Social sciences block report

PracticalFieldTraining&ReportSubmission2
SocialSciencesBlock
1
FIELDTRAININGREPORT
Title: ConstructionofSocialSciencesBlock
Submittedto: Engr.M.Zamran
Submittedby: Group#3
Class: BSc.CivilEngineeringTechnology4
th
(semester)
Session2015-19
Quaid-e-AzamCollegeofEngineeringandTechnology
Sahiwal
Affiliatedwith

SocialSciencesBlock
2

SocialSciencesBlock
3
CONSTRUCTIONOFSOCIALSCIENCESBLOCK.
ThisprojectreportissubmittedtoQUAID-E-AZAMCOLLOGEOF
ENGINEERINGANDTECHNOLOGYSAHIWALforthepartialfulfillmentof
therequirementforthe
B.Sc.
CivilEngineeringTechnology
ApprovedBy;
Project Advisor;
sign¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬________________
ExternalExaminer; sign_________________
HeadofDepartment; sign_________________

SocialSciencesBlock
4
B.Sc.EngineeringTechnology(Civil)
4
th
semester
Session2015-19
Group#3
RelatedSubject:FieldReport
ProjectTitle:ConstructionofSocialSciencesBlock
ConstructionofSocialSciencesBlock
inQCETSahiwal

SocialSciencesBlock
5
ProjectAdvisor: Engr.M.Zamran
GroupLeader: ShafqatAbbas
GroupMembers: Reg.No.
AamirSajjad 2015-UET-QET-PTK-CIVIL.TECH-05
M.Saifullah 2015-UET-QET-PTK-CIVIL.TECH-09
M.Taj 2015-UET-QET-PTK-CIVIL.TECH-10
ShafqatAbbas 2015-UET-QET-PTK-CIVIL.TECH-14
SyedIjazHaider 2015-UET-QET-PTK-CIVIL.TECH-18
AbdulQadeer 2015-UET-QET-PTK-CIVIL.TECH-25
M.AzizFaisal 2015-UET-QET-PTK-CIVIL.TECH-26

SocialSciencesBlock
6
Dedication
“DEDICATEDTOOURBELOVEDPARETNTSANDTEACHERS”
Withouttheirpatience,understanding,supportandmostofalllove,thecompletionof
thisprojectreportwouldnothavebeenpossible.

SocialSciencesBlock
7
Acknowledgements
ALLthethanksandgratitudeareonlyduetoALMIGHTYALLAH.Themostgracious,
ThemostMercifulandthemostBeneficent,whoguidedusindarknessandgiveus
knowledgewithwhichwecantrytoconquertheuniverseandunderstandthelawof
nature.RespectsareforthebelovedHolyProphetMUHAMMAD(S.A.W)whoenableus
torecognizeusourcreator.
Weareextremelythankfultoourprojectadviser,averyhardworkingandqualified
personEngr.M.Zamran,LecturerDept.ofCivilEngineeringandEngr.AsifRazaHeadof
Dept.ofCivilEngineeringTechnologyinQCETSahiwal,forthewayhetrainedusfor
future,hisconstanthelp.Giddinessandattentionthoughouttheproject.Hewaskind,
understanding and sympathetictowardsus.Indeed,working with him,hewasa
blessingforus.
Attheendacknowledgementswillremainincomplete,untiltheencouragingroleofour
Parents,Brotherandsisterisnotgreatlyrecognizedandultimatelyappreciated.

SocialSciencesBlock
8
ABSTRACT
Fieldtrainingandreportsubmissionisoneofthemaincoursesincivilengineering
technology.Thepurposeofthiscourseistoapplythetheoreticalknowledgeinto
practicalwork.Therewastwomainpartsandthesecondpatisofficework.
Thestudentcanbetrainedassiteengineer,itgiveyoutheopportunitytosupervisethe
constructionworkclosely,orasdesignengineerusingsoftwareprogramssuchas
Prokon,Sttad,AutoCAD,Etabetc.

SocialSciencesBlock
9
Contents
Chapter#1 11
INTRODUCTION 11
Climate: 11
Broadcastmedia: 11
Universities: 12
Sports: 12
Projectdetail 13
Chapter#2 14
LiteratureReview 14
ConstructionMaterials: 14
Cement 14
SAND 17
Aggregate 20
Steel 21
Bricks 23
Chapter#3 25
Methodology 25
Cementtest 25
INITIAL&FINALSETTINGTIME 25
FINENESS 27
SOUNDNESS 29
TESTSONAGGREGATES 30
SIEVEANALYSIS 30
WATERABSORPTION 31
CONCRETE 32
COMPRESSIONTEST 33
TESTSONSOIL 34
WATERCONTENT 34
LIQUIDLIMIT 35
MAXIMUMDRYDENSITYANDOPTIMUM MOISTURECONTENT 37

SocialSciencesBlock
10
Chapter#4 40
SubStructure 40
Layout 40
Types. 40
Excavation 44
Foundation 45
Types 45
BackFill 49
Ourprojectuse 49
Dpc 50
Chapter#5 53
Superstructure 53
Column 53
Steel columns 53
Types 54
Shortcolumn 54
LongColumn 54
Sill 55
Ourprojectuse 55
Formwork 56
Types 56
Ourprojectuse 57
Slab 58
Types 58
Ourprojectuse 60
Beam 60
Chapter#6 61
TestResult 61
Chapter#7 65
Drawback 65
Chapter#8 67
Drawings 67
Listofdrawings: 67

SocialSciencesBlock
11
Chapter#9 71
RecommendationsAndConclusion 71
Recommendation: 71
Conclusions: 71
Chapter#10 72
References 72

SocialSciencesBlock
12
Chapter#1
INTRODUCTIONTOSAHIWAL
SahiwalisacityinPunjab,Pakistan.ItistheadministrativecentreofSahiwalDistrict
andSahiwalDivision.Sahiwalisapproximately180km from themajorcityLahoreand
isthecitybetweenLahoreandMultan.Thepopulationis207,388(1998Pakistan
Census).AsmallvillageontheKarachi-Lahorerailwaylineduring1865wasnamed
MontgomeryafterSirRobertMontgomery,thenLieutenant-GovernorofPunjabwas
madethecapitaloftheMontgomeryDistrict.ItsnamewasreinstatedasSahiwalin
1967aftertheSahiclanofKharalRajpootswhoarethenativeinhabitantsofthisarea.
.Demography:
In2012,theestimatedpopulationofSahiwalcityis270,269.Thecityispredominantly
Punjabispeakingandis99%Muslim.TheoverallpopulationofdistrictSahiwalisabout
2millionin2012.
Climate:
TheclimateofSahiwaldistrictisextreme,reaching52°Cinsummer,anddownto-5°C
inwinter.Thesoilofthedistrictisveryfertile.Theaveragerainfallisabout2000mm.
Broadcastmedia:
Therearevariousradioandcablenetworksbroadcastinginthecity,suchasRadio
AwazFM 105.Sahiwal,SunRiseFM 96SahiwalradioandcablenetworkslikeVoltas
CableNetwork,GalaxyCableNetworkandGeoCablenetwork.Volta’scablenetworkis
providing280+channels,geocableisproviding168channels,galaxycableisproviding
60channels,themaincompaniesprovidingdial-upinternetfacilitiesareBrainNetand
CyberNet.WorldCallWirelesshasalsostarteditsoperationinSahiwal.
Colleges:
SahiwalMedicalCollege,GovernmentCollegeforWomen,Sahiwal,alsocontainsthe
Baha-u-DeenZikria University (BZU)sub-campus.One ofthe oldestInstitutes of
CommerceistheGovernmentCollegeofCommerce,Sahiwal.
RoyalCollegeofCommerceSahiwalisaCommerceCollegeinSahiwalandisaheadof

SocialSciencesBlock
13
many contemporary educationalinstitutes ofSahiwalDivision.RoyalCollege of
CommerceisinthemainareaofthecityofSahiwal.TheEducatorsCollegehas
separatecampusesforboysandgirls.PunjabGroupofCollegeshasalsoopenedtheir
campusinthiscityin2010.
TherearetwoGovernmentCollegesforTechnicalEducationthatofferthreeyearsDAE
&B.Techinvariousdisciplines.TherearemanyPrivateTechnicalEducationInstitutes
thatofferDAE&B.Tech.AllamaIqbalPolytechnicInstituteisthefirstinstitutetooffer
DAEinMechanicalTechnology(since2003).FaridiaIslamicUniversityisalsolocatedat
Sahiwal.TheSahiwalBoardhasalsobeenestablished.Whichwillnow conductthe
examsofhigher&highersecondaryeducation.TheDPSCollegehasalsogotthebest
overallresultinMultanboardandhadgot3rdpositioninpre-medicalexamsinMultan
board.
Universities:
AlotisbeingplannedfortheeducationsectorinSahiwal.Quaideazam groupsof
collegesahiwal.BZUMultanisplanningitsseparatesub-campusinSahiwal,andland
hasbeenacquiredforthispurpose.Itishopedthattheuniversitywillbecompletein
twoyearsandwillbecalledthe'UniversityofSahiwal'.TheVirtualUniversityofPakistan
hasopeneditsregionalaswellasprivatecampusinSahiwal,andoffersdistantlearning
programmes.RegionalCampusissituatedatcollegechowkupperbuildingofBakers
Inn.TheCommissiononScienceandTechnologyandSustainableDevelopment,inthe
South,i.e.,COMSATShasopeneditssixthcampusatSahiwal.ItisaPublicSector
University,CharteredbyFederalGovernmentprovidingqualityeducationinthefieldof
ManagementSciences and ComputerSciences atboth undergraduate and post
graduatelevel.COMSATShasanedgeoveritscompetitorinstitutionsandithasforeign
qualifiedandexperiencedfacultyatitsSahiwalcampus.
Sports:
ZafarAliStadium isamulti-purposestadium inSahiwal.Itisusedforfootballand
Cricketgames.Thestadiumholds10,000people.

SocialSciencesBlock
14
Projectdetail
Projectname: Socialsciencesblock
Clientname:
AliHassan&Sons
ProjectHead: MubasharHassan
Consultant: QCETSahiwal
WorkAllotted: 27-12-2016
Contractor: Shafique&CO
SiteEngineer Aamir

SocialSciencesBlock
15
Chapter#2
LiteratureReview
ConstructionMaterials:
Cement
Inthemostgeneralsenseoftheword,cementisabinder,asubstancethatsetsand
hardensindependently,andcanbindothermaterialstogether.Theword"cement"
tracestotheRomans,whousedtheterm opuscaementicioustodescribemasonry
resemblingmodernconcretethatwasmadefrom crushedrockwithburntlimeas
binder.Thevolcanicashandpulverizedbrickadditivesthatwereaddedtotheburnt
limetoobtainahydraulicbinderwerelaterreferredtoascementum,cimentum,cäment,
andcement.
Cementsusedinconstructioncanbecharacterizedasbeingeitherhydraulicornon-
hydraulic.Hydrauliccements(e.g.,Portlandcement)hardenbecauseofhydration,a
chemicalreactionbetweentheanhydrouscementpowderandwater.Thus,theycan
hardenunderwaterorwhenconstantlyexposedtowetweather.Thechemicalreaction
resultsinhydratesthatarenotverywater-solubleandsoarequitedurableinwater.Non
-hydrauliccementsdonothardenunderwater;forexample,slakedlimeshardenby
reactionwithatmosphericcarbondioxide.Themostimportantusesofcementareasan
ingredientintheproductionofmortarinmasonry,andofconcrete,acombinationof
cementandanaggregatetoformastrongbuildingmaterial.
Differentratiofordifferentpurpose
Purpose c/sratio
9”brickwork 1:6
4.5”brickwork 1:4
Plastering 1:4
Roofplasters 1:3

SocialSciencesBlock
16
Physicalproperties
Finesse
 Soundness
Consistency
Settingtime
Compressivestrength
Heatofhydration
Specificgravity
Bulkdensity

SocialSciencesBlock
17
Portlandcement
Portlandcementwasdevelopedfrom naturalcementsmadeinBritainintheearlypart
ofthenineteenthcentury,anditsnameisderivedfrom itssimilaritytoPortlandstone,a
typeofbuildingstonethatwasquarriedontheIsleofPortlandinDorset,England.
JosephAspdin,aBritishbricklayerfrom Leeds,isconsideredtobetheoriginatorof
Portlandcement.AprocessforthemanufactureofPortlandcementwaspatentedin
1824.
Inordertoachievethedesiredsettingqualitiesinthefinishedproduct,aquantity(2–8%,
buttypically5%)ofcalciumsulfate(usuallygypsumoranhydrite)isaddedtotheclinker
andthemixtureisfinelygroundtoformthefinishedcementpowder.Thisisachievedin
acementmill.

SocialSciencesBlock
18
SAND
Sandisanaturallyoccurringgranularmaterialcomposedoffinelydividedrockand
mineralparticles.Thecompositionofsandishighlyvariable,dependingonthelocal
rocksourcesandconditions,butthemostcommonconstituentofsandininland
continentalsettingsandnon-tropicalcoastalsettingsissilica(silicondioxide,orSiO2),
usuallyintheformofquartz.
Typicalconstituents of Portland clinker plus gypsum
C em en t ch em ists n o ta tio n u n d er C C N .
C l i n k e rC C NM ass %
Tricalcium silicate (CaO )3 · SiO 2 C 3 S45–75%
Dicalcium silicate (CaO )2 · SiO 2 C 2 S 7–32%
Tricalcium alum inate (CaO)3 · Al2 O3 C 3 A 0–13%
Tetracalciumaluminoferrite (CaO)4 ·Al2O3 ·Fe2O3 C4 AF 0–18%
G y p s u m C a S O 4 · 2 H 2 O 2–10%

SocialSciencesBlock
19
Thesecondmostcommonform ofsandiscalcium carbonate,forexamplearagonite,
whichhasmostlybeencreated,overthepasthalfbillionyears,byvariousformsoflife,
likecoralandshellfish.Itis,forexample,theprimaryform ofsandapparentinareas
wherereefshavedominatedtheecosystemformillionsofyearsliketheCaribbean.
Composition
Intermsofparticlesizeasusedbygeologists,sandparticlesrangeindiameterfrom
0.0625mm (or1⁄16mm)to2mm.Anindividualparticleinthisrangesizeistermeda
sandgrain.Sandgrainsarebetweengravel(withparticlesrangingfrom 2mm upto64
mm)and silt(particlessmallerthan 0.0625 mm down to 0.004 mm).Thesize
specificationbetweensandandgravelhasremainedconstantformorethanacentury,
butparticlediametersassmallas0.02mm wereconsideredsandundertheAlbert
Atterbergstandardinuseduringtheearly20thcentury.A1953engineeringstandard
publishedbytheAmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials
settheminimum sandsizeat0.074mm.A1938specificationoftheUnitedStates
DepartmentofAgriculturewas0.05mm.[1]Sandfeelsgrittywhenrubbedbetweenthe
fingers(silt,bycomparison,feelslikeflour).Themostcommonconstituentofsand,in
inlandcontinentalsettingsandnon-tropicalcoastalsettings,issilica(silicondioxide,or
SiO2),usuallyintheform ofquartz,which,becauseofitschemicalinertnessand
considerablehardness,isthemostcommon mineralresistantto weathering.The
compositionofmineralsandishighlyvariable,dependingonthelocalrocksourcesand
conditions.Thebrightwhitesandsfoundintropicalandsubtropicalcoastalsettingsare
erodedlimestoneandmaycontaincoralandshellfragmentsinadditiontoother
organicororganicallyderivedfragmentalmaterial,suggestingsandformationdepends
onlivingorganisms,too.
TypesofSand
Dependuponsourcewhichfromobtainareclassified
Pitsand

SocialSciencesBlock
20
Itisfound asdepositin soiland hasto be excavated out.Itsgrain a genially
sharp&angular.Itisfreefrom organicmatter&clay.Itisextremelygoodforusein
mortarsandconcrete.Itisexcavatedfromadepthofabout1-2mfromGL.
Riversand
Thissandiswidelyusedforallpurpose.Itisobtainfrom thebank&bedsofriverandit
consistsoffineroundedgrain.Thisriversandisalmostwhiteincolor.
Seasand
Sandseeisobtainfrom theseashores.Itconsistsoffineroundedgrainliketheriver
sand.Itislightbrownincolor.Sincetheseesandcontainssalts.Italertsmoisturefrom
theatmosphere.

SocialSciencesBlock
21
Physicalpropertiesofsand
 Sandisubiquitious.Itmakesupmostbeachandriverdeposits.
 Sandisconcentratedbyselectivetransport.
 Sandisleftatbeachesasthefinerclayparticlesarewashedouttosea
Aggregate
Constructionaggregatearesimplyaggregateisabroadcategoryofcoarseparticulate
materialusedinconstructionincludingsand,gravel,crush,stoneetc.
Courseaggregate
Coarseaggregatesareparticlesgreaterthan4.75mm,butgenerallyrangebetween
9.5mm to37.5mm indiameter.Theycaneitherbefrom Primary,SecondaryorRecycled
sources.Primary,or'virgin',aggregatesareeitherLand-orMarine-Won.Gravelisa
coarsemarine-wonaggregate;land-woncoarseaggregatesincludegravelandcrushed
rock.Gravelsconstitutethemajorityofcoarseaggregateusedinconcretewithcrushed

SocialSciencesBlock
22
stonemakingupmostoftheremainder.Secondaryaggregatesarematerialswhichare
theby-productsofextractiveoperationsandarederivedfrom averywiderangeof
materials
Steel
A steelbar(shortforreinforcingbar),collectivelyknownasreinforcingsteeland
reinforcementsteel.isasteelbarormeshofsteelwiresusedasatensiondevicein
reinforcedconcreteandreinforcedmasonrystructurestostrengthenandholdthe
concreteintension.Rebar'ssurfaceisoftenpatternedtoform abetterbondwiththe
concrete.
Typesofsteelbars:
Mildsteelbars
Deformedsteelbars

SocialSciencesBlock
23
Mildsteelbars:
MildsteelbarsareusedfortensilestressofRCC(Reinforcedcementconcrete)slab
beamsetc.inreinforcedcementconcretework.Thesesteelbarsareplaininsurface
andareroundsectionsofdiameterfrom 6to50mm.Theserodsaremanufacturedin
longlengthsandcanbecutquicklyandbebenteasilywithoutdamage.
Deformedsteelbars:
Asdeformedbarsarerodsofsteelsprovidedwithlugs,ribsordeformationonthe
surfaceofbar,thesebarsminimizeslippageinconcreteandincreasesthebond
betweenthetwomaterials.Deformedbarshavemoretensilestressesthanthatofmild
steelplainbars.Thesebarscanbeusedwithoutendhooks.Thedeformationshouldbe
spacedalongthebaratsubstantiallyuniformdistances.
Physicalpropertiesofsteel:
Thepropertiesofsteelarecloselylinkedtoitscomposition.Forexample,thereisabig
differenceinhardnessbetweenthesteelinadrinkscanandthesteelthatisuseto
makeapairofscissors.Themetalinthescissorscontainsnearlytwentytimesas
muchcarbonandismanytimesharder.Changingthecarboncontentchangesthe
propertiesofthesteelandthewaythatitisused.
Strength
Toughness
Ductility
Weldability
Durability

SocialSciencesBlock
24
Advantages:
Steelprovidesseveraladvantagesoverotherbuildingmaterials,suchaswood.
Steelis “green” product;it is structurally sound and manufactured to strict
specificationsandtolerance.Itisalsoenergyefficient.Anyexcessmaterialis100
percentrecyclable.
Steeldoesnotwarp,buckle,twistorbend,andisthereforeeasytomodifyandoffers
designflexibility.Steelisalsoeasytoinstall.
Steeliscost-effectiveandnearlyfluctuatesinprice.
Steelallowsforimprovedqualityofconstructionandlessmaintenance,whileoffering
improvedsafetyandresistance.
Withthepropagationofmoldandmildewinresidentialbuildings,usingsteelminimizes
theseinfestations.Moldneedsmoist,porousmaterialtogrow.Steelstudsdonothave
thoseproblems.
Disadvantages:
Heatconductivity:Calculationsshowsthatthewebofan18-guagesteelstudisabout
31timesthinnerthana“two-by”woodstud;however,steelconductthat310timesmore
efficientlythanwood.Asanetresult,a“two-by”steelstudwillconduct10timesmore
heatthana“two-by”woodstud.
Bricks
A brick isablockorasingleunitofa ceramic materialusedin masonry construction.
Typically bricks are stacked together or laid as brickwork using various kinds
of mortar toholdthebrickstogetherandmakeapermanentstructure. Bricksare
typicallyproducedincommonorstandardsizesinbulkquantities.Theyhavebeen
regardedasoneofthelongestlastingandstrongest buildingmaterials usedthroughout
history.
Inthegeneralsense,a"brick"isastandard-sizedweight-bearingbuildingunit.Bricksare
laidinhorizontalcourses,sometimesdryandsometimeswithmortar.Whentheterm is

SocialSciencesBlock
25
usedinthissense,thebrickmightbemadefrom clay,lime-and-sand,concrete,or
shaped stones.
BrickComponents
Modernclaybricksareformedinoneofthreeprocesses–softmud,drypress,or
extruded.
Normally,brickcontainsthefollowingingredient
 Silica(sand)–50%to60%byweight
 Alumina(clay)–20%to30%byweight
 Lime–2to5%byweight
 Ironoxide–≤7%byweight
 Magnesia–lessthan1%byweight
AdvantagesofBricks
Theuseofmaterialsuchasbrickscanincreasethethermalmassofabuilding.

SocialSciencesBlock
26
Mosttypesofmasonrytypicallywillnotrequirepaintingandsocanprovidea
structurewithreducedlife-cyclecosts.
Masonryisveryheatresistantandthusprovidesgoodfireprotection.
Masonrywallsaremoreresistanttoprojectiles,suchasdebrisfrom hurricanes
ortornadoes.
Masonrystructuresbuiltincompressionpreferablywithlimemortarcanhavea
usefullifeofmorethan500yearsascomparedto30to100forstructuresof
steelorreinforcedconcrete.
DisadvantagesofBricks
Extremeweathercausesdegradationofmasonrywallsurfacesduetofrost
damage.Thistypeofdamageiscommonwithcertaintypesofbrick,thoughrare
withconcreteblocks.
Masonrytendstobeheavyandmustbebuiltuponastrongfoundation,suchas
reinforcedconcrete,toavoidsettlingandcracking.
Save for concrete,masonry construction does not lend itself wellto
mechanization,andrequiresmoreskilledlaborthanstick-framing.

SocialSciencesBlock
27
Chapter#3
Methodology
Cementtest
INITIAL&FINALSETTINGTIME
OVERVIEW
Initialsettingtimeisthattimeperiodbetweenthetimewaterisaddedtocementand
timeatwhich1mmsquaresectionneedlefailstopenetratethecementpaste,placedin
theViccat’smould5mmto7mmfromthebottomofthemould.
Finalsettingtimeisthattimeperiodbetweenthetimewaterisaddedtocementandthe
timeatwhich1mm needlemakesanimpressiononthepasteinthemouldbut5mm
attachmentdoesnotmakeanyimpression.
APPARATUS
 MEASURINGINSTRUMENTS
 OTHERAPPARATUS
VicatApparatus

SocialSciencesBlock
28
ENVIRONMENTALCONDITION
PROCEDURE
(A)TESTBLOCKPREPARATION
1.Beforecommencingsettingtimetest,dotheconsistencytesttoobtainthewater
requiredtogivethepastenormalconsistency(P).
2.Take400gofcementandprepareaneatcementpastewith0.85Pofwaterby
weightofcement.
3.Gaugetimeiskeptbetween3to5minutes.Startthestopwatchattheinstant
whenthewaterisaddedtothecement.Recordthistime(t1).
4.FilltheViccatmould,restingonaglassplate,withthecementpastegaugedas
above.Fillthemouldcompletelyandsmoothoffthesurfaceofthepastemakingit
levelwiththetopofthemould.Thecementblockthuspreparediscalledtestblock.
(B)INITIALSETTINGTIME
1.Placethetestblockconfinedinthemouldandrestingonthenon-porousplate,
undertherodbearingtheneedle.
2.Lowertheneedlegentlyuntilitcomesincontactwiththesurfaceoftestblockand
quickrelease,allowingittopenetrateintothetestblock.
3.Inthebeginningtheneedlecompletelypiercesthetestblock.Repeatthisprocedure
i.e.quicklyreleasingtheneedleafterevery2minutestilltheneedlefailstopierce
theblockforabout5mm measuredfrom thebottom ofthemould.Notethistime
(t2).
(C)FINALSETTINGTIME
1.Fordeterminingthefinalsettingtime,replacetheneedleoftheVicat’sapparatusby
theneedlewithanannularattachment.
2.Thecementisconsideredfinallysetwhenuponapplyingthefinalsettingneedle
gentlytothesurfaceofthetestblock;theneedlemakesanimpressionthereon,
whiletheattachmentfailstodoso.Recordthistime(t3).
CALCULATION
 Initialsettingtime=t2-t1
 Finalsettingtime=t3-t1,
Where,
t1=Timeatwhichwaterisfirstaddedtocement
t2=Timewhenneedlefailstopenetrate5mmto7mmfrombottomofthemould
t3=Timewhentheneedlemakesanimpressionbuttheattachmentfailstodoso.

SocialSciencesBlock
29
PRECAUTIONS
 Releasetheinitialandfinalsettingtimeneedlesgently.
 Theexperimentshouldbeperformedawayfromvibrationandotherdisturbances.
 Needleshouldbecleanedeverytimeitisused.
 Positionofthemouldshouldbeshiftedslightlyaftereachpenetrationtoavoid
penetrationatthesameplace.
 Testshouldbeperformedatthespecifiedenvironmentalconditions.
TESTSONCEMENT
FINENESS
 AIM
TodeterminethefinenessofcementbydrysievingasperIS:4031(Part1)-1996.
 PRINCIPLE
Thefinenessofcementismeasuredbysievingitthroughastandardsieve.The
proportionofcement,thegrainsizesofwhich,islargerthanthespecifiedmeshsizeis
thusdetermined.
 APPARATUS
i)90µmISSieve
ii)Balancecapableofweighing10gtothenearest10mg
iii)Anylonorpurebristlebrush,preferablywith25to40mm bristle,forcleaningthe
sieve
PROCEDURE
i)Weighapproximately10gofcementtothenearest0.01gandplaceitonthesieve.
ii)Agitatethesievebyswirling,planetaryandlinearmovements,untilnomorefine
materialpassesthroughit.
iii)WeightheresidueandexpressitsmassasapercentageR1,ofthequantityfirst
placedonthesievetothenearest0.1percent.

SocialSciencesBlock
30
iv)Gentlybrushallthefinematerialoffthebaseofthesieve.
v)Repeatthewholeprocedureusingafresh10gsampletoobtainR2.ThencalculateR
asthemeanofR1andR2asapercentage,expressedtothenearest0.1percent.When
theresultsdifferbymorethan1percentabsolute,carryoutathirdsievingandcalculate
themeanofthethreevalues.
CONSISTENCY
AIM
Todeterminethequantityofwaterrequiredtoproduceacementpasteofstandard
consistencyasperIS:4031(Part4)-1988.
PRINCIPLE
Thestandardconsistencyofacementpasteisdefinedasthatconsistencywhichwill
permittheViccatplungertopenetratetoapoint5to7mm from thebottom ofthe
Viccatmould.
APPARATUS
VICATAPPARATUS
i)VacateapparatusconformingtoIS:5513-1976
ii)Balance,whosepermissiblevariationataloadof1000gshouldbe+1.0g

SocialSciencesBlock
31
iii)GaugingtrowelconformingtoIS:10086-1982
PROCEDURE
i)Weighapproximately400gofcementandmixitwithaweighedquantityofwater.The
timeofgaugingshouldbebetween3to5minutes.
ii)FilltheViccatmouldwithpasteandlevelitwithatrowel.
iii)Lowertheplungergentlytillittouchesthecementsurface.
iv)Releasetheplungerallowingittosinkintothepaste.
v)Notethereadingonthegauge.
vi)Repeattheaboveproceduretakingfreshsamplesofcementanddifferentquantities
ofwateruntilthereadingonthegaugeis5to7mm.
SOUNDNESS
AIM
TodeterminethesoundnessofcementbyLe-ChateliermethodasperIS:4031(Part3)-
1988.
APPARATUS
FIG.3:LE-CHATELIER'STESTAPPARATUS
i)TheapparatusforconductingtheLe-ChateliertestshouldconformtoIS:5514-1969
ii)Balance,whosepemissiblevariationataloadof1000gshouldbe+1.0g
iii)Waterbath
PROCEDURE
i)Placethemouldonaglasssheetandfillitwiththecementpasteformedbygauging
cementwith0.78timesthewaterrequiredtogiveapasteofstandardconsistency(see
Para1.2).
ii)Coverthemouldwithanotherpieceofglasssheet,placeasmallweightonthis
coveringglasssheetandimmediatelysubmergethewholeassemblyinwaterata
temperatureof27±2oCandkeepittherefor24hrs.

SocialSciencesBlock
32
iii)Measurethedistanceseparatingtheindicatorpointstothenearest0.5mm(saydl).
iv)Submergethemouldagaininwateratthetemperatureprescribedabove.Bringthe
watertoboilingpointin25to30minutesandkeepitboilingfor3hrs.
v)Removethemouldfromthewater,allowittocoolandmeasurethedistancebetween
theindicatorpoints(sayd2).
vi)(d2–dl)representstheexpansionofcement.
TESTSONAGGREGATES
SIEVEANALYSIS
AIM
Todeterminetheparticlesizedistributionoffineandcoarseaggregatesbysievingas
perIS:2386(PartI)-1963.
PRINCIPLE
Bypassing the sample downward through a seriesofstandard sieves,each of
decreasingsizeopenings,theaggregatesareseparatedintoseveralgroups,eachof
whichcontainsaggregatesinaparticularsizerange.
APPARATUS
ASETOFISSIEVES
i)AsetofISSievesofsizes-80mm,63mm,50mm,40mm,31.5mm,25mm,20mm,
16mm,12.5mm,10mm,6.3mm,4.75mm,3.35mm,2.36mm,1.18mm,600µm,300µm,
150µmand75µm
ii)Balanceorscalewithanaccuracytomeasure0.1percentoftheweightofthetest
sample
PROCEDURE
i)Thetestsampleisdriedtoaconstantweightatatemperatureof110+5oCand
weighed.
ii)ThesampleissievedbyusingasetofISSieves.
iii)Oncompletionofsieving,thematerialoneachsieveisweighed.
iv)Cumulativeweightpassingthrougheachsieveiscalculatedasapercentageofthe

SocialSciencesBlock
33
totalsampleweight.
v)Finenessmodulusisobtainedbyaddingcumulativepercentageofaggregates
retainedoneachsieveanddividingthesumby100
WATERABSORPTION
AIM
TodeterminethewaterabsorptionofcoarseaggregatesasperIS:2386(PartIII)-1963.
APPARATUS
i)Wirebasket-perforated,electroplatedorplasticcoatedwithwirehangersfor
suspendingitfromthebalance
ii)Water-tightcontainerforsuspendingthebasket
iii)Drysoftabsorbentcloth-75cmx45cm(2nos.)
iv)Shallowtrayofminimum650sq.cmarea
v)Air-tightcontainerofacapacitysimilartothebasket
vi)Oven
SAMPLE
Asamplenotlessthan2000gshouldbeused.
PROCEDURE
i)Thesampleshouldbethoroughlywashedtoremovefinerparticlesanddust,drained
andthenplacedinthewirebasketandimmersedindistilledwateratatemperature
between22and32oC.
ii)Afterimmersion,theentrappedairshouldberemovedbyliftingthebasketand
allowingittodrop25timesin25seconds.Thebasketandsampleshouldremain
immersedforaperiodof24+½hrsafterwards.
iii)Thebasketandaggregatesshouldthenberemovedfrom thewater,allowedtodrain
forafewminutes,afterwhichtheaggregatesshouldbegentlyemptiedfromthebasket
ontooneofthedryclothesandgentlysurface-driedwiththecloth,transferringittoa
seconddryclothwhenthefirstwouldremovenofurthermoisture.Theaggregates

SocialSciencesBlock
34
shouldbespreadonthesecondclothandexposedtotheatmosphereawayfrom direct
sunlighttillitappearstobecompletelysurface-dry.Theaggregatesshouldbeweighed
(Weight'A').
iv)Theaggregatesshouldthenbeplacedinanovenatatemperatureof100to110oC
for24hrs.Itshouldthenberemovedfromtheoven,cooledandweighed(Weight'B').
CONCRETE
TESTSONHARDENEDCONCRETE
DestructiveTests
ReboundHammerTest
AIM
Toassessthelikelycompressivestrengthofconcretebyusingreboundhammerasper
IS:13311(Part2)-1992.
PRINCIPLE
Thereboundofanelasticmassdependsonthehardnessofthesurfaceagainstwhich
itsmassstrikes.Whentheplungerofthereboundhammerispressedagainstthe
surfaceoftheconcrete,thespring-controlledmassreboundsandtheextentofsucha
rebounddependsuponthesurfacehardnessoftheconcrete.Thesurfacehardnessand
thereforethereboundistakentoberelatedtothecompressivestrengthoftheconcrete.
Thereboundvalueisreadfrom agraduatedscaleandisdesignatedastherebound
numberorreboundindex.Thecompressivestrengthcanbereaddirectlyfromthegraph
providedonthebodyofthehammer.
APPARATUS
i)Reboundhammer
PROCEDURE
i)Beforecommencementofatest,thereboundhammershouldbetestedagainstthe
testanvil,togetreliableresults,forwhichthemanufacturerofthereboundhammer
indicatestherangeofreadingsontheanvilsuitablefordifferenttypesofrebound

SocialSciencesBlock
35
hammer.
ii)Applylightpressureontheplunger-itwillreleaseitfrom thelockedpositionand
allowittoextendtothereadypositionforthetest.
iii)Presstheplungeragainstthesurfaceoftheconcrete,keepingtheinstrument
perpendiculartothetestsurface.Applyagradualincreaseinpressureuntilthehammer
impacts.(Donottouchthebuttonwhiledepressingtheplunger.Pressthebuttonafter
impact,incaseitisnotconvenienttonotethereboundreadinginthatposition.)
iv)Taketheaverageofabout15reading
COMPRESSIONTEST
AIM
TodeterminethecompressivestrengthofconcretespecimensasperIS:516-1959.
APPARATUS
COMPRESSIONTESTINGMACHINE
i)CompressiontestingmachineconformingtoIS:516-1959
AGEATTEST
Testsshouldbedoneatrecognizedagesofthetestspecimens,usuallybeing7and28
days.Theagesshouldbecalculatedfromthetimeoftheadditionofwatertothedrying
ofingredients.
NUMBEROFSPECIMENS
Atleastthreespecimens,preferablyfrom differentbatches,shouldbetakenfortesting
ateachselectedage.
PROCEDURE
i)Thespecimens,preparedaccordingtoIS:516-1959andstoredinwater,shouldbe
tested immediatelyon removalfrom the waterand while stillin wetcondition.
Specimenswhenreceiveddryshouldbekeptinwaterfor24hrs.Beforetheyaretaken
fortesting.Thedimensionsofthespecimens,tothenearest0.2mm andtheirweight
shouldbenotedbeforetesting.

SocialSciencesBlock
36
ii)Thebearingsurfacesofthecompressiontestingmachineshouldbewipedcleanand
anyloosesandorothermaterialremovedfrom thesurfacesofthespecimen,which
wouldbeincontactwiththecompressionplatens.
iii)Inthecaseaofcubicalspecimen,thespecimenshouldbeplacedinthemachinein
suchamannerthattheloadcouldbeappliedtotheoppositesidesofthecubes,notto
thetopandthebottom.Theaxisofthespecimenshouldbecarefullyalignedwiththe
centreofthrustofthesphericallyseatedplaten.Nopackingshouldbeusedbetween
thefacesofthetestspecimenandthesteelplatenofthetestingmachine.Asthe
sphericallyseatedblockisbroughttorestonthespecimen,themovableportionshould
berotatedgentlybyhandsothatuniformseatingisobtained.
iv)Theloadshouldbeappliedwithoutshockandincreasedcontinuouslyatarateof
approximately 140kg/sq.cm/minute untilthe resistance ofthe specimen to the
increasingloadbreaksdownandnogreaterloadcanbesustained.Themaximum load
appliedtothespecimenshouldthenberecordedandtheappearanceoftheconcrete
andanyunusualfeaturesinthetypeoffailureshouldbenoted.
TESTSONSOIL
WATERCONTENT
OVENDRYINGMETHOD
AIM
TodeterminethewatercontentinsoilbyovendryingmethodasperIS:2720(PartII)-
1973.
PRINCIPLE
Thewatercontent(w)ofasoilsampleisequaltothemassofwaterdividedbythe
massofsolids.
APPARATUS
i)Thermostaticallycontrolledovenmaintainedatatemperatureof110±5oC
ii)Weighingbalance,withanaccuracyof0.04%oftheweightofthesoiltaken
iii)Air-tightcontainermadeofnon-corrodiblematerialwithlid
iv)Tongs
PROCEDURE

SocialSciencesBlock
37
i)Cleanthecontainer,dryitandweighitwiththelid(Weight'W1').
ii)Taketherequiredquantityofthewetsoilspecimeninthecontainerandweighitwith
thelid(Weight'W2').
iii)Placethecontainer,withitslidremoved,intheoventillitsweightbecomesconstant
(Normallyfor24hrs.).
39
iv)Whenthesoilhasdried,removethecontainerfromtheoven,usingtongs.
v)Findtheweight'W3'ofthecontainerwiththelidandthedrysoilsample.
LIQUIDLIMIT
AIM
TodeterminetheliquidlimitofsoilasperIS:2720(Part5)-1985.
PRINCIPLE
Theliquidlimitoffine-grainedsoilisthewatercontentatwhichsoilbehavespractically
likealiquid,buthassmallshearstrength.Itsflowclosesthegrooveinjust25blowsin
Casagrande’sliquidlimitdevice.
APPARATUS
:CASAGRANDE'SLIQUIDLIMITDEVICE
i)Casagrande’sliquidlimitdevice
ii)GroovingtoolsofbothstandardandASTMtypes
iii)Oven
iv)Evaporatingdish
v)Spatula
vi)ISSieveofsize425µm
vii)Weighingbalance,with0.01gaccuracy

SocialSciencesBlock
38
viii)Washbottle
ix)Air-tightandnon-corrodiblecontainerfordeterminationofmoisturecontent
PROCEDURE
i)Placeaportionofthepasteinthecupoftheliquidlimitdevice.
ii)Levelthemixsoastohaveamaximumdepthof1cm.
iii)Drawthegroovingtoolthroughthesamplealongthesymmetricalaxisofthecup,
holdingthetoolperpendiculartothecup.
iv)Fornormalfinegrainedsoil:TheCasagrande'stoolisusedtocutagroove2mmwide
atthebottom,11mmwideatthetopand8mmdeep.
v)Forsandysoil:TheASTM toolisusedtocutagroove2mm wideatthebottom,
13.6mmwideatthetopand10mmdeep.
vi)Afterthesoilpathasbeencutbyapropergroovingtool,thehandleisrotatedatthe
rateofabout2revolutionspersecondandtheno.ofblowscounted,tillthetwopartsof
thesoilsamplecomeintocontactforabout10mmlength.
vii)Takeabout10gofsoilneartheclosedgrooveanddetermineitswatercontent(see
Para5.1).
viii)Thesoilofthecupistransferredtothedishcontainingthesoilpasteandmixed
thoroughlyafteraddingalittlemorewater.Repeatthetest.
ix)Byalteringthewatercontentofthesoilandrepeatingtheforegoingoperations,
obtainatleast5readingsintherangeof15to35blows.Don’tmixdrysoiltochangeits
consistency.
x)Liquidlimitisdeterminedbyplottinga‘flowcurve’onasemi-loggraph,withno.of
blowsasabscissa(logscale)andthewatercontentasordinateanddrawingthebest
straightlinethroughtheplottedpoints.
xi)Watercontentcorrespondingto25blows,isthevalueoftheliquidlimit.
PLASTICLIMIT
AIM
TodeterminetheplasticlimitofsoilasperIS:2720(Part5)-1985.

SocialSciencesBlock
39
PRINCIPLE
Theplasticlimitoffine-grainedsoilisthewatercontentofthesoilbelow whichit
ceasestobeplastic.Itbeginstocrumblewhenrolledintothreadsof3mmdia.
APPARATUS
i.Porcelainevaporatingdishabout120mmdia.
ii.Spatula
iii.Containertodeterminemoisturecontent
iv.Balance,withanaccuracyof0.01g
v.Oven
vi.Groundglassplate-20cmx15cm
vii.viiRod-3mmdia.andabout10cmlong
PROCEDURE
i)Takeabout8gofthesoilandrollitwithfingersonaglassplate.Therateofrolling
shouldbebetween80to90strokesperminutetoforma3mmdia.
ii)Ifthedia.ofthethreadscanbereducedtolessthan3mm,withoutanycracks
appearing,itmeansthatthewatercontentismorethanitsplasticlimit.Kneadthesoil
toreducethewatercontentandrollitintoathreadagain.
iii)Repeattheprocessofalternaterollingandkneadinguntilthethreadcrumbles.
iv)Collectandkeepthepiecesofcrumbledsoilthreadinthecontainerusedto
determinethemoisturecontent.
v)Repeattheprocessatleasttwicemorewithfreshsamplesofplasticsoileachtime.
MAXIMUMDRYDENSITYANDOPTIMUM MOISTURECONTENT
AIM
Todeterminethemaximum drydensityandtheoptimum moisturecontentofsoilusing

SocialSciencesBlock
40
heavycompactionasperIS:2720(Part8)-1983.
APPARATUS
:CYLINDRICALMETALMOULD
i)Cylindricalmetalmould-itshouldbeeitherof100mm dia.and1000ccvolumeor
150mmdia.and2250ccvolumeandshouldconformtoIS:10074-1982
ii)Balances-oneof10kgcapacity,sensitiveto1gandtheotherof200gcapacity,
sensitiveto0.01g
iii)Oven-thermostaticallycontrolledwithaninteriorofnoncorrodingmaterialto
maintaintemperaturebetween105and110oC
iv)Steelstraightedge-30cmlong
v)ISSievesofsizes-4.75mm,19mmand37.5mm
PREPARATIONOFSAMPLE
Arepresentativeportionofair-driedsoilmaterial,largeenoughtoprovideabout6kgof
materialpassingthrougha19mm ISSieve(forsoilsnotsusceptibletocrushingduring
compaction)orabout15kgofmaterialpassingthrougha19mm ISSieve(forsoils
susceptibletocrushingduringcompaction),shouldbetaken.Thisportionshouldbe
sievedthrougha19mm ISSieveandthecoarsefractionrejectedafteritsproportionof
thetotalsamplehasbeenrecorded.
Aggregationsofparticlesshouldbebrokendownsothatifthesamplewassieved
througha4.75mmISSieve,onlyseparatedindividualparticleswouldberetained.
PROCEDURE
A)Soilnotsusceptibletocrushingduringcompaction–
i)A5kgsampleofair-driedsoilpassingthroughthe19mm ISSieveshouldbetaken.
Thesampleshouldbemixedthoroughlywithasuitableamountofwaterdependingon
thesoiltype(forsandyandgravellysoil-3to5%andforcohesivesoil-12to16%below
theplasticlimit).Thesoilsampleshouldbestoredinasealedcontainerforaminimum
periodof16hrs.
ii)Themouldof1000cccapacitywithbaseplateattached,shouldbeweighedtothe
nearest1g(W1).Themouldshouldbeplacedonasolidbase,suchasaconcretefloor
orplinthandthemoistsoilshouldbecompactedintothemould,withtheextension
attached,infivelayersofapproximatelyequalmass,eachlayerbeinggiven25blows

SocialSciencesBlock
41
from the4.9kgrammerdroppedfrom aheightof450mm abovethesoil.Theblows
shouldbedistributeduniformlyoverthesurfaceofeachlayer.Theamountofsoil
usedshouldbesufficienttofillthemould,leavingnotmorethanabout6mm tobe
struckoffwhentheextensionisremoved.Theextensionshouldberemovedandthe
compactedsoilshouldbeleveledoffcarefullytothetopofthemouldbymeansofthe
straightedge.Themouldandsoilshouldthenbeweighedtothenearestgram(W2).
iii)Thecompactedsoilspecimenshouldberemovedfrom themouldandplacedonto
themixingtray.Thewatercontent(w)ofarepresentativesampleofthespecimen
shouldbedeterminedasinPara5.1.
iv)Theremainingsoilspecimenshouldbebrokenup,rubbedthrough19mm ISSieve
andthenmixedwiththeremainingoriginalsample.Suitableincrementsofwatershould
beaddedsuccessivelyandmixedintothesample,andtheaboveoperationsi.e.Paraii)
toiv)shouldberepeatedforeachincrementofwateradded.Thetotalnumberof
determinationsmadeshouldbeatleastfiveandthemoisturecontentsshouldbesuch
thattheoptimum moisturecontentatwhichthemaximum drydensityoccurs,lies
withinthatrange.
B)Soilsusceptibletocrushingduringcompaction–
Fiveormore2.5kgsamplesofair-driedsoilpassingthroughthe19mm ISSieve,should
betaken.Thesamplesshouldeachbemixedthoroughlywithdifferentamountsof
waterandstoredinasealedcontainerasmentionedinParaA)i),above.Followthe
operationsgiveninParaA)ii)toIV),above.
C)Compactioninlargesizemould–
Forcompactingsoilcontainingcoarsematerialupto37.5mm sizes,the2250ccmould
shouldbeused.Asampleweighingabout30kgandpassingthroughthe37.5mm IS
Sieveisusedforthetest.Soiliscompactedinfivelayers,eachlayerbeinggiven55
blowsofthe4.9kgrammer.TherestoftheprocedureisthesameasinParaA)orB),
above.

SocialSciencesBlock
42
Chapter#4
SubStructure
A Substructure isanunderlyingorsupportingstructuretosuperstructure.Itisbelow
groundlevel.Foundationispartofsubstructure.Substructureisthelowerportionofthe
buildingwhichtransmitsthedeadload,liveloadsandotherloadstotheunderneathsub
soil.
Layout
Layoutofabuildingorastructureshowstheplantheplanofitsfoundationonthe
groundsurfaceaccordingtoitsdrawings,
Types.

SocialSciencesBlock
43
BASELINE
Abaselineisastraightreferencelinewithrespecttowhichcornersofthebuildingare
locatedontheground.Itmaybeouterboundaryofaroadorcurborboundaryofthe
area
orsimplyalinejoininganytwopoints.
HORIZONTALCONTROLS
Horizontalcontrolsarethepointsthathaveknownco-ordinateswithrespecttoa
specificpoint.Thesepointsarethenusedtolocateotherpointssuchascornersofa
layoutusingvarioustechniques.Thereshouldbeplentyofcontrolpointssothateach
pointoffoundationplancanbelocatedpreciselyontheground.
VERTICALCONTROLS
Inorderthatdesignpointsontheworkscanbepositionedattheircorrectlevels,vertical
controlpoints ofknown elevation relative to some specified verticaldatum are
established.Inpractice,20mm diametersteelboltsand100mm long, withknown
reducelevelsdrivenintoexistingsteps,ledges,footpathsetc.mayserveasvertical
controls.
BATTERBOARDS ANDOFFSETPEGS
Oncepointsspecifyingthelayoutarelocatedongroundpegsaredriveninthegroundat
thatspot.Onceexcavationsforfoundationsbegin,thecornerpegswillbelost.Toavoid

SocialSciencesBlock
44
theseextrapegscalledoffsetpegsareused.Batterboardsarenormallyerectednear
eachoffsetpegandareusedtorelocatethepointsaftertheexcavationhasbeendone.
LAYINGOUTARECTANGULARBUILDINGSITE
Startingfrom abaseline(lineABinFigure4-1)thatisparalleltoconstruction,establish
themaximum outerborders(AB,CD,AC,BD)ofthebuildingarea.Supposeweknowthe
co-ordinates(x,y)ofthepointsXwithrespecttopointA thenwecanlocateitby
measuring theirxdistancealong lineAB and ydistancealong lineAC and BD
respectivelytolocatethem.ThesetwopointscanbejoinedtomakelineXX.Tolocate
pointGandH,straightlinearesetoutusing3-4-5triangleruleanddistanceXGandXH
whichisknownismarkedonthoselines.Afterthefourcorners(X,X,G.andH)have
beenlocated,drivestakesateachcorner.Dimensionsaredeterminedaccuratelyduring
eachstep.
LAYINGOUTANIRREGULARBUILDINGSITE
Wheretheoutlineofthebuildingisotherthanarectangle,theprocedureinestablishing
eachpointisthesame asdefinedforlayingoutasimplerectangle.However,more
pointshavetobepositioned,andthefinalproving oftheworkismorelikelytodisclose
asmallerror.Whenthebuildingisanirregularshape,itissensibletofirstlayoutalarge
rectanglewhichwillincludestheentirebuildingorthegreaterpartofit.Thisisshownin
Figure4-2asHOPQWhenthisisestablished,theremainingportionofthelayoutwill
consistofsmallrectangles,eachofwhichcanbelaidoutandshownseparately.These
rectanglesareshownasLMNPABCQ,DEFG,andIJKOinFigure

SocialSciencesBlock
45
EXTENDINGLINES
Sincethecornerpegsofthebuildingaretoberemovedduringexcavationthesepoints
aretransferredoutsidethatperipherybyextendinglinesanddrivingpegsintheground.
ThefollowingprocedureappliestoasimplelayoutasshowninFigure4-4,page4-4,and
mustbeamendedtoapplytodifferentor morecomplexlayoutproblems:
 Step1. AfterlocatinganddippingstakesAandB.erectbatterboards 1,2,3,and4.
Extendachalkline(X)from batterboard1tobatter board3,overstakesAandB.
 Step 2.AfterlocatinganddippingstakeC,erectbatterboards5and Extendchalk
lineYfrombatterboard2overstakesAandCto batterboard6.
 Step 3.AfterlocatinganddippingstakeD,erectbatterboards7andExtendchalk
lineZfrombatterboard5tobatterboard7,over stakesCandD.
 Step 4.ExtendlineO from batterboard8tobatterboard4,overstakesDand
B.Wherefoundationwallsarewideatthebottom andextendbeyondtheoutside
dimensionsofthebuilding,theexcavationmustbelargerthanthelaid-outsize.To
layoutdimensionsofthisexcavation,measureoutasfarasrequiredfrom the
buildinglineoneachbatterboardandstretchlinesbetweenthesepoints,outside

SocialSciencesBlock
46
thefirstlayout.
Ourprojectuse
Excavation
Excavationmeansanyoperationinwhichearthrockorothermaterialonorbelowthe
groundisremoved
Ourprojectuse

SocialSciencesBlock
47

SocialSciencesBlock
48
Foundation
Thefoundationofbuildingtransferstheweightofthebuildingtotheground.
Whilefoundationisageneralwordnormallyeverybuildinghasanumberofindividual
foundationscommonlycalledfootings.
Types
Foundationofbuildingasthenameimpliesisthestartingofabuildingconstructionon
sitereally.Typesofbuilding,natureofsoilandenvironmentalconditionsarethemajor
determinantoftypeoffoundationyouwilluseforyourbuilding.
Stripfoundation
Padfoundation
Raftfoundation
Pilefoundation
Stripfoundation
Thisisthemostcommontype;itismainlyusedwhereyouhavestrongsoilbaseand
non-waterloggedareas.Mostsmallbuildingsofjustafloorareconstructedwiththis
typeoffoundation.
Dependsonthestructuralengineersrecommendation,thedepthofyourfoundation
couldbefrom 600mm to1200mm mostlyforsmallscalebuildings.Whenthesoilis

SocialSciencesBlock
49
excavated,alevelatwhichtheconcretewillsettleevenlyisestablished,thenconcrete
ispouredthismaybefrom 150mm(6”)thickto450mm(18”)thickdependingalsoon
buildingafterthatblockissetroundthetrenchesatthecenteroffoundation,the
foundationusuallyfollowstheblocklines.TheblocksarethenlayertoD.P.Clevel
beforeanotherconcreteispouredontop,thisistheGermanoroversightconcrete.This
typeseemstobethecheapest.
Padfoundation
Thisiswhereisolatedcolumns(pillars)arecastedfromthefoundationtocarryaslabat
thetopoftheground.Thisismostlyusedwhenyouwanttomakeuseoftheunderof
buildingasparkingspaceorwhentheotherspaceisnotconducivetohavefoundation.
Imagineyouareplanningtobuildahouseacrossaflowingstream andyouwanta
situationwhereyoucanuseyourboattopassunderthebuildingbecausethestream is
under.Thenyoumaynotneedtodigfoundationthatwillcutacrosstheriverbutjustby
applyingcolumns(pillars)attheedgeoftheriverlikeabridge,thesecolumnsarethus
isolatedandtheirfoundationsarereferredtoaspad.

SocialSciencesBlock
50
Raftfoundation
Thisiswhereyou haveconcretespread around yourbuilding from thebaseof
foundationallthroughtotheGermanfloor/oversiteconcrete/groundfloorslab.Itis
mainlyusedinareaswherethesoilaresandyandloose,youspendmoreonthisthan
theotherprevioustwomostofthetime.Itisalsorecommendedinwaterloggedareas
butwithbuildingsoffewerstorey’s
Ithasagroundbeam whichshutsoutfrom thefoundationbaseandisalsoattachedto
thegroundfloorslabtoformanetworkofconcreteembeddedroundthebuildingspace.
Thegroundbeamisusuallyfrom600mmto1200mmforlowbuildings.
Pilefoundation
Themostexpensiveandthestrongesttypeoffoundation,thisrequiresspecialist
engineeringtodo.Thesoilareboreddeepdowntheearthandfilledwithconcretetobe
abletosupportloadsofmultistorybuildingontop.Mostskyscrapersareconstructed
withthisfoundationtype;awaterloggedareaofhighbuildingmayalsorequirethis.Itis
thecostliesthenceitisusedforhighrisebuildingmostly.
Ourprojectuse

SocialSciencesBlock
51

SocialSciencesBlock
52
BackFill
Torefillan excavationunittorestoretheformergroundsurfaceandortopreservethe
unitandmakeitrecognizableashavebeenexcavated

SocialSciencesBlock
53
Ourprojectuse

SocialSciencesBlock
54
Dpc
Dampinbuildings cancauseanumberofseriousproblems,suchas:
 Damp patches.
 Mouldgrowth,whichisacauseofrespiratoryallergies.
 Mildew,salts,stainingand‘tidemarks’.
 Damagetosurface finishes.
 Corrosionanddecayofthe buildingfabric.
 Sliphazards.
 Frostdamage.
 Poorperformanceof insulation.
 Damageto equipment,orelectricalfailure.
 Themostcommoncausesofpersistent dampinbuildings are:
 Condensation (surfaceorinterstitial).
 Penetratingdamp.
 Risingdamp.
Risingdamp iscausedbycapillaryactiondrawingmoistureupthroughtheporous
elementsofabuilding’sfabric. Risingdamp,andsome penetratingdamp,canbe
causedbyfaultsto,ortheabsenceofa damp-proofcourse (DPC)or damp-proof
membrane (DPM).
A damp-proofcourse isabarrier,usuallyformedbyamembranebuiltintothewallsofa
property,typically150mm abovegroundlevel,toprevent damp risingthroughthewalls.
Historically, damp-proofcourses mayhavebeenformedusingbitumen, slates,lead,
pitch, asphalt orlowabsorption bricks.TheyemergedduringtheVictorianeraandare
commonlyfoundinbuildingsfromaround1900.
Damp-proofcourses are now required in the construction ofnew buildings to
prevent risingdamp andinsomesituationstoprevent penetratingdamp. Approved
document C of the Building Regulations, Site preparation and resistance to
contaminantsandmoisture,suggeststhata damp-proofcourse maybea,‘…bituminous
material, polyethylene, engineering bricks or slates in cement mortar or any other
materialthatwillpreventthepassageofmoisture.’
Approved document C requires that, to prevent rising damp, a damp-proof
course shouldbe:
 Continuouswithany damp-proofmembrane inthe floor.
 Atleast150mmabovetheleveloftheadjoininggroundifitisinanexternalwall.
 Ifitisinanexternal cavitywall,thecavityshouldextendatleast225mm below
the damp-proofcourse,ora cavitytray shouldbeprovidedwith weepholes every
900mmsothatwaterrunningdownthecavitycannotpasstotheinnerleaf.

SocialSciencesBlock
55
[ImagesourceApproveddocumentC,Sitepreparationandresistancetocontaminants
andmoisture]
A damp-proofcourse mayalsoberequired:
 In masonry wallsbelow a coping,where the coping isconstructed from a
materialthatisnotimpervioustowater.
 Inthejointsbetweenwallsanddoorand window frames.
 In suspended timber ground floors between the timber and materials thatcan
carrymoisturefromtheground.
Standardsfor damp-proofcourses areprovidedinBS8215:1991Codeofpracticefor
designandinstallationof damp-proofcourses in masonry construction.
Theabsenceofa damp-proofcourse inolderbuildingscanberectifiedbycreatinga
moisture-impermeablelayer,eitherbytheinsertionofa damp-proofcourse,orbythe
injection ofwater-repellentchemicals.Treatmentgenerallyalso involves remedial
work toanycorrodedordecayedelementsofthe buildingfabric,aswellashackingoff
andreplacingexistingplastertoaheightof1m.
However, damp inolderbuildingsisactuallyoftencausedbyaleakora defect inthe
wallconstruction,suchasa cracking,ratherthanby risingdamp,andthismaynotbe
rectified bythe insertion ofa damp-proofcourse.Itis importanttherefore that
any defects areidentifiedandcorrectedfirstbeforeacceptingthecostanddisruptionof
insertinga damp-proofcourse.
Ourprojectuse

SocialSciencesBlock
56
Chapter#5
Superstructure
A Superstructure isanupwardextensionofanexistingstructureaboveabaseline
calledGroundLevelingeneralanditusuallyservesthe purpose ofthestructure's
intendeduse.
InBuildings,theportionofthestructurethatisabovegroundlevelthatreceivesthelive
loadisreferredtoasSuperstructure.The superstructure ofabuildingisthepartthatis

SocialSciencesBlock
57
entirelyaboveitsfoundationorbasement.
ThefoundationofthebuildingispartofSubstructure.
Column
A column isaverticalstructuralmemberdesignedtotransferacompressiveload.For
example,a column mighttransfer loads fromaceiling, floor or roof slaborfromabeam,
tothe foundations.
Columns are typically constructed from materials such as stone, brick,
block, concrete, timber, steel andsoon.
Inclassical architecture, columns areoftenhighlydecorated,withstandarddesigns
including Ionic,Doricand Corinthian.See Elementsofclassicalcolumns formore
information.Otherstylistictypesinclude;composite,Tuscan,Egyptianandsoon.
Steel columns
Steel columns haveatendencytobuckleorbendunderextremeloading.Thiscanbe
dueto:
 Length.
 Cross-sectionalarea.
 Methodofendfixing.
 Shapeofthesection.
Thecross-sectionalareaandthesectionshapeareincorporatedintoageometric
propertyofsection,knownastheradiusofgyration.Thisreferstothedistributionofan
object'scomponentsaroundanaxis.Itcanbecalculated:
r=√I/A
Where,I=2ndmomentofarea,A=cross-sectionalarea.
Columns canbecategorizedinseveraldifferentways:
Slenderness ratio
The slenderness ratioistheeffectivelengthofa column inrelationtotheleastradiusof
gyrationofitscross-section.Ifthisratioisnotsufficientthenbucklingcanoccur.
Column slenderness canbeclassifiedas:
 Longorslender:Thelengthofthe column isgreaterthanthecriticalbucklinglength.
Mechanicalfailure would typically occur due to buckling.The behavior of
long columns isdominatedbythemodulusofelasticity,whichmeasuresa column's
resistanceto being deformed elastically(i.e.non-permanently)whenaforceis
applied.
 Short:The length ofthe column is less than the criticalbuckling length.
Mechanicalfailurewouldtypicallyoccurduetoshearing.
 Intermediate:In between the long and short columns,and its behavioris
dominatedbythestrengthlimitofthematerial.
Classificationwilldependonthe column'sgeometry(i.e.its slenderness ratio)andits

SocialSciencesBlock
58
materialproperties(i.e.Young'smodulusand yield strength).
Shape
Columns can be classified according to their cross sectional shape.
Common column shapesinclude:
 Rectangular.
 Square.
 Circular.
 Hexagonal
 Octagonal.
Inprofile,theycanbetapered,non-tapered,or'barrel'shaped,theirsurfacecanbeplain,
fluted,twisted,paneledandsoon.
Columns maybeofasimpleuniform design,ortheymayconsistofacentral'shaft'
sittingona columnbase,andtoppedbya'capital'.
Lateralreinforcement
Reinforced concrete columns have an embedded steel mesh (known as rebar) to
providereinforcement.
Thedesignofreinforcementcanbeeitherspiralortied.
 Spiral columns arecylindricalwithacontinuoushelicalbarwrappedaround
the column.Thisspiralprovidessupportinthetransversedirection.
 Tied columns haveclosedlateraltiesspacedapproximatelyuniformlyacross
the column.Thespacingofthetiesislimitedinthattheymustbecloseenough
topreventfailurebetweenthem,andfarenoughapartthattheydonotinterfere
withthesettingofthe concrete.
Types
Shortcolumn
Acolumnisconsideredtobeshortwhentheratioofitseffectivelengthtoitsleast
lateraldimensiondoesnotexceed12.
LongColumn
Iftheratioofthetheeffectivelengthtoitsleastlateraldimensionexceeds12the
columnisconsideredtobealongcolumn
Ourprojectuse

SocialSciencesBlock
59
Sill
Thehorizontalmemberthatbearstheuprightportionofaframe,especiallythe
horizontalmemberthatformsthebaseofawindow.
Ourprojectuse

SocialSciencesBlock
60
Formwork
Formwork isthe term given to eithertemporaryorpermanentmoldsinto which
concreteorsimilarmaterialsarepoured.Inthecontextofconcreteconstruction,the
falseworksupportstheshutteringmolds
Types
Belowarethecommontypesofformworkmaterialusedinconcreteconstruction:
 Timber
 Steel
 Plywood
 Aluminum
 Plastic
 Fabric,.
Timber
Timberisapopularformworkmaterial.Ithasbeenusingfrom ancientage.Wecan
makeconcreteformworkusingonlytimberorcombiningtimberwithothertypesof
formworkmaterial.Timberislightweight,easytofixandremove.It'salsoeconomical
andavailableindifferentsizes.
Steel
Steelformworkmaterialsarecostly.Butithasmanytimesre-usability.It'smainly
usefulforConstructionCompanywhererepeatedusesarepossible.Steelformwork
materialsgiveexcellentfinishestoconcretesurface.Widevarietyofsteelformwork
materialsisavailableinthemarketforvariouspurposeofuses.Seethe"ListofSteel
ShutterMaterials".
Plywood
Plywoodisanartificiallymanufacturedwoodenmaterialusedformakingconcrete
formwork.Itisstrong,durableandlightweight.Theavailabilityofdifferentthickness
plywoodinthemarket

SocialSciencesBlock
61
makesitpopularfordifferentsizesconcretingwork.Thethicknessrangeofplywoodis,
from 7 mm to 32 mm.The standard size ofplywood mostlyused in building
constructionis 1220x2440 mm.Itcaneasilybecutintoanysize.
Aluminum
Aluminum formworkisgettingpopularinconstructionindustry.Itiseasytofixand
removethusincreaseworkerproductivity.Itisalsomanytimesre-useable.
Plastic
Asperexperts,dependingontheplasticquality,itcanbeusedupto100times.The
coreadvantageofthisis,itissuperlightweight,easytohandleandstack.
Fabric
Thisisthelatestadditiontoconcreteformworksector.ForRCC constructionand
architecturaldesignwork,thisisanemergingtechnology.Theflexibilityofthismaterial
makesitpossibletoproduceconcreteatanyshape.
Besidethese,therearesomeothermaterialsusedformakingconcreteformwork.Such
as,masonry,hardboard,concrete itself.Masonryformworkis used where small
concretingworkwillbedone.Sometimes,concreteitselfalsousedasaformworki.e
makingsmallpre-castRCCmembers.Whichevermaterialyouuseformakingconcrete
formwork,thebasicofmakingformworkissame.

SocialSciencesBlock
62
Ourprojectuse
Slab
Aflatpieceofconcreteputonthewallsorcolumnsofastructure.Itservesasa
walkingsurfacebutmayalsoserveasaloadbearingmember,asinslabhomes.

SocialSciencesBlock
63
FunctionsofSlab
1.Provideaflatsurface
2.Tosupportload
3.Sound,heatandfireinsulator
4.Actasadivider(privacy)fortheoccupants
5.Upperslabbecametheceilingforthestoreybelow
6.Spacebetweenslabandceilingcanbeusedtoplacebuildingfacilities
Types
Onewayslab
Onewayslabsaredesignedtotransfertheirloadstoonlytwooppositesupportwalls.
Generallyforspansupto3.60metersandwithlength/breadthratioisgreaterthan0.60
onewayslabscanbeprovided.Thereinforcementwillbealongthelongerdirection.
Aonewayslab,haveitstructuralstrengthinshortestdirection.
Twowayslab
Twowayslabsaredesignedtotransfertheirloadstoallthefoursupportwalls.
Generallyforspansgreaterthan3.60metersandwithlength/breadthratioislessthan
0.60twowayslabscanbeprovided.Thereinforcementswillbeplacedalongthelength

SocialSciencesBlock
64
andthebreadthi.e.thereinforcementswillbeperpendiculartooneanother.
Atwowayslab,haveitstructuralstrengthinintwodirection.
Ourprojectuse
Beam
Abeamisastructuralelementthatiscapableofwithstandingloadprimarilyby
resistingbending.Thebendingforceinducedintothematerialofthebeamasaresult

SocialSciencesBlock
65
oftheexternalloads,ownweight,spanandexternalreactionstotheseloadsiscalleda
bendingmoment.
Twosizesareusedtodesignbeamswhicharegivenbelow:
 9”x10”
 16”x36”
ThecrosssectionofbeamisIshape.Invertedbeamsareusedinconstruction.The
beamsaredesignedaccordingtotheloadforexamplewhereheavyloadwasexpected
16”x36”sizeisusedandwherelightloadwasexpected9”x10”sizeisused.

SocialSciencesBlock
66
Chapter#6
TestResult

SocialSciencesBlock
67

SocialSciencesBlock
68

SocialSciencesBlock
69

SocialSciencesBlock
70
Chapter#7
Drawback
 Nofollowthestander
 PeopleNegligence
 Lessquantityofmodernequipment
 Notperformanyqualitytest
 Notfollowthesafetycode
 NouseVibrator

SocialSciencesBlock
71

SocialSciencesBlock
72
Chapter#8
Drawings
Listofdrawings:
 SitePlan
 Elevationofgate
 Planofwallsandrooms
 Elevationandfoundation
 Foundation
 Reinforcementplanofslab

SocialSciencesBlock
73

SocialSciencesBlock
74

SocialSciencesBlock
75

SocialSciencesBlock
76
Chapter#9
RecommendationsAndConclusion
Recommendation:
 Followthestander
 Supervisionoflabor
 UsedmodernEquipment
 Performallqualitytest
 Followthesafetycode
 UseVibrator

Conclusions:
1)Bepatient.Neverloseyourtemper.Communicatewellasitwillhelpyoualotin
dealingwithyourclientwhichisagainatoughjob.
2)Learnhowtowriteane-maileffectivelyandwhilewritingchooseyourwordsproperly
asthiswillmakeorbreakthepurposeofyourmessage.
3)Don'ttendtopanicincaseofpressure.Itwillmakethingsmorebadly.
4)Ifyouknowwellaboutexperimentsyoudoinconcretetechnologylabitisgoodeven
ifyoudon'tneedtoworry.Youwillbeabletolearninnoamountoftimeonceyoustart
working.Ingeneral,engineersdon'tdosurvey,itishandledbyanotherspecialteam
meantforsurveyingonly.Otherthanthesethereisnotmuchscopeforexperiments
doneinotherlabs,unlessyouarepostedtodoworksrelatedtoGeo-technicalfield.
5)Startworkingoutongeneralarrangementandreinforcementdrawings.Thisisonly
mainwork,whichisdonebyanengineeratthesiteotherthanmanaging.Youare
supposedtoexecutewhatevershowninthosedrawingsatthesiteandgetitapproved
fromthesite.
6)Learnhowtotalkopenly,managevariousconstructionactivitiesatasite.Managing
iswhatmostofthetimeyouwilldoasanengineer.

SocialSciencesBlock
77
Chapter#10
References
ConstructionMaterialsbySurindaSingh
CivilEngineeringHandBookbyB.N.Dutta
R.C.CDesignbyW.Morgan
Www.dailycivilengineering.com
Www.wikipidia.com
Www.aboutcivil.org
www.contractor.org
http://en.wikipedia.org
http://www.wikihow.com
http://theconstructor.org
http://civilengineersforum.com
.

Social sciences block report

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to Social sciences block report

Similar to Social sciences block report (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Social sciences block report