This is my report of Mushroom Cultivation ( Experiential Learning Program) , B.Sc. (Hons.) Agriculture

2. TABLE OF CONTENTS
■ ACKNOWLEDGEMENT…………..……………….... Pg1
1. Introduction………………………………………….....Pg2
2. Morphology of Mushroom……………………….…..Pg3
3. Taxonomic Classification of Mushrooms………..Pg14
4. Importance of Mushrooms………………………....Pg16
5. Nutritional Value of Mushroom………………...….Pg19
6. Medicinal Value of Mushroom……………………..Pg22
7. A. Production & Productivity Status - in the
World………………………………………………..…Pg24
B. Production & Productivity Status in India…..Pg28
8. History of Mushroom Cultivation around the World and
in India………………………………………………...Pg29
9. Cultivation Technology - Materials and
Methods…………………………………………...….Pg33
■ Visit to Small-scale Mushroom Farm
A. For Button Mushroom………………….….…..Pg35
B. For Oyster Mushroom…………………………....Pg39

3. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I, Shasyendra Yadav, would firstly thank Dr. Archana Negi for guiding us at every step
throughout the duration of this Course on Cultivation Technology of Mushrooms, under
the Experiential Learning Program of B.Sc. Agriculture.
I sincerely state hereof that extreme care has been taken from my side to present only the
reliable data from external sources. I have tried to state our step-by-step Innovative
Approach which we followed for Mushroom Production in the College laboratory, in a
detailed manner and compare it with the official recommendations provided by the
Ministry of Agriculture, GoI.
References have been provided to further support and strengthen the report data.
Yours sincerely,
Shasyendra Yadav
B.Sc. Hons. Agriculture
4th Year
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4. 1. INTRODUCTION
" A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a
fungus, typically produced above ground, on soil, or on its food source. "1
A mushroom is the reproductive structure produced by some fungi. It is somewhat like
the fruit of a plant, except that the "seeds" it produces are in fact millions of microscopic
spores that form in the gills or pores underneath the mushroom's cap. The spores blow
away into the wind, or are spread by other means, such as animal feeding. If they land on
a suitable substrate (such as wood or soil) spores will germinate to form a network of
microscopic rooting threads (mycelium) which penetrate into their new food source. The
mycelium persists, often for many years, extracting nutrients and sending up its annual
crop of mushrooms.
Mushrooms are fungi. They belong in a kingdom of their own, separate from plants and
animals. Fungi differ from plants and animals in the way they obtain their nutrients.
Generally, plants make their food using the sun's energy (photosynthesis), while animals
eat, then internally digest, their food. Fungi do neither: their mycelium grows into or
around the food source, secretes enzymes that digest the food externally, and the
mycelium then absorbs the digested nutrients.
1 Source: https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom
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5. 2. MORPHOLOGY OF MUSHROOM
In this report, I would be focusing on White Button Mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) and
Oyster Mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus) only.
■ Morphology of Agaricus bisporus :
● 2.1 Structure of Agaricus bisporus2
It can be studied in two parts:
(a) Vegetative mycelium (living inside the soil)
(b) Fruiting body or Basidiocarp (present above the soil and edible in young stage)
(A.) Vegetative Structure:
2 https://www.biologydiscussion.com/fungi/agaricus-habitat-structure-and-reproduction/24077 ; Agaricus
Habitat and Rreproduction
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6. Vegetative mycelium is of three types:
1. Primary Mycelium:
It originates by the germination of uninucleate basidiospores carrying either ‘+’ or ‘-‘
strain. The cells are uninucleate i.e., monokaryotic. It is short lived and becomes bi-
nucleate by fusing of two compatible hyphae
(Fig. 2 A).
2. Secondary Mycelium:
It originates from primary mycelium. After
fusion of the hyphae of two opposite strains,
the nucleus from one hypha migrates to the
other and later gives rise to the bi-nucleate
secondary mycelium i.e., dikaryotic. It is long
lived and abundant (Fig. 2 B).
3. Tertiary Mycelium:
The secondary mycelium grows extensively under the soil and becomes organised into
special tissue to form the fruiting body or basidiocarp. The fruiting body appears like
umbrella above ground. It is made up of dikaryotic hyphae. These hyphae are called
tertiary mycelium. The mycelium is subterranean. The hyphae are septate and branched.
The cells communicate with one another by means of a central pore in the septum. It is a
typical dolipore septum.
(B.) Reproductive Structure (Baisdiocarp):
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7. The development of the basidiocarp takes place from the subterranean mycelial strand
known as rhizomorph. After absorbing sufficient food material mycelium produces
fruiting bodies, which are very small in size and remain underground.
These tiny, pin head structures come above the soil under favourable conditions (i.e.,
after rain or when enough moisture is present in the soil). These are the primodia of
basidiocarp. These primordia enlarge into round or ovoid structures and represent the
‘button stage’ of the basidiocarp (Fig. 2 D).
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8. B.1 Development of Basidiocarp or
Sporophore
A longitudinal section of button stage
shows that it can be differentiated into
a bulbous basal portion representing
the stalk region and an upper,
hemispherical part which at maturity
forms the cap or pileus region. A ring
like cavity (gill chamber) develops at
the junction of stalk and pileus region
(Fig. 2. E).
At this stage the basidiocarp is not
fully open but the young pileus is
connected with stalk by a membrane
known as partial or inner veil or
velum. Due to rapid absorption of
water and food material, the stalk
further elongates. The button projects
above the soil and elongates
considerably. The growth is very slow
at the lower portion of the button
while it is very rapid at the upper
portion.
As a result of such growth the button develops into umbrella like cup (Fig. 2. F - H).
Velum gets broken due to enlargement of the cap and elongation of the stalk. It exposes
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9. the hymenium or the gills. Atkins (1906) described the development of basidiocarp as
hemiangiocarpic i.e., the hymenium is at first enclosed but becomes exposed at maturity.
Simultaneously, the development also takes place in the gill region. The tissue of the
upper region of the gill chamber differentiates into slow and fast growing alternate bands
called primordiutn of gills. Gills or lamellae are of three types i.e., long gills, half length
gills, quarter length gills (Fig. 2. I - K).
B.2 Structure and Anatomy of
Basidiocarp:
The mature fruiting body can be
differentiated into three parts i.e., stipe,
pileus and annulus (Fig. 2 L).
1. Stipe:
It is the basal part of the basidiocarp. In
this region the hyphae run
longitudinally parallel to each other. A transverse section of stipe shows that it is made up
of two kinds of tissue, i.e., (a) Compactly arranged hypahe in the peripheral region
known as cortex, (b) loosely arranged hyphae (with inter spaces), in the central region
known as medulla (Fig. 2 M).
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10. 2. Pileus:
The stipe at its top supports a broad umbrella shaped
cap called pileus. The mature pileus is 5 to 12.5 cm in
diameter. From the underside of the pileus hang
approximately 300 to 600 strips or plates of tissues
known as gills or lamellae. The gills are white or
pinkish in young condition and turns brown or
purplish black at maturity.
A transverse section of the gill (T. S. of gill) shows the following 3 distinct, structures
(Fig. 2.N):
1. Trama:
It is the middle part of the gill. This region is made
up of loosely arranged interwoven mass of
plectenchymatous tissue of long, slender hyphae.
These hyphae run, more or less, longitudinally.
2. Sub-Hymenium or Hypothecium:
The hyphae of the trama region curve outwards
towards each surface of the gill. They end in small
diametric cells forming a compact layer known as
sub-hymenium.
3. Hymenium or Thecium:
It is the outermost layer and lies on the surface of
sub-hymenium covering both sides of the gill.
Some branches emerge out almost at right angle to
the sub-hymenium and develop a palisade like
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11. layer consisting of basidia (fertile) and the paraphyses (sterile) (Fig. 2.N). Some of the
sterile cells become enlarged and project beyond the basidial layer. They are called as
cystidia.
B.3 Development of Basidium:
The basidia are spore producing bodies. The young basidia arise from the terminal, bi-
nucleate cells of the sub-hymenium layer (Fig. 2.O (1). As the basidium grows, the two
nuclei of the dikaryon fuse to form the synkaryon (karyogamy, Fig. 2. O (2). The diploid
nucleus soon undergoes meiosis to form four haploid nuclei (Fig. 2.O (3).
Simultaneously, four narrow tube-like structures
develop at the top of the basidium. These are called
sterigmata (sing, sterigma). The sterigmata swell at
their tips and each forms a small, single basidiospore by
budding.
A large vacuole develops in the basdium due to which
the cytoplasm and nucleus (one in each) migrate into
the budding basidiospore (Fig. 2.O. (4-5). Thus, four
haploid basidiospores are formed in a basidium. Out of
the four basidiospores, two are of ‘+’ strain and two are
of ‘-‘ strain.
The young basidiospore is un-pigmented but it develops brown or black pigments at
maturity. In A. bisporus two basidiospores are produced. The mature basidiospore is
attached obliquely at the top of the sterigmata. It has minute projection at one side of its
attachment called hilum or hilar appendix (Fig.2.O. (6).
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12. B.4 Discharge and
Disperal of
Basidiospores:
Mature basidiospores are
discharged by ‘Water drop
mechanism’ or ‘Water
bubble method’. A drop of
liquid develops at the
hilum. It increases in size
gradually and attains a size
of about one-fifth of the
spore (Buller, 1922). This
drop is called Buller’s
drop.
At this stage the
basidiospores are generally
shot away from the
sterigmata. According to
the latest view, the liquid
drop is contained in a
limiting membrane. The
membrane ruptures and
releases a pressure at the
base of the basidiospore.
Basidiospores are shot
horizontally from where
they fall vertically
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13. downwards. They are light in weight and are carried away by wind. Each basidiospore is
uninucleate and has a wall of chitin and chitosan.
B.5 Germination of Basidiospores:
After falling on the suitable substratum, basiodiospores germinate to produce primary
(monokaryotic) mycelium which is either of ‘+’ or ‘-‘ strain.
The mycelia of two different strains fuse to form a secondary or dikaryotic mycelium
(somatogamous copulation, heterothallic). However, in homothallic species, a single
basidiospore is capable to give rise to secondary mycelium. The secondary mycelium
develops the basidiocarps (Figs. 2.1 A-M, 2.3).
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14. 2.2 Morphology of Pleurotus Species :3
Fruit bodies of Pleurotus are characterized by an eccentric stalk, which may be small or
long or even absent; annulus and volva are lacking. The fruit bodies appear like petals ofa
flower, in clusters or individually. They open up like an oyster shell with the widest
margin away from the stalk; therefore, as mentioned earlier, Pleurotus species are aptly
designated as oyster mushrooms. Size varies from species to species and within the same
species when cultivated under different climatic and nutritional conditions.
Generally, the fruit bodies measure a few to several centimeters in width; the minimum
size is about 2 to 3 cm and the maximum around 15 to 20 cm. The margin may be
smooth, broken, or slightly serrated or dentated, depending on the species.
It is rather difficult to consider color as a diagnostic characteristic of a Pleurotus species.
The results of various workers have indicated that color is an extremely varying
characteristic in Pleurotus. " Depending on the conditions of culture, the fruit bodies of
the same single P. ostreatus species might be white, cream colored, brownish, dark or
black brown, gray, dark gray, or blue or black gray. It is to avoid this difficulty in
identification of an isolate based on morphological characteristics, in a species of world-
wide distribution, that Eger3 has rightly suggested the testing of any strain in question
against the reference strains by appropriate mating tests. It has been seen that P.
flabellatus fruit bodies are naturally dull white in color, sometimes also with dark shades.
During the course of repeated culturing in the mushroom houses, the fruit bodies turn
pure white in color, this may be the effect of light. The fruit bodies when cultured in
shade and darkness and at a low temperature (18 to 20°C) take on an intense pink color
which disappears under exposure to light or high temperatures (25 to 28°C). The fruiting
3 Study on Pleurotus species by Dr. Balajirao Ganipirkar; I.B.D.G. College, Nanded
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15. primordia also are more intensely pigmented, and the pigmentation decreases with
complete development of the fruit bodies.
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16. 3. TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF
MUSHROOMS :4
Here, I will be mentioning only the taxonomic classification of White Button Mushrooms
(Agaricus bisporus) and Oyster Mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus).
A. White Button Mushrooms
:
The common mushroom has a
complicated taxonomic history. It was
first described by English botanist
Mordecai Cubitt Cooke in his 1871
Handbook of British Fungi, as a variety
(var. hortensis) of Agaricus campestris.
Danish mycologist Jakob Emanuel
Lange later reviewed a cultivar
specimen, and dubbed it Psalliota
hortensis var. bispora in 1926.[10] In
1938, it was promoted to species status
and renamed Psalliota bispora. Emil
Imbach (1897–1970) imparted the
current scientific name of the species,
Agaricus bisporus, after the genus
Psalliota was renamed to Agaricus in
4Source: https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom
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17. 1946. The specific epithet bispora distinguishes the two-spored basidia from four-spored
varieties.
B. Oyster Mushrooms
The classification of species within the
genus Pleurotus is difficult due to high
phenotypic variability across wide
geographic ranges, geographic overlap of
species, and on going evolution and
speciation. Early taxonomic efforts
placed the oyster mushrooms within a
very broad category Agaricus as Agaricus
ostreatus (Jacq. 1774). Paul Kummer
defined the genus Pleurotus in 1871;
since then, the genus has been narrowed
with species moving to other genera such
as Favolaschia, Hohenbuehelia, Lentinus,
Marasmiellus, Omphalotus, Panellus,
Pleurocybella, and Resupinatus.
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18. 4. IMPORTANCE OF MUSHROOMS :5
1. As a source of Livelihood
Mushroom cultivation can directly improve llivelihoods through economic, nutritional
and medicinal contributions. However, it is essential to note that some mushrooms are
poisonous and may even be lethal, thus the need for extra caution in identifying those
species that can be consumed as food. Commercial cultivation in India has started only
recently. Growing mushroom under controlled condition is of recent origin. Its popularity
is growing and it has become a business which is export-oriented.
Today mushroom cultivation has been taken up in states like Uttar Pradesh, Haryana,
Rajasthan, etc. (during winter months) while earlier it was confined to Himachal Pradesh,
J&K and Hilly areas. Mushroom is an excellent source of protein, vitamins, minerals,
folic acid and is a good source of iron for anaemic patient.
Mushrooms are of different types:
a) Button Mushroom
b) Dhingri (Oyster)
5 http://agridaksh.iasri.res.in > PDF > Values of Mushrooms
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19. c) Paddy Straw Mushroom etc
Of all the types, button mushroom is the most popular one. Mushroom cultivation can be
done at cottage and small-scale levels besides large-scale farming.
2. Reduce Vulnerability to Poverty
Mushroom cultivation can help reduce vulnerability to poverty and strengthens
livelihoods through the generation of a fast yielding and nutritious source of food and a
reliable source of income. Since it does not require access to land, mushroom cultivation
is a viable and attractive activity for both rural farmers and peri-urban dwellers. Small-
scale growing does not include any significant capital investment: mushroom substrate
can be prepared from any clean agricultural waste material, and mushrooms can be
produced in temporary clean shelters. They can be cultivated on a part-time basis, and
require little maintenance. Indirectly, mushroom cultivation also provides opportunities
for improving the sustainability of small farming systems through the recycling of
organic matter, which can be used as a growing substrate, and then returned to the land as
fertilizer.
Successful cultivation and trade in mushrooms can strengthen livelihood assets, which
can not only reduce vulnerability to shocks, but enhance an individual’s and a
community’s capacity to act upon other economic opportunities.
3. Viable Activity
Mushroom cultivation activities can play an important role in supporting the local
economy by contributing to subsistence food security, nutrition, and medicine; generating
additional employment and income through local, regional and national trade; and
offering opportunities for processing enterprises.
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20. Since it does not require access to land, mushroom cultivation is a viable and attractive
activity for both rural farmers and semi-urban dwellers. Small-scale growing does not
include any significant capital investment: mushroom substrate can be prepared from any
clean agricultural waste increasing food and income security through incorporating
mushroom into livelihoods strategies. Case studies of successful outcomes from growing
mushrooms as a livelihood demonstrate the benefits arising from mushroom production
in terms of income, food security and consumption of healthy food.
4. Nutritional Importance
Mushrooms both add flavor to bland staple foods and valuable food in their own right.
They are often considered to provide a fair substitute for meat, with at least a comparable
nutritional value to several vegetables.
5. Economic Importance
General populace is less aware about the economic value of mushrooms. Mushroom is a
saprophytic organism and hence it utilizes organic and agricultural waste. This reduces
the burden of farmers to dispose his farm wastes. Additional income is obtained through
quality mushrooms production by utilizing these residues. Mushroom cultivation both
seasonal and commercial nature is giving handsome income to the growers. The
employment generation through cultivation and associated allied activities is so immense.
The value addition to mushrooms in terms of quality products is another economic
avenue. The positive use of spent mushroom substrate viz., biofuel, biogas production,
manures, potting medium, etc also generates additional revenue to the farmer.
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21. 5. NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF MUSHROOMS
Mushroom is considered to be a complete, health food and suitable for all age groups,
child to aged people as it contains all nutrient element required for human in desired
proportion. The nutritional value of mushroom is affected by numerous factors such as
species, variety, stage of development and environmental conditions.
Indian diet is primarily based on cereals (wheat, rice and maize), which is deficient in
protein. Supplementation of mushroom recipe in Indian diet will bridge protein gap and
improve the general health of socio-economically backward communities. Earlier
mushrooms were considered as an expensive vegetable and were preferred by affluent
peoples for culinary purposes. Currently common populace also considers mushroom as a
quality food due to its health benefits.
Mushrooms are rich in protein, dietary fiber, vitamins and minerals. The major
proportion of carbohydrate is occupied by dietary and fermentable fibers and it do not
contain starch with insignificant proportion of sugars.
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22. Edible mushrooms contain rich proteins that are composed of theronine and valine but
deficient in sulphur containing amino acids (ethionine and cysteine). The low lipid level
with no cholesterol and higher proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids is further
advantage. The ergosterol present in mushrooms is the precursor for Vitamin D synthesis
in human body.
The digestible carbohydrate profile of mushroom includes starches, pentoses, hexoses,
disaccharides, amino sugars, sugar alcohols and sugar acids. The total carbohydrate
content in mushroom varied from 26-82% on dry weight basis in different
mushrooms. The crude fibre composition of the mushroom consists of
partially digestible polysaccharides and chitin. Edible mushrooms commonly have
insignificant lipid level with higher proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids.
All these resulted in low calorific yield from mushroom foods. Mushrooms do
not have cholesterol. Instead, they have ergosterol that acts as a precursor for Vit-D
synthesis in human body. The protein content of edible mushrooms is usually high, but
varies greatly. The crude protein content of mushrooms varied from 12 – 35%
depending upon the species. The free amino acids composition differs widely but in
general they are rich in theronine and valine but deficient in sulphur containing
aminoacids (ethionine and cysteine).
Mushrooms comprise about eighty to ninety per cent of water, and eight to ten per cent of
fiber. In addition to these, mushroom is an excellent source of vitamins especially C and
B (Folic acid, Thiamine, Riboflavine and Niacin). Minerals viz., potassium, sodium and
phosphorous are higher in fruit bodies of the mushroom. It also contains other essential
minerals (Cu, Zn, Mg) in traces but deficient in iron and calcium
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23. The nutritional value of White Button Mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus)
and Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) is given in the following
tables:-
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24. 6.MEDICINAL VALUE OF MUSHROOMS
The contribution of mushrooms to medicinal industries is significant. Many
valuable drugs for the treatment of cancer, diabetics, high cholesterol, depression
and low immunity are obtained from mushrooms. The potential of medicinal
mushroom is growing day by day both domestic as well as foreign markets.
Mushroom is the only vegetarian, non-animal radix of vitamin D as it is from fungi
family and resembles some properties with plants and some with animals, it absorbs UV
rays from sunlight and is a good source of vitamin D.
Here, each health benefit is mentioned one by one.
1. Improves heart health
Mushrooms are rich source of potassium, vitamin C and contains soluble fiber which
contributes to good cardiovascular health. Potassium helps in regulating blood pressure
and soluble fiber lowers blood cholesterol levels. Vitamin C also contributes in
preventing cardiovascular illness.
2. Improves brain function
Page 22 of 68

25. with ageing.
3. Lowers risk of Diabetes
Mushrooms can reduce cholesterol levels, and also supports in
weight control and in turn reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes
4. Improves bone health
Vitamin D in mushroom contributes to bone health and some
mushrooms are exposed to sunlight to increase levels of vitamin
D and after absorbing more vitamin D, mushrooms become even
more beneficial for bone health.
5. Fights cell damage
White button mushrooms and porcini are high in antioxidants
glutathione and ergothioneine which are not commonly found in
other plants. And they contribute to fight oxidative stress and
inflammation and also fights development of chronic diseases.
6. In pregnancy
To boost fetal health, folic acid or folate plays an important role.
And mushrooms contain folate, so a cup of mushroom can help
in maintaining health of pregnant women.
7. Other benefits
Mushrooms help in improving gut health as they contain
polysaccharides which act as prebiotics for beneficial gut
bacteria.
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26. 7.A PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY OF
MUSHROOM - in the WORLD:-6
The global mushroom production as per FAO Statistics was estimated at about 2.18 to
3.41 million tons over period of 1997-2007 (Wakchaure, 2011).
Mushroom market value is expected to exceed USD 50 billion in the next seven years
due to growing mushroom demand in from the recent past. The recent update shows that
the market had a value of $35 billion in 2015. Between 2016 and 2021, the market is
expected to grow by 9.2 percent. This would bring its size to nearly $60 billion in 2021.
China, USA, Netherlands, Poland, Spain, France, Italy, Ireland, Canada and UK are the
leading mushroom producers (Table 1).
6 Advances in Mushroom Research in the Last Decade
Leifa Fan, Huijuan Pan, Andrea Thomaz Soccol, Ashok Pandey and
Carlos Ricardo Soccol
Institute of Horticulture, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 198 Shiqiao Road,
310021 Hangzhou-ZJ, PR China
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27. Key mushroom products include shiitake, button, oyster, and others which contain paddy
mushroom, milky mushroom, reishi mushroom, and winter mushrooms, Morchella spp.
and Tuber magatum. The most notable increase in mushroom cultivation and production
occurred in China, United States, Netherlands, India and Vietnam, according to the FAO
April 2014.
According to the German trade association, the production of mushrooms total volume
will exceed 70,000 tons, whic is an increase of 3,000 tons compared to 2015. Agaricus
mushrooms are the most cultivated in the United States, in 2015/2016, their production
amounted to 461,000 tons. Two US-owned multinational companies have some
ownership in canning operations in China and India.
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28. World mushroom production total share 40% mushroom were exported by China
in recent years; the majority has been domestic consumption (Fig. 4). In 2015 the
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29. total mushroom production of 260 million kg produced by 120 mushroom farms in
Netherlands (Jos, 2017). The Brazilian market is growing by about 20 percent per
year and the demand is covered by their domestic producers. South Korea
produces large quantity and cultivates wide range of mushrooms like oyster, enoki
and shimeji mushrooms. South Korea produces about 25,500 tons of mushrooms
every year, according to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO).
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30. 7. B PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY OF
MUSHROOM - in INDIA:-7
The total mushroom production in India is approximately 0.13 million tons (2010-2017),
the growth of mushroom industry an average of 4.3% per annum (Sharma et al., 2017).
India exporting 105.4 tons of white button mushrooms in canned and frozen form and
button mushroom contribute total 15% of the share in the world production (Singh et al.,
2017).
In India around 182 thousand
metric tonnes of mushroom was
produced in the year 2019.
Statewise distribution of the
mushroom production is shown
in the following chart below:-
7 National Institute of Open Learning;
http://vos.nios.ac.in/vocational/Mushroom%20Production%20(618).html
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31. 8. HISTORY OF MUSHROOM CULTIVATION
AROUND THE WORLD and in INDIA7 :-
The consumption of mushrooms probably occurred during prehistory, in the hunting and
gathering period. Unlike plants, mushrooms could not be cultivated at first and were
collected for a long period of time. Even today, relatively few species of mushrooms can
be cultivated compared to the number of edible species. Mushrooms were thought to be
special and supernatural in origin – 4600 years ago, the Egyptians believed mushrooms to
be plants of immortality; the Pharaohs decreed that only they could eat mushrooms. The
Romans thought mushrooms were the food of the gods. Many people collect mushrooms
for the purpose of consumption, but lots of myths and false concepts still survive today.
Mushroom Houses built from Palm leaves in Eastern Asia
The Chinese and Japanese have utilised mushrooms for medicinal purposes for thousands
of years. Lentinus edodes, Shiitake, was originally cultured in China about 800 years ago.
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32. Research in Japan claims that this mushroom has medicinal use – Shiitake was combined
with AIDs drugs to boost immune response, combat chronic fatigue and induce antibody
formation to Hepatitis B; it also stimulated antitumor activity. Auricularia polytricha,
“ear fungus”, was first cultivated in ancient China around 300 to 200 B.C. This
mushroom is now cultivated in many South Pacific countries. Flammulina velutipes,
Enokitake, has been cultivated for several centuries; this small delicate mushroom was
cultivated on sawdust.
Different cultures cultivated different species – cultivation of mushrooms in Western
cultures was first recorded in Paris, France, around 1650. Agaricus bisporus, the
quintessential “shop mushroom”, was first observed growing in melon crop compost.
This mushroom was cultivated in open fields for 160 years and then moved underground
into caves, excavated tunnels or quarries – this form of cultivation is still used in France
today. From France, the gardeners of England found Agaricus bisporus a very easy crop
to grow which required little labour, investment and space. By 1865, the United States
began mushroom cultivation. There are two widely known genetic variants of Agaricus
bisporus – these are Portobello and Crimini.
Truffles have been collected as far back as 1600 B.C. As recently as 1903, truffles were
believed to be a product of oak trees. Until after World War II, the only means of
obtaining truffles was collecting them in the wild. These subterranean mushrooms cannot
be “cultivated” in the usual sense because they form a mycorrhizal (symbiotic)
relationship with the roots of trees. The two most popular species “cultivated” are Tuber
melanosporum, the Perigord Truffle, and Tuber magnatum, the White Truffle (both are
not British). The idea of “growing” truffles began in 1972, in an oak plantation – this
required up to 10 years or more before the first truffles were harvested. Numerous efforts
have been made to grow oaks outside of their native area that mostly failed, until 1987,
when some New Zealanders attempted to grow truffles – this was successful and it only
took 5 years to harvest the mushrooms.
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33. Numerous attempts have been made to cultivate morels but this mushroom has never
been successfully cultivated commercially. Although there are several species of edible
morels, Morchella esculenta is the most sought after; during 1980 in the United States,
Ron Ower grew the first Morchella esculenta, but his yield was very low. Several years
later, Gary Mills of Neogene Corporation, collaborated with Ron and seemed to
successfully produce a high yield method, but it only worked in Michigan; attempts to
use this method elsewhere failed.
In India, we cultivate mainly four types of mushrooms viz., button, oyster, paddy straw
and milky mushroom. The total estimated mushroom production in India in 2016 was
around 1.3 lakh tonnes, of which button accounted for 3/4th of the production. Some of
the mushrooms like morels are still collected from forests and we have not succeeded in
cultivating these in our country.
Button mushroom is an introduced crop
in India. Cultivation of button mushroom
in India started in mid 60s in hilly region
of Himachal and J&K as the low
temperature required was naturally
available in these regions.
Later on, its cultivation started under
controlled conditions in other regions. At
present the mushroom production systems
in our country are mixed type i.e. both
seasonal farming as well as high-tech
industry. Mushroom production in India
was only 5000 tonnes in 1990 that increased
to over 1,00,000 tonnes in 2010, and to
Page 31 of 68

34. 1.30,000 tonne in 2016. At present (2019) the total mushroom production is estimated to
be 1,90,000 tonne.
Button mushroom is cultivated throughout the year by commercial units and also
during winter months by seasonal growers. The cultivation is more in Maharashtra,
Gujarat, Goa, Haryana, Punjab, Uttrakhand, and Himachal Pradesh. Cultivation
of paddy straw mushroom is localized to Odisha while milky mushroom is more
popular in southern part of India. Oyster is more popular in East, even though it
is cultivated in many other parts of the country. There are many species of oyster
and globally maximum numbers of species of this mushroom are under cultivation.
The regions of mushrooms and the temperature range at which these are cultivated
is shown in Fig. 1.8.
Page 32 of 68

35. 9. CULTIVATION TECHNOLOGY - MATERIAL
and METHODS :
In this report, I have attempted to draw parallels and contrasts between the
Recommendations of National Horticulture Board v/s Innovative
Approach followed by final year students (Batch 2017-21) of B.Sc.Ag ;
TMU , under the guidance of Dr. Archana Negi.
Various levels of technologies are available for production of button mushroom-right
from cottage industry of China to automated and mechanized technology of the
developed countries of Europe. The whole process of mushroom production can be
divided into the following steps:
(i) Spawn production
(ii) Compost preparation
(iii) Spawning
(iv) Spawn running
(v) Casing
(vi) Fruiting
Page 33 of 68

36. ■ Visit to Mushroom Cottage Industry -
In order to provide better understanding of the Cultivation of Mushrooms prior to
practically doing it ourselves,, an educational visit was held on 11th February, 2021
under guidance of Dr. Archana Negi and Dr. Girja Shanker Tewari.
The Cottage Industry we visited was in Village Dhanora of Amroha District, Uttar
Pradesh. This visit was very useful and helped us effectively plan our activities and better
utilize our resources.
Final year students with Dr. Archana Negi & Dr. Girja Shankar Tewari alongside the Cottage
farm owner, Dhanora, Amroha, UP - during the educational visit.
Page 34 of 68

37. A. For Button Mushroom (Agaricus bisporus)
9.A.1a Spawn (Mushroom seed) Production (NHB
Recommendations)8
Spawn is produced from fruiting culture/stocks of selected strains of mushrooms under
sterile conditions. Stock culture may be produced in the lab or may be obtained from
other reputed sources. Fruiting culture is mainly imported from various places including
foreign sources which give higher yield and the spawn is produced in the lab.
Spawns are Scientifically developed in Mushroom Spawn Laboratory.
• Take good Quality Wheat Grain (neither chipped nor Cracked )
• Grains are washed in Clean water
• Boiling of grains is done for 20 – 30 mins and then they are filtered out with the help of
sieve.
• Keep for drying for about 30 mins.
• Gypsum ( CaSo4.2H2O , 2%) and Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3 , 0.5%) is added
and mixed well.
• The mixture is now filled in packets and kept in Autoclave at 126° Celsius, 22 Pound
Pressure for 2 hours for Sterilization.
• After 2 hours, packets are removed and kept in Inoculation Chamber at 24 – 25° Celcius
temperature for maintenance of Moisture.
• Then, these seeds are treated under UV Rays in Laminar Air Flow.
• Fungus is introduced in these packets, and hence Master Culture OR Mother Spawn is
prepared.
8 Model for Cultivation of Button Mushroom; http://nhb.gov.in/pdf/Cultivation.pdf&ved=
Page 35 of 68

38. 1 Packet Master Culture = 15 to 20 Packets of Commercial Spawn
• All these packets are kept in Incubation Chamber.
• Spawns of Button Mushroom are ready in 20 – 22 days.
• Oyster and Milky White Mushroom spawns are ready in 7 –10 days.
• When Spawn Run is visble in whole packet, it indicates that the spawn is now ready.
• It can be preserved in Cold Room at 4 – 6°Celsius temperature for 20 – 25 days.
• Spawn must not have stickiness and Bad odour (specifically Ammonia smell).
700-800gm Spawn is required for 1 Quintal Compost.
9.A.1b Spawn Production (our Innovative Approach):
In order to produce spawns of mushrooms, we first need to obtain pure culture. For
getting pure culture of mushroom, we prepared media suitable for the growth of
mushroom and inoculated it with a part of mushroom. After few days mushroom spawns
grew in it. Pure culture is obtained from it and mixed with treated seeds of good quality
wheat to produce the spawns.
The detailed steps are discussed below:-
1.1 Preparation of Media
Mushroom grows well in PDA in labs.
Page 36 of 68

39. Materials Required:- Potato, Conical Flask, Pan, Stove or Induction cooker,
Autoclave, distilled water, Chloramphenicol Capsules(Antibiotic), Peeler and Muslin
cloth.
Procedure:-
a. 200g of potato is taken and peeled and washed. This peeled
potato is then cut into small pieces.
b. This potato is then boiled in
1 Litre of distilled water until
potato is totally cooked.
c. The cooked potato solution is cooled down and
strained with muslin cloth and all the liquid is extracted.
d. Then water and dextrose is added to the potato extract
and boiled again to dissolve everything completely.
e. After this it is poured in conical flasks upto half of its
capacity and 1-2 capsules of chloramphenicol is added
per litre of the media. Then the mouth of the flask is
closed with cotton plug.
f. The media is then autoclaved at 121°C for 15 minutes.
And the media was prepared.
Page 37 of 68

40. 1.2 Isolation
Once the desired media i.e. PDA is ready, it
was time for the isolation of culture. The
following steps are followed for the isolation:-
a. The laminar airflow is cleaned with spirit and
the surface is wiped properly. The UV light of
the laminar airflow is also turned with the
blower for 15 minutes to get it ready for
isolation.
b. Hands are sanitized with alchol and all the
essential materials like tissue, beaker,
inoculating needle, media, etc are put inside the laminar airflow.
c. A petridish is half opened and some amount of media is poured into it and it is kept
half open to let it cool slowly.
d. A mushroom is cut into two halves and the inner gills portion, a small part is cut with
the help of a disecting knife which was already flame sterlized.
e. The small portion of mushroom is then dipped into a solution of sodium hypochlorite
for about 30 seconds for surface sterlization and followed by dipping it into distilled
water for 1 minutes each in three time with fresh distilled water.
Page 38 of 68

41. f. After surface sterilization, it is kept on a tissue paper to absorb excess moisture from it
and then with the help of an inoculating needle, which isflame sterlized just before use,
the inocule is put in the petridish which has solidified media.
g. The petridish is then sealed with paraffin tape and kept inside the incubator at 25℃.
h. After 2-5 days, mycelium of mushroom can be seen growing inside the petridish.
1.3 Spawn Production
After the pervious process, mushroom culture is purified 2-3 times by the same process
done earlier. It gives purest culture of mushroom and free from any other contamination.
Page 39 of 68

42. For making spawn, following steps were taken:-
• Sorghum or wheat grains are washed throughly with water and any chaff is removed
and grains are cleaned.
• Grains are cooked in an autoclave for 30 minutes just to soften them.
• Take out the cooked grains and spread evenly over a Hessian cloth on a platform to
remove the excess water.
• Mix Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) thoroughly with the cooked, dried grains @ 20 g / kg.
• Fill the grains in polypropylene bags up to ¾ th height (approximately 300-330 g/bag),
insert a PVC ring , bold the edges of the bag down and plug the mouth tightly with non-
absorbent cotton wool.
• Cover the cotton plug with a piece of waste paper and tie tightly around the neck with a
jute thread.
• Arrange the bags inside an autoclave and sterilize under 20 lbs. pressure for 2 hours.
• Take out the bags after cooling and keep them inside the culture room and put on the
UV light.
• After 20 minutes put off the UV light and start working in the culture room. Cut the
fungal culture into two equal halves using a inoculation needle and transfer one half
portion to a bag.
Similarly, transfer another half portion of the culture to an another bag.
● Incubate the inoculated bags in a clean room under room temperature for 10 days
for further use to prepare bed spawn.
NOTE:- We were not able to obtain pure culture or spawn of any mushroom due to
contamination. We tried multiple times but failed. So, eventually in the end we
bought spawns of both Agaricus and Pleurotus from the market.
Page 40 of 68

43. 9.A.2a Compost Preparation (NHB Recommendations)
According to National Horticulture Board (Department of Agriculture & Cooperation,
Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India) there are broadly 2 types of Methods for
Compost Preparation for the cultivation of Button Mushrooms:
1. Long Duration Method ( Requires 30 – 33 days ; Cheap and requires no use of
heavy machinery )
2. Short Duration Method ( Requires 5 – 10 days ; Requires use of heavy
machinery )
And the Materials required for these methods are:
A. NHB Recommendations for 100 Quintal of Compost (for Button Mushroom
only):
• Wheat / Paddy husk-------------------- 500 Kg
• Poultry feces / Manure---------------- 200 Kg
• Wheat Bran (Chokar)------------------- 50 Kg
• Urea ----------------------------------------7 – 8 Kg
■ Long duration Method ( 28 days )
Major steps involved are:
• Spread wheat husk on Pucca floor and wet it uniformly to make it absorb as much water
as possible.
• Leave for 24 hours.
• After 24 hrs, add all other ingredients and mix it well preferably with the garden fork.
• Keep the mixture for 4 days .
• Make piles 5ft height and width and length as desired.
• Start overturning / upturning the compost from 6th Day.
• Total 8 upturns are required from Day 6 to Day 28.
Page 41 of 68

44. The substrate on which button mushroom grows is mainly prepared from a mixture of
plant wastes (cereal straw/ sugarcane bagasse etc.), salts (urea, superphosphate / gypsum
etc), supplements (rice bran/ wheat bran) and water. In order to produce 1 kg of
mushroom, 2.2 kg of dry substrate materials are required. The ratio of C: N in a good
substrate should be 25-30: 1 at the time of staking and 16-17: 1 in the case of final
compost.
During the first phase of compost preparation, wheat straw and chicken manure are
wetted thoroughly till they absorbed sufficient water (around 75%). Leached water is
collected in a goody pits for the purpose is regularly sprayed over the raw material. After
through wetting of the substrate and aerobic stakes or a simple heap is made out of such
material. After two days the stakes is broken, water is added to the dry portion and again
stack is made. For achieving high temperature and more homogenous compost artificial
aeration may be provided to this heap by passing 10-15 m² of air per ton of wet compost
per hour through the stack. To have artificial ventilation in the stake, working floor of the
composting yard is provided with under stake aeration ducts connected with the required
blowers installed at one end of the yard. These blowers blow small quantities of air
regularly or at fixed intervals through Gl or plastic pipes. Specific bunkers can also be
constructed for this purpose. Pre-wetting and mixing of ingredients is must before
starting actual composting preparation on zero days and the stack made during this
process are wide with low height of 3-4 ft.
Compost Turner - recommended by
National Horticulture Board for medium
and large scale farms.
● Zero (0) day:
Page 42 of 68

45. On this day the stack is again broken and the entire quantity of other material like urea
and wheat bran are added, water is also added if required and a high aerobic stake is
made. Turning can be done manually or by compost turner built for the purpose.
Similarly the compost is again turned after every two days and gypsum is added at third
turning. In all 3 to 4 turnings are given. On 8 to 10 days, the compost is ready for
pasteurization to be affected in bulk chamber. This marks the end of phase -1.
■ Characteristics of the compost after Phase - I and before Phase -II
● Brownish throughout. Pieces of straw gleaming and wet.
● Straw rather long but can be broken with some force.
● Properly hydrated, around 72-75% moisture; when squeezed drops of water appear
between the fingers.
● Very heavy smell of ammonia, pH approximately around 8.2 to 8.5.
● Still sticky and slimy, hands get dirty and wet.
● Actinomycetes (fire fangs) not so apparent.
● Nitrogen content between 1.5 to 2.0%; ammonia concentration around 800-1000
ppm.
● Phase - Il
The second phase is the pasteurization phase .The compost prepared as a result of
microbe mediated fermentation process needs to be pasteurized in order to kill
undesirable microbes and competitors and to convert ammonia into microbial protein.
The whole process is carried out inside a steaming room where an air temperature of 60°
C is maintained for 4 hours.
Page 43 of 68

46. ■ Characteristics of the compost after Phase -II
● Dark brown in colour, full of thermophilic fungi and actenomycetes.
● It is soft, straw breaks rather easily.
● Moisture around 64-66% no liquid oozes out when squeezed firmly.
● Pleasant sweet smell.
● No stickiness. Hand stay clean and dry.
● N contents >2% with pH 7.5.
● Ammonia <10 ppm.
■ Composting Schedule (NHB Recommendations):
nth Day Activity to be Done
0th Day Mixing and wetting and of the ingredients out doors
1st Day Tuming, trampling by Bobcat and thorough mixing of the
ingredients, addition on water.
2nd Day High aerobic heap
4th Day Filling in the Phase - bunker
7th Day Emptying the bunker, turning and mixing of the compounding
mixture and re-filling the compost in another Phase - I bunker
10th Day Phase-I operation over and compost transferred to Phase-Il tunnel
16th Day Phase-Il operation over
Page 44 of 68

47. 9.A.2b Compost Preparation (our Innovative Approach) :
This phase of compost preparation usually occurs outdoors although an enclosed building
or a structure with a roof over it may be used. A concrete slab, referred to as a wharf, is
required for composting. In addition, a compost turner to aerate and water the ingredients,
and a tractor-loader to move the ingredients to the turner is needed. In earlier days piles
were turned by hand using pitchforks, which is still an alternative to mechanized
equipment, but it is labor intensive and physically demanding.
We used simple pitch forks and spades only for turning of compost.
We prepared compost for button mushroom by short method. This method takes around
36 days roughly.
The required materials for compost preparation with short method are listed below in
required proportion:-
Page 45 of 68

48. a.) Wheat Straw……………………….…...……… 100 Kg
b.) Poultry Manure………………….………….… 40 Kg
c.) Urea………………………………………...……. 1.5 Kg
d.) Carbendazem………………………...…………. 20 gm
e.) Formalin……………………………….………… 200 ml
f.) Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O).............................. 2% Solution
For the preparation of compost for the production of Agaricus bisporus or Button
mushroom, we firstly soaked the wheat straw in water for atleast 48 hours. Wheat straw
are filled in jute bags and then are dipped in water and kept for 48 hours, by filling the
straw in jute bags its handling becomes very easy and also helps to drain excess moisture
from the straw.
After 48 hours, the bags filled with soaked
straw are taken out of water and drained on a
slopy surface to remove excess water from the
straw.
After draining the straw, all straw are spread
on a black polythene sheet and urea, poultry
manure is mixed in the straw throughly. After
everything is mixed properly, heap of the
mixture is formed and carbendazim and
formaline is mixed. This makes sure that the
substrate is free from any pathogen and contamination.
Size of heap is kept around 1-2m broad and six foot high and length according to need.
Then the heap is covered with black polythene properly and sealed as much as it can be
with the help of stones and other weight.
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49. When the substrate is covered with black polythene, it starts to decompose and Ammonia
(NH3) is released from the substrate. Also, the temperature of the heap starts to rise and
this also checks the growth of any unwanted pathogen in the substrate.
■ Turning Schedule of the Compost
In order to form the substrate evenly and release ammonia from it, it is turned after
fewdays. The turning are listed in the following table:-
Turning of the compost pile is necessary in order to relocate the hay or straw from hot
side to the colder side, and adding of water as per requirement of the substrate. Turning
provides air to move throughly and uniformly in the stack and also helps to release the
excess Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and Ammonia (NH3) from the compost.
Page 47 of 68

50. ■ Conducting Hand fist Moisture
Checks of the Compost from time to
time:-
Moisture check of compost can be done by hands
and observing carefully. Simply compost is taken in
hand and pressed inside the fist, if any water drips
from it then the moisture level is high but if it wets
palm easily and not much water drips from it then
the moisture is considered to be perfect for the
substrate preparation.
If straws seem dry then water should be sprayed
evenly on the stack and mixed well to moisten
whole straw. Water should always be sprayed on the
substrate so no water logging appear at any
particular place and the substrate gets wet evenly.
■ Ideal pH Levels:-
Sample of the substrate is taken after 7th turning and pH was measured. pH of the
substrate was around 5.0 which was quiet acidic, so gypsum was added to it to increase
the pH around 7.
On last turning, the substrate was observed carefully. No foul smell of ammonia was
observed and dark brown colour of the substrate showed that it was ready. Actinomycetes
fungi were also found in the substrate and white mycelium of it was present all over the
Page 48 of 68

51. substrate, it was a sign that our Compost is nutrient rich for good Fungal growth and the
temperature is optimum.
Page 49 of 68

52. 9.A.3a Spawning [ NHB Recommended ]
The process of mixing spawn with compost is called spawning. The different methods
followed for spawning are given below:
(i) Spot Spawning: Lumps of spawn are planted in 5 cm. deep holes made in the
compost at a distance of 20-25 cm. The holes are later covered with compost.
(ii) Surface Spawning: The spawn is evenly spread in the top layer of the compost and
then mixed to a depth of 3-5 cm. The top portion is covered with a thin layer of compost.
(iii) Layer Spawning: About 3-4 layers of spawn mixed with compost are prepared
which is again covered with a thin layer of compost like in surface spawning.
The spawn is mixed through the whole mass of compost at the rate of 7.5 ml/kg.
compost or 500 to 750 g/100 kg. compost (0.5 to 0.75%). [NHB, MoA, Govt. of India
Recommendation].
■ Spawn Running
After the spawning process i s over, the compost is filled in polythene bags (56x60 cm)
100-150 gauge thick having a capacity of 10-12 kg. per bag).
The compost can also be filled in plastic trays/shelves which are either covered with a
newspaper sheet or polythene. The fungal threads grow out from the spawn and take
about two weeks (12-14 days) to colonize the entire compost. The temperature
maintained in cropping room is 24+2° C. Higher temperature is detrimental for growth of
the spawn and any temperature below than that specified for the purpose would result in
Page 50 of 68

53. slower spawn run. The relative humidity should be around 90% and a higher than normal
CO, concentration would be beneficial.
9.A.3b Spawning ( our Innovative
Approach):
For 100 kg substrate, 750 grams of spawn was
taken.
In order to mix the spawn with the substrate,
substrate was taken on other black polythene in
shade, this polythene was sanitized with a clean
muslin cloth dipped in spirit.
After sanitization of the polythene, we spread the substrate and spawn was broadcasted
over it. After this, it was mixed properly and thoroughly with hands so that an even
spread of spawn can be obtained.
9.A.4 Bagging:-
After mixing of the substrate, it was bagged in transparent polythene bags with 8 kg
substrate mix in each bag. Earlier it was decided to fill the bag with 10kg of substrate but
that will leave a little space for caseing soil, so we decided to fill the bags with 8kg
substrate only. Mouth of the poly bags were closed with rubber bands and these were
kept in the crop room.
■ Spawn run:-
Page 51 of 68

54. Temperature of the crop room was set to around 21℃ for the spawn run of the
mushroom. Spawn run usually occurs within a week.
9.A.5a Casing (NHB Recommended)
The compost beds after complete spawn run should be covered with a layer of soil
(casing) about 3-4 cm. thick to induce fruiting. Casing is a top dressing applied to the
spawn run compost on which the mushroom eventually form. Clay-loam ground field
soil, a mixture of peat moss with limestone, or reclaimed weathered, compost can be
used spent as casing. Casing doesnot need to have nutrients as it works as a water
reservoir where rhizomorphs form.
Rhizomorphs are thick strings and form where fine mycelium fuses together.
In the cultivation of agaricus, we need casing soli for casing of the mushroom and to
induce reproductive growth of the mushroom.
The casing material should be having high porosity, water holding capacity and the pH
should range between 7-7.5. Peat moss which is considered to be the best casing material
is not available in India, as such the mixtures like garden loam soil and sand (4:1);
decomposed cow dung and loam soil (1:1) and spent compost (2-3 years old); sand, burnt
rice husk and lime are commonly used.
The casing soil before application should be either pasteurized (at 65-68° C for 7-8 hours
or treated with formaldehyde (2%) and bavistin (75 ppm). The treatment needs to be done
at least 10 days before the material is used for casing. After casing is done the
temperature of the room is again maintained at 24 ±2°C and relative humidity of 85-90%
for another 8-10 days.
Page 52 of 68

55. 9.A.5b Casing ( our Innovative
Approach)
• For casing soil preparation, we took 30kg
garden soil, 20 kg vermicompost and 10 kg
cocopeat. These all are mixed throughly and
evenly. After that, 2g Carbendazem and 100
ml formalin is added to the mixture to remove
any pathogen present in the soil and make it free
from any other fungus and bacteria.
• Now this mixture is covered with black
polythene and left outdoors for 3 days.
• After 3 days, the soil is ready for casing.
A good Casing Soil must have low-nutrient
value and good water holding capacity. Its
ideal pH level is 7.5 - 8.
A layer of casing soil was spread evenly on the
spawn run mushroom bags. Water is also sprayed
to maintain proper moisture levels.
Page 53 of 68

56. 9.A.6a Fruiting (NHB Recommendations)
Fruiting is induced by slowly lowering the temperature to 17 1° C along with moisture
(2-3 light sprays per day for moistening the casing layer), humidity (85-90%), proper
ventilation and CO, concentration (0.08-0.15 %). The fruit body initials which appear in
the form of pin heads start growing and gradually develop into button stage.
9.A.6b Fruiting ( our Innovative Approach)
Pinhead structures formed from the rhizomorphs after
casing was done. These pinhead size mushrooms
continued to grow further and harvestable size mushroom
was obtained after an interval of 18-20 days.
Pinheads form when the CO2 level in the room is below
0.08% or lower depending on the cultivar. This can be
achieved by introduction of fresh air inside the crop room.
Proper moisture of casing should be maintained, if not
done so then pinhead will start forming below the
casing soil and this may reduce the quality and also
quantity of produce.
9.A.7 Pest & Diseases
The insect pests mostly observed are nematodes, flies (phorids, cecids and sciarids) mites
and springtails.
The crop is susceptible to several diseases like dry bubble, wet bubble, cobweb, green
mould, yellow mould, false truffle (truffle disease), olive green mould, brown plaster
mould, bacterial blotch, etc.
Page 54 of 68

57. Professional help and extension must be sought to adopt appropriate and timely control
measures against pests and diseases. We were lucky as we didn't face any serious pests,
thanks to our guide Dr. Archana Negi.
However, during spawn run, we encountered a
Bluish Black coloured weed of mushroom that is
INKY CAP MUSHROOM, these mushroom
belong to Class Agaricomycetes and grow as a
weed in the substrate of agaricus and need to be
removed as they can hinder the growth and
development of Button mushroom.
9.A.8 Harvesting and Yield
Harvesting is done at button stage and caps measuring 2.5 to 4 cm. across and closed are
ideal for the purpose. The first crop appears about three weeks after casing. Mushrooms
need to be harvested by light twisting without disturbing the casing soil. Once the
harvesting is complete, the gaps in the beds should be filled with fresh sterilized casing
material and then watered.
Mushrooms were harvested at an interval of 3-5 days and were harvested upto 30-50
days.
About 18-20 kg. fresh mushrooms per 100 kg of Compost can be obtained in two months
crop.
Page 55 of 68

58. For longer harvesting period, it is required to maintain proper moisture levels and the
temperature of the crop room. Ventillation and watering of crop room should be done
time to time to reduce CO2 levels and proper moisture and humidity is maintained.
9.A.9a Post Harvest Management (NHB Recommended)
After harvesting, lower portion should be cut down as it may be woody and it is also
covered with casing soil. After this it may be washed and packed as soon as possible.
Storing of harvested mushrooms should be done at low temperatures only otherwise the
quality will degrade in one or two days.
It is advisable to market the produce as soon as possible in order to avoid any losses.
Mushrooms can be packed according to sizes and assorted accordingly. This will also add
extra values to the produce.
(I) Packing and Storage (NHB
Recommended)
(A) Short Term Storage
Button mushrooms are highly perishable. Harvested
mushrooms are cut at the soil line and should preferably
be packed and marketed unwashed. However, if washing
is required then mushrooms may be washed in a solution
of 5 g Potassium metabisulphite in 10 litres of water for
removing the soil particles. After removing excess water
Page 56 of 68

59. these are packed in perforated poly bags each containing around 250-500 g. The current
trend is to market
Page 57 of 68

60. unwashed mushrooms packed in plastic punnets. of mushrooms. Mushrooms can be
stored at 4-5° C for a short period of 3-4 days and wherever facility of cold room is
available mushroom should be shifted to the cold room soon after harvesting.
The mushrooms are usually packed in unlabelled simple polythene or polypropylene bags
for retail sale. In developed countries, modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) and
controlled atmosphere packaging (CAP) are in vogue.
(B)Long Term Storage
White button mushrooms are not usually dried by common procedures used in case of
oyster, paddy and shitake mushrooms. Canning is the most popular method of preserving
the white button mushrooms and sizeable quantity of canned produce are exported to
international markets. Besides
that, freeze drying, IQF and
pickling are also practiced by
some units.
9.A.8b Packing and
Storage (our Innovative
Approach)
We didn't have to pack or store
our havrvested Mushrooms as we
had arranged pre-bookings and
instant informal buyers were
available from the University
who were eager to buy fresh
produce right away. Hence no
Page 58 of 68

61. Cultivation Technology - Materials and Methods
(Continued)
B. For Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus):9
The procedure for oyster mushroom cultivation can be divided into following four steps:
(i) Preparation or procurement of spawn
(ii) Substrate preparation
(iii) Spawning of substrate
(iv) Crop management
9.B.1 Spawn Preparation
A pure culture of Pleurotus sp. is needed for inoculation on
sterilized substrate. It takes 10-15 days for mycelial growth
on cereal grains. It has been reported that jowar and bajra
grains are superior over wheat grains.
We bought our spawns from the market as we weren't able to obtain pure culture.
9 Model for Cultivation of Oyster Mushroom on a small scale;
http://nhb.gov.in/pdf/Cultivation.pdf&ved=2ah
Page 59 of 68

62. 9.B.2a Substrate Preparation (NHB Recommendations)
Oyster mushroom can be cultivated on a large number of agro-wastes having cellulose
and lignin which helps in more enzyme production of cellulose that is correlated with
more yield. These include straw of paddy, wheat and ragi, stalk and leaves of maize,
millets and cotton, used citronella leaf, sugarcane bagasse, saw dust, jute and cotton
waste, dehulled corncobs, pea nut shells, dried grasses, sunflower stalks, used tea leaf
waste, discarded waste paper and synthetic compost of button mushrooms etc. It can also
be cultivated by using industrial wastes like paper mill sludges, coffee byproducts,
tobacco waste, apple pomace etc.
The popular methods of substrate preparation are:
· Steam Pasteurization;
· Hot Water Treatment;
· Sterile Technique (Till method);
· Fermentation or Composting; and
· Chemical Sterilization.
9.B.2b Substrate Preparation ( our
Innovative Approach):
In order to prepare compost for oyester mushroom, we did
the following steps:-
• 100 kg wheat straw was filled in jute bags. This was done
for yhe easier soaking of the straw and also drainage of
excess water can be done with an ease.
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63. • These bags filled with straw are then dipped in water and kept in it for soaking for about
48 hours.
• 125 ml Formalin and 8g Carbendazem is added to per 100 Litre water prior to soaking.
This disinfects the straw making it free from any other pathogen.
• After soaking was done, straw filled bags are taken out from the water and excess
moisture is drained by keeping the bags on a slope.
• Now, bags are emptied on a clean polythene sheet or floor for further spawning.
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64. 9.B.3a Spawning of Substrate (NHB Recommended)
Freshly prepared (20-30 days old) grain spawn is best for spawning. Old spawn (3-6
months) stored at room temperature (at 20-300 C) forms a very thick mat like structure
due to mycelium aggregation and sometimes young pinheads and fruit bodies start
developing in the spawn bottle itself. The spawning should be done in a pre-fumigated
room (48hrs.with 2% formaldehyde).
9.B.3b Spawning of Substrate ( our
Innovative Approach):
For spawning of oyster mushroom we followed the below
steps:-
• Polythene bags of 10 kg capacity are taken. These bags
are filled with the substrate about 2 inches high and then
spawn are sprinkled over and evenly. This process is done
in each bags and around 5 layers are made.
• After layering the spawns, bags are closed with the help
of rubber bands.
• Small holes are made in the poly bags with the help of a pencil or pen. These holes were
randomly made and cotton is inserted in it so that excess moisture can get out of the bag.
They also aid in aeration.
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65. • These holes will later provide space for the emergence of mushrooms.
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66. 5.4.4 Crop Management
9.B.4a Incubation (NHB Recommended)
Spawned bags, trays or boxes are arranged in a dark cropping room on raised platforms
or shelves for mycelium colonization of the substrate. Although mycelium can grow from
10 to 330 C, but the optimum temperature for spawn running lies between 22 to 260 C.
9.B.4b Incubation ( by our
Innovative Approach)
Mushrooms require high humidity to grow
well. During summers the humidity can
decrease and need to be kept constant by
watering and other means. If humidity falls
to some lower levels then the quality of
mushroom can degrade and production will
be affected.
For maintaining humidity in the crop room
we spread some jute bags on the floor and
wetted these bags daily two times in the
morning and in evening. Apart from this we also watered the bags and filled them with
water because their water level was decreasing rapidly.
After these steps our desired humidity rate was obtained and mushroom growth was seen
to be excellent.
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67. 9.B.5 Fruiting
When the mycelium has fully colonized the substrate, the
fungus is ready for fruiting. Contaminated bags with moulds
may be discarded while bags with patchy mycelial growth
may be left for few more days to complete mycelial growth.
While various species require different temperature regimes
all require high humidity (70-85%) during fruiting. Frequent
spraying of water is required in the cropping room depending
upon the atmospheric humidity. Fruit body produced under
humid conditions (85-90%) is bigger with less dry matter
while those developed at 65-70% relative humidity are small with high dry matter.
CO2 concentration during cropping should be less than 600 ppm. or 0.6%. Sufficient
ventilation has to be provided during fruiting.
9.B.6 Plant Protection Measures
The crop is suspectible to attacks from flies (sciarid, cecid) spring tails and mites.
Timely spraying with insect specific insecticides is needed.
The crop is prone to fungal diseases. Several competitor moulds e.g. Aspergillus sp.,
Cladosporium sp. and Fusarium sp., Rhizopus sp. have been reported to occur in the
substrate used for cultivation. Spraying with Bavistin or Benomyl is a recommended
control measure.
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68. The crop is also subject to diseases like yellow blotch, brown spot and bacterial rot,
control measures which are needed include:
· Proper management of temperature and humidity during growing period.
· Regular application of chlorinated water containing 100 – 150 ppm of freely
available chlorine at an interval of 3 – 5 days
· Application of oxytetracycline and streptocycline.
9.B.7 Harvesting and Yield
The right shape for picking can be judged by the shape and
size of the fruit body. The fruit bodies should be harvested
before spore release, by twisting so that the stubs are not left
on the beds (straw). It is advisable to pick all the mushrooms
at one time from a cube and the next flush will appear at one
time.
More than 500 kg. of fresh mushrooms per ton of dry wheat
or straw can be obtained in case of crop produced in 45-60
days.
Our first flesh of Oyster Mushrooms produced 18.3 Kg
mushrooms.
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69. 9.B.8. POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT
9.B.8.a Storage
(I) Short-term Storage
Fresh mushrooms are packed in perforated polythene bags which are directly sent to the
local market situated nearby. Freshly harvested mushrooms can be stored at low
temperature (0-50 C) for 1-2 weeks without loss in quality in case it is to be sent to the
distant markets.
(II) Long-term Storage
Dried mushroom with 2-4% moisture, can be stored for 3-4 months in sealed pouches
without any change in taste. The dried produce can be rehydrated in luke warm water
(40-500 C) within 20-30 mins. giving 80-90% of original weight.
9.B.8.b Packing and Transportation
Fresh mushrooms are packed in perforated
polythene bags. Poly pouches containing
crushed ice and overwrapped in paper are put in
trays/baskets which are then covered with thin
polythene sheet with sufficient perforation for
proper aeration. The pre-packed pouches (250 or
500 g.) can be transported by roadways in
trucks, buses depending upon the quantity to be transported.
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70. 9.B.8.c Marketing
Domestic marketing does not pose a problem at present because only small quantities are
being traded. As production develops, marketing promotion measures will need to be
undertaken to bolster the demand.
Export potential exists and needs to be taken advantage of by organizing cooperatives of
producers linked to commercial units for processing fresh mushroom into dehydrated
powder for export.
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