewy and
Soft
Silken Tofu
25g
3/8 2 7 Oversalted
Whole egg
25g
3/8 4 3
Overcooked
and dense
Potato
Starch 12g
Water 12g
3/8 2 3
Good bake,
starchy
Whole egg
25g
½ 6 6
Very
overcooked
L
Cannellini Bean
puree 25g
¼ 1 6
Good bake,
Too much
butter=large
spread
Flax seed meal 7g
water 19g
¼ 3 4
Strong taste
of flaxseed
Applesauce
25g
3/8 3 7
Overbaked,
taste of
applesauce

62
Group 7
09/9/16
Friday
BPA1060
How Baking Works
LAB REPORT
Effect of different egg substitutes in a liquid-shortening cake
2. OBJECTIVES
To determine which egg substitute produces a cake with the most acceptable height, moistness, color,
pore size and flavor
3. HYPOTHESIS
Whole egg- Control
Silken Tofu- Very wet
Ground flaxseed and water- Most likely will fall apart
Egg white_ Light and fluffy
Egg yolk- Dense, custard-like
Ener-G Egg replacer- Weird?
Egg Beaters- Strange flavor
4. VARIABLE
The egg substitutes in the formula
5. CONTROL PRODUCT
A cake made with 225g of whole egg
1. TEST PRODUCTS
Cakes made, as per the formula, wih different egg substitutes as follow;
Whole egg
Silken Tofu
Ground flaxseed and water
Egg white
Ener-G Egg replacer
Egg Beaters

63
Formula Day 5-Liquid Shortening Sponge Cake
Cake flour 150 g
Baking powder 12 g
Salt 3 g
Sugar 200 g
Emulsified Liquid shortening 90 g
Milk 40F 80 g
1. Sift dry ingredients three times.
2. Place milk, eggs, and fat/oil in mixing bowl; add sifted dry ingredients on top.
3. Using whip attachment, blend on low for 30 seconds, stop and scrape whip and bowl.
4. Whip for 3 minutes on high, stop and scrape.
5. Whip for 2 minutes on medium.
6. Grease, flour and fill 1- 9”x 3”cake pan
7. Bake at 375°F.
Egg Replacer combinations for Liquid Shortening Sponge Experiment:
DMS 75g / Water 75g / Oil 75g
Flax Meal 75g / Water 150g
Potato starch 113g / Water 113g
Bob’s Egg Replacer 56g / Water 169g
Ener-G egg replacer 45g/ Water 180g
The cake with 150g was extremely undercooked, resulting in an uncontrolled variable.
The cake with 200g of sugar was oversalted.

64
9. RESULTS
Liquid-shortening Sponge Cake with egg replacers and substitutes
Type of egg
Color
1=pale
9=bright
Moistness
1=moist
9=dry
Pore Size
1=small
9=large
Height
in inches Flavor
Whole
225g
8 1 8 2 Tender
Silken tofu
225g
2 0 1 ¾
Like
pudding,
very wet
Gr. Flaxseed 75g
water 150g
1 1 2 7/8
Crumbly,
strong “tea”
flavor
Egg white
225g
3 3 3 1 1/8
Nott much
taste
Egg yolk
225g
9 4 4 1 ½
Eggy and
dense
Ener-G egg
replacer 45g
Water 180g
1 7 8 1 ½ Sticky
Egg beaters
225g
7 3 4 1 ¼
A little
sweet,
breakfast-y
Whole
225g 8 2 6 2 Basic cake

65
Overall, it is harder to find an acceptable egg substitute for a cake than it is for a cookie. This is because
in a cookie, we don’t need the egg for structure, as we do in cakes. Almost all egg substitutes work in
cookies, while the ones that worked in cakes were very few and not very good. For example, the silken
tofu added the lecithin the eggs have, biut it could not provide structure, resulting in a dense, pudding-like
cake. The Ener-G eeg replacer sucked the moisture out of ones mouth when tasting, much like cake flour,
because of the high starch content. The cake made with just egg yolks prooduced a very brith yellow cake,
that tasted dense and eggy, much like a classic sponge cake. None of the egg replacers could stand up to a
cake made with whole eggs.

66
Homework Questions:
1. What is the relationship between the presence of mono and diglicerides and the height, pore size
and moistness in a liquid shortening sponge cake?
The fats provided by the egg yolks weigh down the cake- preventing structure formation- but also
give tenderness and moistness to the cake. The cake made with just egg yolks was much shorter
than the control cake, because of the lecithin contained in the yolks.
2. What are three factors that can influence the stability of a meringue? Use examples from at least
three meringues that we made in class.
The speed of the micing affects the stability greatly- although the meringue mixed on speed 2-
rather than speed 3- took almost 4 time as long. It provuded a much more stable meringue because
the time allowed much more air to be whipped in. When the sugar is graudually poured in, rather
than dumped, it also give the meringue more time to whipe in air. Finaly, the presnce of fats- such
as egg yolk- will break down the structure of a meringue.
(Time, temperature, acid, fats, and speed)
3. Why would a cake made with egg whites (which contain about 80-90% water) result in a drier,
rather than a moister cake?
Water will escape during cooking time without the presence of fats to seal in moisture.

67
Lecture Day 6- Thickening and Gelling
Agents
• The one thing that all thickening and gelling agents have in common is that they are composed of very
large molecules.
• There are two kinds of large molecules: Polysaccharides and Proteins
• Polysaccharides
o Made up of many sugar molecules, sometimes in the thousands
• Proteins
o Very large molecules made of many amino acids linked one to the next. Again this can be in
the thousands.
• Thickening = occurs when water and other molecules or particles in a product move around slowly.
The molecules are large and therefore, they bump into each other and get entangled
o This can also happen when:
§ Starch granules absorb and trap water
§ Air bubbles in foams slow water movement (consider a meringue)
§ Emulsions (fat in water) slows water movement (consider whipped cream)
• Gelling occurs when water and other molecules in a product are prevented from moving around at all
o Polysaccharides, proteins, large molecules form a large web which traps water.
• Some products thicken and gel. That is they thicken when a little is used and gel when more is used
o Examples would be gelatin, cornstarch and pectin
• Some products will only thicken no matter how much is used. The more product that is added, the
thicker and gummier the end result
Gelatin
• Advantages of gelatin:
o Crystal clear gel with bounce and spring
o Melts cleanly in the mouth with no residue
• Gelatin comes from animal protein – pigskin but some is made with cattle bones and hides. Gelatin is
not found in any vegetable source.
• Bloom
o Bloom rating is a gauge of gelatin’s strength
o The higher the bloom rating, the firmer the resulting gel.
Vegetable Gums
• Polysaccharides that absorb large quantities of water, swelling to produce thick liquids and gels.
• Pectin
o Present in all fruits although some fruits have more than others.
o Fruits high in pectin are apples, cranberries, plums, raspberries and citrus peel.
o Pectin thickens and in the presence of acid and high amounts of sugar, it gels.
o Gels made with pectin are clear and shiny with a clean flavor (mirror glazes)

68
• Agar (also known as agar-agar)
o Derived from seaweed
o Sold as a dry white powder or in long whitish strands
o Both gel as they cool, but do so much more quickly than gelatin
o Agar is not a protein like gelatin. It is a polysaccharide. But because the end product is similar
to products using gelatin it is sometimes referred to as the vegetarian gelatin
§ Agar Vs. Gelatin: advantages and disadvantages
• Less agar is needed than gelatin for the same results
• Produces a brittle gel
• Agar gels do not need to be refrigerated in order to stay firm.
• Agar does not melt as cleanly as gelatin; therefore it does not have the pleasant
mouth feel of gelatin, especially if used improperly.
• Carrageenan
o Also comes from seaweed. Not too common but often used commercially to thicken milk
products.
• Guar Gum/Locust Bean Gum
o Come from the endosperm of beans found in the Middle East and in the Mediterranean.
o Used to thicken cream cheese and sour cream and sometimes in frozen foods like ice cream
o They are used in pasteurized egg whites and help to promote the formation of ice crystals. We
will see if there are any other attributes of egg whites with guar gum when we do the meringue
test on the egg experiment day.
• Gum Arabic
o Comes from the sap of the Acacia tree (North Africa). Its advantage is that it can stabilize an
emulsion without leaving a gummy residue on the palate.
§ Often used in icings
• Gum Tragacanth
o It comes from the sap of a shrub in the Middle East, the political environment in that part of
the world means that it is very expensive and not always readily available.
o It is used as an ingredient in gum paste.
o Tylos powder or CMC (carboxymethyl cellulose) common substitutes
• Xanthan Gum
o Because it thickens without leaving the product heavy it is often used in salad dressings to
keep the emulsion steady.
• Methylcellulose
o Cellulose is what makes up the cell walls in all plants.
o The most fascinating thing about this gum is that it thickens while hot and thins as it cools
Starches
• Like gums, starches are polysaccharides. They are made of many sugar units bonded one to another.
In the case of starch, the sugar units are glucose molecules.
• But it would be too easy if all starches had sugar bonded together in the same way:
o Amylose
§ This is a straight chain of starch molecules
o Amylopectin
§ In this case the starch molecules look more like the many branches on a tree.

69
Cereal Starches Root Starches
High in amylose High in amylopectin
Cloudy when cooled pretty clear
Firm gel when cooled thickens only, does not gel
Will weep over time much less likely to weep
Not freezer stable (weeps) less likely to weep thawed
Much thicker cold than hot same hot or cold
Tends to mask flavors less likely to mask flavors
Cereal Starches
• Extracted from the endosperm of cereal grains.
o Cornstarch is from the endosperm of corn kernels.
Root Starches
• Extracted from root or tuber plants
• They are more expensive than cornstarch but when used the end product with have better clarity and a
softer gel.
o Potato starch, arrowroot and tapioca are all examples of root starches. Sometimes they are
sold in a finely ground powder.
Modified Food Starches
• These are starches that have been treated with chemicals. Sometimes they are referred to as designer
starches because they are designed by manufactures for a particular or specific use.
Instant Starches
• These are starches that can thicken without the application of any heat.
• They are sometimes called pre gelatinized starches or cold water swelling starches. Sometimes they
are modified in addition to being pre gelatinized.
o The starch is precooked and then dried. This allows it to absorb water without any heat.
Process of Starch Gelatinization
• Inside of starch granules are tightly packed starch molecules. These are organized in a very organized
fashion.
• Once the granules are placed in cold water these molecules attract the water to them. The result is a
swelling of the granule.
• But what if the water is heated?
o Then the granules undergo an irreversible process called gelatinization.
Gelatinization: the disruption of orderliness of the starch granules, and their subsequent swelling.
As the starch molecules become more and more gelatinized, that is they are absorbing more and more
water, the water is trapped. Voila! The product becomes thickened.

70
• Once the granules are swollen if heat is still applied to them, some of the starch molecules (remember
they are inside of each granule) will leach into the hot liquid. It is natural for a beautifully cooked
pastry cream to have some of the starch leached out from the granules.
o This especially apt to happen with amylose molecules.
o The problem occurs, if the product (i.e. pastry cream) is heated for too long. The granules will
continue to leach out their molecules as long as heat is applied. They will, therefore, become
smaller and more deformed in shape. Eventually they will rupture. This degradation of the
starch granules means that the final product will not gel. Often it becomes somewhat stringy.
o Conversely undercooking or under gelatinizing starch will also result in a product that does not
thicken. This product may feel slightly gritty on the tongue because the raw starch granules
have not absorbed the required amount of water. The product will also be slightly cloudy and
will have a raw starch flavor
Why does a product (pastry cream) thicken more as it cools?
o Because the starch molecules slow down and get entangled with each other. As they become
entwined, they trap addition water, which, in turn, thickens the product.
• Factors, which affect gelatinization temperatures of various starches.
o This is important because the higher the gelatinization temperature, the longer it takes for the
starch to gelatinize and there is a greater tendency for the starch to be undercooked.
o Likewise if the required gelatinization temperature is low, it will take less time for the starches
to gelatinize and there is a greater chance for the starch to be overcooked.
o Amount of tenderizers, sweeteners and fats
§ We have already discussed that sweeteners and fats interfere with structure builder.
They slow the rate at which starch granules absorb water. This is one way that sugars
and fats tenderize baked goods.
o Amount of acid
§ Acid changes large starch molecules into smaller ones, which reduces their thickening
power.
Functions of thickening and gelling agents
• To provide a thickened or gelled texture
o They provide structure
• Increase stability
o Consider the addition of gelatin to whipped cream. When gelatin is added to whipped cream, it
solidifies the walls around the air bubbles and prevents them from breaking. Therefore, when
using whipped cream on a buffet, for example, it is a good idea to stabilize it first.
• Provide gloss or sheen to sauces, fillings, and glazes

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DEMO PREP FOR DAY 6
Group 1 - Tapioca
-Prepare flavored liquid for entire class as per formula
Group 2- Gelatin
-set up two bowls with 284g of cool water
-one cup with 58g powdered gelatin
-one sheet of gelatin
-a whisk
Group 3- Pastry Cream
-Set up a 9.25” x 3.25” sauce pan with 482 milk and 57g sugar on the range
-set aside 28g milk on table
-set up a cup with 57g sugar
-set up a bowl with 57g egg yolk and 27g whole egg (cover)
-set up 27g cornstarch
-have a whip, 2 rubber spatulas, a thermometer and an alcohol wipe ready
-cut a 24” piece of cheesecloth (rinse in cold water-ring out completely-open fully-fold in half
and
lay over a stainless steel bowl)
Group 4- Instant Starch
-Prep a 2qt stainless steel bowl with 113g raspberry puree
-set up the container of instant starch (unmeasured) and a container with 227g granulated sugar
-prep a 1qt stainless steel bowl and whisk
Group 5- Stabilized Heavy Cream
-Prep 227g heavy cream and 28g granulated sugar in a Hobart bowl with a whip attachment on the
Machine
-set up a 2qt.stainless steel bowl and a whisk
-have gelatin solution and hot water bath from demo ready on range
Group 6- Coconut Jelly with Agar- Agar
-Prep coconut milk as per formula to the point of soaking to cool
-Have cheesecloth ready to extract coconut milk (see group 3 high-lite)
-have 2 --6.25” x 3” saucepans, a stainless steel bowl and whisk ready
-scale out the 3.5g agar agar and 56g sugar
Group 7- Ice Water Bath’s
-Prep four ice water baths for pastry cream production in class (Ice only till needed) Extra ice as
needed
Group 8- Hot Bain Marie
-Set up four 5” x 9.5” large pot for a hot water bath on the back of the range and bring to a boil

72
Thickeners and Gel Agents
Type of thickener Flavor Mouth-feel/Texture
Additional
Comments
Instant Tapioca
Slimy, gooey, large
globules
Freezer starch Gummy and smooth Sticks in throat
Potato starch
Clean flavor
profile
Tapioca starch Starch aftertaste “Snotty”
Cornstarch Masks flavor Clean and smooth
Opaque, pulls away
from container
(Thickens and gels)
Rice flour A little starchy Creamy Like rice pudding
Gelatin
Very strong
gelatin flavor
Chewy and tick Jello
Arrowroot
Very flavorful,
like anise
Clean mouth feel
Agar Agar jelly coconut
Like smooth coconut
meat

73
Formula Day six- FLAVORED LIQUID
comparison experiment)
Ingredients Weight, Grams
Water 3K 178 g
Simple Syrup* 738 g
Vanilla ex. 85 g
Method of Prep:
Combine all ingredients together and stir
*SIMPLE SYRUP
Weight, Grams
Granulated Sugar 369 g
Hot Water 369 g
Method of Prep:
Combine together and bring to a boil
Formula Day six –for the comparison of thickening agents
Ingredients Weight, Grams
Assigned thickener 21 g
Flavored Liquid 454 g
1. Gather equipment
2. Place cool liquid in a small saucepan
3. Gradually whisk thickener into cool liquid.( REHYDRATE)
4. Bring to a boil, whisking constantly and cook for 2 minutes.
5. Remove from heat and pour over an ice water bath to cool while stirring. Once cool, transfer to plastic
container, label and refrigerate

74
Day six-Formula for Stabilized Heavy Cream
Heavy cream 227 g
Look at your group’s assignment for the amount of gelatin solution you will need.
1. Gather equipment and ingredients.
2. Whip heavy cream and sugar to a very soft peak on second speed.
3. Scale out the gelatin solution into a bowl and melt over a double boiler.
4. Temper about one quarter of the cream into the gelatin solution and then whisk the gelatin solution
into the cream quickly per chef’s demo.
5. Place the cream on a labeled plate, cover, and refrigerate.

75
Stabilized Whipped Cream
Texture Mouth feel
Firm or Soft
Firm=1
Soft=10
Group 1&2
No gel. solution
Very soft 0
Group 3&4
7g
More structured
whipped cream
No aftertaste 5
Group 5&6
14g
Gelatin aftertaste 7
Group 7&8
21g
Dense, and heavy Thick 1

76
Coconut Milk Formula Day six
Ingredients: Weight, Grams
Desiccated Coconut 184 g
Boiling water 567 g
Method of Prep:
Place coconut in bowl. Pour boiling water on top and allow to cool. Strain using cheesecloth method.
Reserve coconut milk (454g)
Formula day six-Coconut Jelly
Ingredients: Weight
Agar- Agar powder 3.5 g
Coconut milk* 454g
Sugar 56 g
Method of Prep:
Combine Agar Agar and sugar together whisking. Add to Coconut milk whisking and bring to boil in
small saucepan. Remove and pour into a cool saucepan of the same size and set aside undisturbed till set
(approximately 1.5hrs.)

77
Group 7
09/9/16
Friday
BPA1060
How Baking Works
LAB REPORT
Effect of thickening agents in a basic pastry cream formula
2. OBJECTIVES
To determine which thickening agent produces the most acceptable pastry cream, based on appearance,
flavor, and overall mouth feel
3. HYPOTHESIS
No cornstarch- will not form, most likely will separate
Cornstarch- Control product
Potato starch, cooked to 173- thin
Tapioca Starch, cooked to 173- thin
Do not boil- thin
Cake flour- thicker, starchier
Freezer Starch- not a good flavor
4. VARIABLE
The thickening agents in the formula
5. CONTROL PRODUCT
A Pastry cream made with 21g cornstarch, as per the formula
6. TEST PRODUCTS
Pastry cream made, as per the formula, with different thickening substitutes as follows;
No cornstarch
Cornstarch
Potato starch, cooked to 173
Tapioca Starch, cooked to 173
Do not boil
Cake flour
Freezer Starch

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