Civil engineering lab tests pdf

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Assala mu alykum My Name is saqib imran and I am the
student of b.tech (civil) in sarhad univeristy of
science and technology peshawer.
I have written this notes by different websites and
some by self and prepare it for the student and also
for engineer who work on field to get some knowledge
from it.
I hope you all students may like it.
Remember me in your pray, allah bless me and all of
you friends.
If u have any confusion in this notes contact me on my
gmail id: Saqibimran43@gmail.com
or text me on 0341-7549889.
Saqib imran.

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Civil Engineering Lab Tests
To Perform California Bearing Ratio Test
Contents:
 1. California Bearing Ratio Test Definition
 2. C B R Apparatus Used
 3. Test Procedure & Steps
 4. Test Data Observations & Calculations
 5. Graphs
 5.2 Graph of Graph of Penetration vs Loading
 5.2 Graph of CBR vs % Percent Compaction Graph
 6. Uses, Applications & Significance
1. Definition of CBR:
It is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with standard circular piston
at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. to that required for the corresponding penetration of a standard
material. The California Bearing Ratio Test (CBR Test) is a penetration test developed
by California State Highway Department (U.S.A.) for evaluating the bearing capacity of subgrade
soil for design of flexible pavement.

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Tests are carried out on natural or compacted soils in water soaked or un-soaked conditions and
the results so obtained are compared with the curves of standard test to have an idea of the soil
strength of the subgrade soil.
2. APPARATUS Used:
 Mould
 Steel Cutting collar
 Spacer Disc
 Surcharge weight
 Dial gauges
 IS Sieves
 Penetration Plunger
 Loading Machine
 Miscellaneous Apparatus
 CBR Graphs
 Significance of CBR Concrete tests
 Bitumen tests
 Civil Lab Tests
 Transportation Engineering
 Road Structure Cross Section Raised
Pavement Markers
 Highway Maintenance
 Bearing Capacity
3. CBR Test PROCEDURE:
 Normally 3 specimens each of about 7 kg must be compacted so that their compacted
densities range from 95% to 100% generally with 10, 30 and 65 blows.
 Weigh of empty mould
 Add water to the first specimen (compact it in five layer by giving 10 blows per layer)
 After compaction, remove the collar and level the surface.
 Take sample for determination of moisture content.
 Weight of mould + compacted specimen.
 Place the mold in the soaking tank for four days (ignore this step in case of unsoaked CBR.
 Take other samples and apply different blows and repeat the whole process.
 After four days, measure the swell reading and find %age swell.
 Remove the mould from the tank and allow water to drain.
 Then place the specimen under the penetration piston and place surcharge load of 10lb.
 Apply the load and note the penetration load values.
 Draw the graphs between the penetration (in) and penetration load (in) and find the value
of CBR.
 Draw the graph between the %age CBR and Dry Density, and find CBR at required degree
of compaction.
4. California Bearing Ratio test Data - Observations &
Calculations

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5. Graphs
5.1 Graph of Penetration vs Loading in California Bearing Ratio Test

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5.2 Graph of CBR vs % Percent Compaction Graph

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6. USES AND SIGNIFICANCE of California Bearing
Ratio Test:
 The CBR test is one of the most commonly used methods to evaluate the strength of a sub
grade soil, sub base, and base course material for design of thickness for
highways and airfield pavement.
 The California bearing ratio test is penetration test meant for the evaluation of subgrade
strength of roads and pavements. The results obtained by these tests are used with the
empirical curves to determine the thickness of pavement and its component layers. This is
the most widely used method for the design of flexible pavement.
 This instruction sheet covers the laboratory method for the determination of C.B.R. of
undisturbed and remolded /compacted soil specimens, both in soaked as well as un-soaked
state.
Unconfined Compression (UC) Test

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Purpose:
The primary purpose of this test is to determine the unconfined compressive strength,
which is then used to calculate the unconsolidated undrained shear strength of the clay
under unconfined conditions. According to the ASTM standard, the unconfined
compressive strength (qu) is defined as the compressive stress at which an unconfined
cylindrical specimen of soil will fail in a simple compression test. In addition, in this test
method, the unconfined compressive strength is taken as the maximum load attained per
unit area, or the load per unit area at 15% axial strain, whichever occurs first during the
performance of a test.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 2166 - Standard Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cohesive
Soil
Significance:
For soils, the undrained shear strength (su) is necessary for the determination of the
bearing capacity of foundations, dams, etc. The undrained shear strength (su) of clays is
commonly determined from an unconfined compression test. The undrained shear
strength (su) of a cohesive soil is equal to one half the unconfined compressive strength
(qu) when the soil is under the f = 0 condition (f = the angle of internal friction). The most
critical condition for the soil usually occurs immediately after construction, which
represents undrained conditions, when the undrained shear strength is basically equal to
the cohesion (c). This is expressed as:
Then, as time passes, the pore water in the soil slowly dissipates, and the intergranular
stress increases, so that the drained shear strength (s), given by s = c + s‘tan f , must be
used. Where s‘ = intergranular pressure acting perpendicular to the shear plane; and s‘ =
(s - u), s = total pressure, and u = pore water pressure; c’ and φ’ are drained shear
strength parameters. The determination of drained shear strength parameters is given in
Experiment 14
Equipment:
Compression device, Load and deformation dial gauges, Sample trimming equipment,
Balance, Moisture can.
Test Procedure:
1. Extrude the soil sample from Shelby tube sampler. Cut a soil specimen so that
the ratio (L/d) is approximately between 2 and 2.5.
Where L and d are the length and diameter of soil specimen, respectively.

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2. Measure the exact diameter of the top of the specimen at three locations 120°
apart, and then make the same measurements on the bottom of the specimen.
Average the measurements and record the average as the diameter on the data
sheet.
3. Measure the exact length of the specimen at three locations 120° apart, and then
average the measurements and record the average as the length on the data
sheet.
4. Weigh the sample and record the mass on the data sheet.
5. Calculate the deformation (∆L) corresponding to 15% strain (ε).
Where L0 = Original specimen length (as measured in step 3).
6. Carefully place the specimen in the compression device and center it on the bottom
plate. Adjust the device so that the upper plate just makes contact with the
specimen and set the load and deformation dials to zero.
7. Apply the load so that the device produces an axial strain at a rate of 0.5% to 2.0%
per minute, and then record the load and deformation dial readings on the data
sheet at every 20 to 50 divisions on deformation the dial.
8. Keep applying the load until (1) the load (load dial) decreases on the specimen
significantly, (2) the load holds constant for at least four deformation dial readings,
or (3) the deformation is significantly past the 15% strain that was determined in
step 5.
9. Draw a sketch to depict the sample failure.
10.Remove the sample from the compression device and obtain a sample for water
content determination. Determine the water content as in Experiment 1.
Analysis:
1. Convert the dial readings to the appropriate load and length units, and enter these
values on the data sheet in the deformation and total load columns. (Confirm that
the conversion is done correctly, particularly proving dial gauge readings
conversion into load)
2. Compute the sample cross-sectional area
3. Compute the strain
4. Computed the corrected area,
5. Using A’, compute the specimen stress,
6. Compute the water content, w%.
7. Plot the stress versus strain. Show qu as the peak stress (or at 15% strain) of the
test. Be sure that the strain is plotted on the abscissa. See example data.
8. Draw Mohr’s circle using qu from the last step and show the undrained shear
strength, su = c (or cohesion) = qu/2. See the example data.
To Determine The Shrinkage Limit of Soil

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Apparatus
Shrinkage dish, electric oven, mercury, electric balance, sieve#40, spatula and containers.
Procedure
 Take a soil sample passing through sieve#40 and add some amount of water in it to form
a thick uniform paste.
 Take the shrinkage dish, weigh it, and put some of the soil mixture in it by spatula, fill it
and again weigh it.
 Place the shrinkage dish in the oven for 24hours at 110-115C.
 Find the volume of the shrinkage dish using mercury this will be equal to the volume of
the saturated soil sample.
 Take mercury in container and weigh it, put dry soil in it the mercury is displaced.
 Collect carefully the displace mercury and weigh it with great accuracy.
 The volume of dry soil is then determined by dividing the weight by the unit weight of
mercury.

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 The shrinkage limit is then calculated using the formula.
S.L = {{(w1-wd)-(v1-vd) γw}/ wd] x 100
Where,
W1 = M2-M1
WD = m3
-M1
Precautions
The displaced mercury should be carefully collected in order to get exact weight of mercury
displaced.
To Determine the Specific Gravity of Soil
ASTM Designation: C128

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Apparatus
Sieve #4, balance, electric oven, pycnometer.
Theory
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight of given volume of material to the weight of
an equal volume of water.
G = density of soil/density of equal volume of water
G = mass of dry soil/mass of and equal volume of water.
Procedure
 Take at least 25g of soil which has been passed through sieve#4 and place it in an oven at
fixed temperature of 105-110 °C for 24 hours to dry it completely.
 Clean and dry the pycnometer thoroughly and find its mass (M1).
 Find the mass (M2) of pycnometer by placing dried soil in it.
 Add sufficient quantity of water to fill the pycnometer up to the given mark and then find
mass of the pycnometer ( m3
) and its content.
 Empty the pycnometer then fill it with water up to the same level. Now find the mass (M4)
of the pycnometer having water in it.
 Determine the specific gravity of the given soil sample.
Precautions
 The graduated cylinder used should be cleaned.
 Dry the coarse aggregate so that it does not absorb moisture otherwise it will not give the
desired results.
 All the readings of mass should be noted carefully.
Practical applications
 The value of specific gravity helps us to some extent in identification and classification of
soil.
 It gives the idea about the suitability of a given soil as a construction material.
 It is utilized in calculating voids ratio, porosity, and degree of saturation if the density or
unit weight and water content are known.
How to Write a Soil Investigation Report | Lab
Test Report

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Soil Investigation Report
Soils reports, also called “geotechnical soils reports” are prepared by a licensed geotechnical
engineer or a registered civil engineer experienced in soils engineering. A soils report may be
required depending on the type of structure, loads and location of the structure. The report gives
understanding of earth conditions affecting a building. They are required in areas with expansive
or low strength soils. Other times a soils report may be required include buildings where the
foundation will be supported by fill, projects on steep slopes or where a lot of grading will be
done, locations with high ground water may also require a soil investigation report prior to
construction activities.
Soils reports are obtained before construction begins. The engineer who designs the foundation
uses the soils report in determining what kind of foundation design to use. In this way, problems
such as differential settling over time can be avoided. There are various methods used to test soil
in preparing a report. These include drilling core samples, driving steel rods into the soil to
determine density and the presence of rock, test pits and the use of a seismograph.

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1. Title page
The title page of the report includes the name of the company, its address, principle investigator
who has worked on the report and other relevant details of the company e.g. logo. It also includes
the name of the Project, location of the project and the period of work. Client name and
submission dates may also be mentioned on the title page as per requirement.
2. Table of contents
It contains the List of chapters or sections of the report for easy going through. A separate list of
graphs, figures or annexes may also be included the report.
3. Client’s requirements
This is the section where the requirements and objectives of the client are listed. Here, all the
information required by the client from this particular investigation is described and the names of
the tests needed to collect that information are listed. In short, the scope of the report is defined
here, like what this report is going to achieve.
4. Field and laboratory testing details
In this section general information regarding the location of the site is discussed as well as what
tools, techniques and methods were used in the whole process of this geotechnical investigation.
The report discusses which tests were used to collect which type of information, how samples

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were collected, what safety or precautionary measures were taken and how the tests were
conducted in the field and in the laboratory.
The report writer can also add a summary of the results of different tests that were conducted e.g.
values of sieve analysis or Atterberg’s limits of the soil samples. A table can also be provided for
better presentation and understanding of the results obtained. A list of relevant field tests may
include the following soil tests:
1. Borehole drilling activity
2. Standard penetration test
A list of relevant laboratory tests for geotechnical investigation of soil are as follows:
1. Determination of moisture content and bulk density
2. Atterberg’s limits
3. Particle size distribution by sieve analysis
4. Unconfined compression testing
A detailed explanation of all the results obtained through the test must be provided in this
section.
5. Site plan
Site plan is a sketch of the site showing all the relevant physical features around the building site,
like drains, existing buildings, road, open spaces etc. The drawing should also show the location
of the boreholes, if bore holes have been dug.

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6. Bore log
Probes for borehole logging can measure the composition of soils, map the area or provide other
relevant information. Borehole logging produces an extremely detailed description of the area. A
bore log is a log that records all of the results of the borehole process. All the results of the
boring process should be included here for detailed understanding of the soil profile under
investigation.
7. Analysis of test results
This is the most important portion of the soil investigation report in which all the relevant
properties of soil are discussed like nature of the soil, consistency, bearing capacity, Atterberg’s

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limits, specific gravity, plasticity etc. Other characteristics of the soil discussed are the factor of
safety used in analysis, angle of friction, fineness modulus and soil classification of the site.
8. Conclusions and recommendations
In this section, the report writer suggests recommendations in the light of the results of this
geotechnical investigation. The investigator recommends the number of storeys that can be built,
the type of foundation, and the bearing capacity to use at the required depth. It also explains what
other measures and precautions should be taken in laying of foundations, drainage and sewerage
systems e.g. suggestions are shared on how to comply with the results of the tests in construction
activities. In the end, the scope of the whole process and limitations of the results are also added
here.
9. Graphs
This is the section where all the results obtained are graphed and shared with the client. These
graphs may include grain size distribution curve, results of the liquid limit, plasticity chart, SPT
results etc. for all types of soils encountered at the required depth at the site.
To Determine Moisture Content of Soil By Oven
Drying Method
(AASHTO DESIGNATION: T-265

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ASTM D-2216-90)
The water-content determination is a routine laboratory procedure. ASTM has designeated it with
a Standard, ASTM D-2216-90 which can be found in “ASTM Standards vol. 4.08”, and also
AASHTO T-265, found under “AASHTO Materials: Part II: Tests”. This is a laboratory procedure
to determine the amount of water Ww present in a quantity of soil in terms of its dry weight Ws.
The water content w is usually expressed in percent.
Although it ia a simple experiment to perform, there are several sources of error that can occur.
The most significant is the oven temperature. Many soil-forming minerals are hydrous, meaning
they contain water within their crystal structures. Normally, the water content of a soil is measured
by oven drying the soil at 110º C. This temperature is used because it is high enough to evaporate
all the water present in the pore spaces of the soil but is not so large that it drives water out of the
structure of most minerals.
Other sources of error include: the time period used for drying the soil, the sample size,
and weighing errors.
Apparatus:
1. Three to five moisture cans (tin or aluminum) with their lids;
2. Temperature controlled oven (a forced-draft type). The oven should be kept at a
temperature of 110 ± 5°C;
3. An electronic scale.
PROCEDURE:
1. Weigh each of the empty moisture cans with their lids and record their weight W1 and its
number; you may have to mark it with a felt tip pen
2. Take the sample of soil (under 100 g) collected from the field and place a sample of it into
a can. If you are not testing a field sample, then moisten the sample given to you (20 to 40
g) with a small amount of water and thoroughly mix it with a spatula. Place the cap on the
can and, weigh and record the can with the lid and the moist soil weight W2;
3. Always use the same scale, and always check to see that they read zero;
4. Remove the lid, place it underneath the can, and put the can into the drying oven
5. Repeat these steps for the two other cans. There should be three moisture cans in the oven.
The temperature of the drying oven should be kept between 105º and 110º C, and the cans
should remain in the oven for at least 24 hours;
6. After 12 to 18 hours (or overnight), weigh and record the new weight of the moisture can
with the dried soil and its lid W3. This procedure is adequate for small amounts of soil (10

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to 200 grams). Much larger soil samples may require occasional stirring so that a uniform
drying takes place;
7. Remove from the oven with tongs or heat-treated loves and weigh immediately; some
manuals claim that convection currents affect the result, but this writer has never found this
to be true;
8. The total weight difference between W3 and W2 is the weight of the water that was
evaporated from the soil. This weight loss will be then used to calculate the percentage of
water content w in the soil.
9. Report the water content to the nearest 0.1 percent, but in computations w is used as a
decimal quantity.
TEST SAMPLE:
Sample shall be washed and oven-dried at a temperature of 105 °C-110 °C and should conform to
one of the grading in observation.
Ca
n
(#)
Weigh
t of
Can
(W1lb
) (Lb)
Weight
of Can +
Moist
Soil
(W2lb)
(lb)
Weigh
t of
Can
(W1g)
(g)
(1)
Weight
of Can +
Moist
Soil
(W2g)
(g)
Weight
of Can
+ Dry
Soil
(W3)
(g)
(2)
Weigh
t of
Water
(WW)
(g)
(3)
Weigh
t of
Dry
Soil
(WS)
(g)
(4)
Water
Conten
t
(W)
(%)
(5)
Erro
r
(%)
1 0.0345 0.0690 15.65 31.30 28.9 2.398 13.251 18.10 4.97
2 0.0345 0.0625 15.65 28.35 26.4 1.950 10.751 18.13 4.77
3 0.0355 0.0695 16.10 31.52 28.9 2.625 12.797 20.51 7.71
4 0.0350 0.0635 15.88 28.80 26.7 2.103 10.824 19.43 2.04
Average 19.04 4.87
Standard
Deviation
1.16
Sample Calculations:
Conversion of pounds to
grams =
Weight of water in
Sample =
Precautions:
 The soil sample should be loosely placed in the container.

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 Over heating should be avoided.
 Mass should be found carefully.
USES AND SIGNIFICANCE:
1. Moisture content plays an important role in understanding the behavior of soil.
2. It shows the degree of compaction of soil in the field.
Standard Test Methods are:
 AASHTO T 96 and ASTM C 131: Resistance to Degradation of Small-Size
Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine
 ASTM C 535: Resistance to Degradation of Large-Size Coarse Aggregate by
Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine.
Sieve Analysis of Coarse Grained Soil
Apparatus
A set of various sizes of sieves, balance.
Procedure
1. Arrange different types of sieves in order of there decreasing size of opening.
2. Find the total weight of the given soil sample and pour it in the top sieve.
3. Place the set of sieves on mechanical shakers and shake it properly.

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4. Find the weight of soil retained on each sieve.
5. Calculate percentage weight of soil passing through each sieve.
6. Draw a grain size distribution/gradation curve.
Precautions:
 During shaking soil sample should not b allowed to spell out.
 All the readings should be noted carefully.
Practical applications
 Grain size analysis gives an idea regarding the gradation of soil.
 It is used to proportion the selected soil in order to obtain the desired soil mix.
 It is also utilized in part of the specification of soil for air field’s roads, earth dams and
other soil embankment construction.
Observations & Calculations:
Sieve no. Weight of soil
retained on each
sieve (gm)
Percent weight
retained
Cumulative
percent weight
retained
Cumulative
percent
passing
04 181.8 36.36 36.36 63.64
08 91 18.2 54.65 45.44
16 99.6 19.92 74.48 25.52
30 55.33 11.066 85.55 14.45
50 46.8 9.36 94.91 5.09
100 10.3 2.06 96.97 3.03
200 9.6 1.92 98.89 1.11
pan 4.8 0.96 99.85 0.15

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Turbidity of Water sample Using Nephelometric
Method
Theory of Water Turbidity Test:
Water is said to turbid when it is seen containing materials of suspension inside it. While turbidity
may be defined as the measure of visible material in suspension in water, turbidity may be caused
by algae or other organisms. It is generally caused by silt or clay. The amount and character of
turbidity depends upon two things:
1. Type of soil over which flows
2. The velocity of flowing water
When water becomes stationary, the heavier and larger suspended particles settle down quickly
and the lighter and finely divided particles settles very slowly and even takes months.
Ground water is less turbid because of low velocity of water. turbidity may be helpful for
controlling growth of paganisms by not allowing proper sunlight to water which is necessary for
their growth on the other hand it is harmful as the organisms are handling to the suspended
particles. When water becomes stationary, the heavier and larger suspended particles settle down
quickly and the lighter and finely divided particles settles very slowly and even takes months.
Ground water is less turbid because of low velocity of water. Turbidity may be helpful for
particles.
There are Various units for the measurement of turbidity which are:

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1. Standard turbidity unit[mg/lit or ppm]
2. Jackson turbidity unit [J.T.U]
3. Nephelometric turbidity unit [N.T.U]
A device called nephelometric turbidity measures the turbidity of water in N.T.U the intensity of
light after passing through the water gives a measure of turbidity of water.
WHO guideline value:
WHO suggested a guideline value for turbidity as [N.T.U]for disinfection the turbidity of water
should be less than 1 N.T.U.
Apparatus:
W.H.O Nephelometric turbidity meter formazine solution of the sample by multiplying the scale
reading by 0.9 N.T.U, 9 N.T.U, 99 N.T.U, test tubes and water samples.
Procedure of Turbidity Test:
1. Switch on the power supply and check the battery of the turbidimeter,
2. Press the 1 N.T.U button and coincide the scale with zero by using focusing template.
3. Again press 1 N.T.U button and coincide the scale with zero using the focusing template.
4. A Standard formazine solution of N.T.U is placed on tubidimeter in the path of rays and
scale is brought 9 n.t.u
5. The Water sample is taken in a test and is placed in turbidimeter.
6. Use A Cell rise if the turbidity is more than 100 N.T.U and get the turbidity dilution factor.
Experiment To Find PH Value of Given Water
Sample

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Theory:
"PH" value is the measure of concentration of hydrogen in water it shows the alkanity or
acidity of water. Mathematically PH may be defined as:
The negative log of hydrogen ion concentration
PH - log [H]
Sorenson in 1909 introduced this scale for the first time.
H20 <--> H4 + OH
This reaction shows that the number of H4 and OH ions are equal experimentally it has
been proved that the product of concentration of H4 and OH is a constant quality K ,
whose value was found to be 10 - 14 i.e
[H4][OH = K--> [H4][OH] -10
Log [H4] + Log [OH] = -14

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--> - Log [H4] - Log [OH] = 14
-->ph 4 poh =14
But for what pH = POH
2PH = 14-->pH = 7
for acids PH ranges from 1 to 7 and for base PH ranges from8 to 14 There Are Two
methods to determine the PH values of given water sample,
1. Colorimetric method
2. Electrometric method
Importance of pH:
PH is very important in the control of number of water and waste water treatment
processes and in the control of corrosion.
W.H.O guide line value:
World organization suggested a guideline value of (6.5) to (8.5) for pH of water.
Apparatus & Chemicals:
Buffers (pH4,pH) standard pH solution problem pH meter stand and colorimetric paper
and water sample
Procedure:
1. Colorimetric Method:
Dip the colorimetric paper in water sample. Compute the color of paper with color from
the table and note the PH of water against this color, This is the PH of the sample.
2. Electrometric Method:
1. Press "01" key of PH meter to bring the meter in working condition.
2. Press the PH key and calibrate key so that the screen shows "00.00" reading.
3. Dip the problem into standard solution of PH - 7 and press "standard" key so that
the screen gives 7.00 reading.
4. Dip the probe in water sample and press"disperser" key and PH key to get the
PH of the sample.
5. Read the value of PH from Screen.

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Finding Total Hardness Of Water Using EDTA
Method
Theory:
Hard water is generally considered to be one which requires considerable amount of soap to
produce foam or leather. Hard water cause scale formation in boilers heaters and hot water pipes.
The rain water catches CO2 from the atmosphere when the water pass through CaCO3 rock in the
Soil, these compounds make the water hard. Calcium and magnesium chlorides and sulphates also
cause hardness
There are two types of hardness:
1. Temporary Hardness
2. Permanent Hardness
Temporary Hardness:
This type of hardness is mostly caused by Ca(HCO3) or Mg(HCO3) OR both, therefore it is also
called carbonate hardness, these compounds dissolve in water and form Ca2, Mg+2 and HCO3
ions which cause hardness
H2O+ CO2--> H2CO3
CaCO3 + H2CO3 --> Ca(HCO3)2
Temporary hardness can be removed by Clark's method by adding limewater,Ca(OH)2 to the
hard water.
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca (OH)2 -->2CaCO3 + 2H2O
Mg (HCO3)2 + Ca (OH)2 --> Mg CO3 + CaCO3 + 2H2O
As the magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate are insoluble in water and settles down,
Permanent Hardness:
It is also known as non carbonate hardness and it is caused by CaCl2.MgCl2, CaSo4 and MgSO4,
the ion exchange method is used for the removal of the permanent hardness sodium zeolite is added
to hard water due to which calcium or magnesium zeolite is formed which is insoluble in water.
Ca + 2Na (zeolite) --> Ca (Zeolite ) + 2Na + 2

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Disadvantages of hard water:
Total hardness = (Final hardness reading - Initial reading) 1000/50. The following values give
the type of hard water:
Hardness mg/lit
as CaCO3
Hardness (mg/lit
Type of water
0 - 75 Soft water
75 - 150 Moderately hand
water
150 - 300 Hard water
above 300 Very hard water
W.H.O guideline values:
W.H.O guideline value of hardness is 500mg/lit as CaCO3
1. Greater amount of soa is used.
2. Scale formation reduces the life of boilers.
3. Effect the digestive system of it contains MgSO2
Apparatus:
 Conical Flask
 Funnel
 Burette
 Sand
 Beaker
Chemicals:
Buffer solution of hardness ferrochrome black tea EDTA solution of 0.02normality.
Procedure:
1. Take 50ml of water sample in conical flask.
2. Add 1ml of buffer solution (Aluminum Hydroxide n Ammonium Chloride) of hardness1.
3. Add 3 drops of ferrochrome black tea to the flask and shake well.
4. Place the flask below the burette containing EDTA (Ethylene diamine tetra-acitic acid)
solution of 0.02 normality.
5. Note the initial reading of the burette and open the tape of the burette to allow the solution
to flow in the flask.
6. Note The Final Reading when the color of the water in the flask turn bluish.
7. The total harness (temporary + permanent hardness) is found by using the following
formula.

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Find Coliform Bacteria By Multiple Tube
Fermentation Technique
Theory:
Many bacteria are found in water. most of them are totally harmless (non pathogenic) and few are
harmful (pathogenic), which causes diseases e.g. typhoid, fever, parathyphoid, dysentery, and
cholera etc. The ground water at great depths is free from these bacteria. The sanitary engineer is
not concerning all of them. The Coliform group is one of the most important types and includes
aero genes, Acrobatic Cloace, eschroica coli. Therefore Coliform may be define in part as
including all of the aerobic and facultative green non-spore bacilli, which formate lagtode with gas
formation within 48 hours at 3.5 C. Coliform themselves are harmless bacteria. But they are not
indication of bacteria pollution of water , but also because their absence or presence and their
number can be determine by routine laboratory test.
The number of Coliform May be found by following test:
 Pour plate total amount method
 Membrane filter method
 Multiple tube fermentation method
The last method based on the Coliform ferment lactose with gas formation. Appropriate quantity
of water to be tested is placed in sterile tube containing lactose. The Tubes are incubated for 24
hours and then examined in the presence or absence of gas is noted and recorded. If no gas is
formed within 24 hours then wait for 48 hours. If the gas is formed then Coliform is confirmed.
To find the number of Coliform from this method the result from various size of portion if the
sample are noted the most probable number (MPN) of the Coliform in the water is obtained by
applying the laws of the statics to the result of the test. For this purpose the most provable number
charts are available.
WHO Guideline Value for Bacteria Coliform
According to WHO the water is divided into the following classes depending upon the amount of
Coliform bacteria present in it.
Class Status Coliform per 100ml
01 Excellent 0
02 Satisfactory 1-3
03 Suspicious 4-10
Apparatus:

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Fermentation tube, Durham,s tube, Cotton, Beakers, autoclave (steam sterilizer) and pippete
filter.
Chemicals:
Water samples, lactose, and bullion solution.
Procedure:
This test is carried in three stages: We will confine our selves to the first stage (Presumptive test)
which is performed in the following steps.
1. Take 15 test tubes and make 3 sorts of them each having 5 test tubes
2. Fill each of them with 10ml of lactose broth solution
3. Insert Durham,s tubes upside down in all test tubes and they are gently shaken to remove
air.
4. Clog all the tes tubes with cotton
5. Sterelize all the test tubes at 121C"in autoclave for minute.
6. Take out the tube after sterilization and the tube is cooled down
7. 1ml and 0.1 ml of sample is added respectively to 2nd and 3rd set of tubes.
8. Incubate all these test tubes at 350" for 24 hours in an incubator.
9. After 24 hours each test tube it is said to be positive presumptive test other wise negative.
Measure COD of WasteWater Using Closed
Reflux Method
Apparatus
1. Digestion vessels (vial)
2. COD Reactor
3. Spectrophotometer
4. Premixed Reagentsin Digestion Vessel (vials)
5. K2g2O7
6. Concentrated H2SO4
7. HgSO4
8. Ag2SO4
Procedure:
1. Place Approximately 500ml Of Sample In a clean blender bowl and homogenizze at high
speed for two minutes. blending the sample ensures a auniforum distribution of suspended
solids and thus improves the accuracy of test results.
2. Pre heat the COD reaction to Iso c

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3. Carefully remove the cap of COD digestion Reagent vial.
4. While holding The vial at a 45 degree angle carefully pipet 2 ml sample into the vial.
5. Replace and tighten the cap.
6. Holding the vial by the cap in an empty sink, gently invert several times to mix the contents
they will become very hot during mixing.
7. Place the vial in prehented COD reacton.
8. Prepare a reagent blank by repeating step 3 through 6, substituting2 ml of distilled water
in place of sample.
9. Incubate the vial for two hours at size.
10. Turn off the reaction off and alllow the vials to cool to 120 degree and less. invert each vial
several times while still warm place vial in a cooling reach and allow them to room temp.
11. Measure the COD using spetrcophotamctrum method.
Determination of Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Of Wastewater
Theory:
Bio oxygen demand (B.O.D) is the amount of oxygen required for the microorganisms (bacteria)
present in the waster water to convert the organic substance to stable compounds such as CO2 and
H2O,
Organic substance + oxygen bacteria --> CO2 + H2O
Bacteria placed in contact with organic materials will utilize it as a food source in the utilization
the organic material will be oxidized to CO2 H2O. B.O.D is considered to be the measure of
organic content of the waste, the B.O.D determination has been done by measuring the amount of
oxygen utilized by the micro-organic has in the stabilization of waste water for 5 days at 20 C. For
domestic sewage the 5 days B.O.D value (B.O.D) is represent approximately 2/3 of the demand to
be consumed of all the oxidization materials were in fact oxidized for measurement of high B.O.D
values the waste is required to be dilute the diluted water is carefully manufactured and contains a
mixture of salts necessary for biological activities plus a phosphate buffer to maintain neutral PH.
The water is activated before mixing with sewage.
Apparatus:
Bottle burette, pipette, pipette filter, graduated cylinder
Chemicals:
Manganese sulphate alkali iodide acid concentrated sulphate acid standard hio sulphate and star
itch indicator.

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Procedure:
1. Take two B.O.D tubes and half fill it with distilled water.
2. Add 3ml of waste water (polluted water) to the B.O.D tubes with the help of pipit.
3. Now filled the tubes with distilled water and fix stopper on it.
4. Put one of the tubes in incubator at 20 C for 5 days.
5. Add 2ml of alkali iodide oxide and shake well if oxygen is present the color will be brown
otherwise while)
6. Add 2ml of concentrated H2SO and shake well which will give a color which is in
resemblance to mustard oil.
7. Take 200ml from this solution in a graduted cylinder and add 1ml of strach indicator to it
which will give a yellowish color.
8. Put the gragraduated cylinder below the burette containing standard solution of sodium this
sulphate and note the initial reading.
9. Fill dissolved oxygen of the first tube the dissolved oxygen is found in similar way.
10. Find the B.O.D by using the formula
B.O.D (mg/lit) = (zero day D.O - 5 days D.O ) x 300/ml of sample
The BRCES (British Royal Commission Effluent Standard) allows a B.O.D of 20 mg/lit in a
treated sewagr to be discharged to body of water.
Find Dissolved Oxygen in given Sample by Azide
Modification
Reactants:
1. MnSO4
2. Alkali
3. Iodide Azide (NaoH + NaH3 + NaI)
4. H2SO4 conc.
5. Starch Indicaoter,
6. Na2S203(N=0.025)
7. Oxygen is required for all living organisms for growth (metabolism) 21% in air quantity
directly related with atm pressure and inversly proportional to temp for trout 7.5 mgl
required
8. BOD (vol= 300 ml)
Procedure:
1. Add 2ml alkali iodide azide if becomes yellow = oxygen present while no oxygen ppt will
be created let it settle ( Na2S03, Sodium sulphride) brings oxygen to zero
2. Add NaSO3 to another sample (oxygen become zero)

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3. Add MnSO4 add alkali iodide axide color while means no oxygen.
4. Add 2ml H2SO4 ro disolve (in first sample) color becomes as mastard oil
5. Remove 100ml from the sample
6. Add 1ml starch indicator to the remaining sample => color = blueish
7. Take NaS2o3 in burrette
8. Titrate the sample against it until it becomes colorless ==> initial reading=4ml ==> final
reading=12.6ml ==> 12.6-4=8.6ml
9. ++ (oH) 1ml of Na2SO3 = 1mgk of dissolved oxygen it contains 8-6 mgk of dissolved
oxygen Mn + H2o => M(oH)2
10. Mn (oH)2 + 1/2 o2 =>Mno2+H2o
11. Mno2 + 2i + 4H + => Mn + i2 +2H2o
Determination of Strain in a Steel Bar
Apparatus:
Dividers, steel bar, specimen UTM, scale, vernier caliper.
Procedure:
1. Prepare a test specimen of at least 2ft.
2. Measure at least 3 places dia of steel bar by a VC and calculate the average value.
3. Mark the gauge length i.e 2 marks 8” apart.
4. Insert the suitable jaws in the grip and select a suitable load scale on UTM.
5. Start the machine and continue applying the load tile the specimen breaks and then stop
the UTM.
6. Join the broken species of the tested specimen and measure the increase in gauge length.
7. Determine the value of strain by dividing increase in gauge length by gauge length.
Torsion Test on Mild Steel and Cast Iron - Lab
Report
To perform Torsion Test on
a. Mild steel specimen
b. Cast iron specimen
Purpose:
1. To study the shear stress ~ shear strain behavior of the material.
2. To study the failure pattern of these materials in torsion.
3. To determine the mechanical properties, e.g, Modulus of elasticity, Modulus of rigidity, Shear
strength, shear strain and ductility in torsion.

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Apparatus:
1. 10 Ton Buckton Universal Testing Machine
2. Vernier caliper
3. Steel Rule
Procedure of the Test:
1. Note the dimensions and draw the shape of the specimen.
( Note effective length, total length, dia meter etc.)
2. Fix specimen into 10 Ton Buckton UTM.
3. Use twist control method (other one is torsional strain control method)
4. To apply the twist to the sample, rotate the handle counter clock wise for required degree of twist.
Machine’s one complete cycle will give 4° of twist.
5. Balance arm of the machine will get disturbed again. Try to balance it with the help of concerned
handle and note down the value of balancing load.
6. Repeat the same procedure with increasing value of twist until the member fails.
Lever arm = 50.8mm
Torque = lever arm x load 16T
7. Examine the failure pattern of the specimen and draw sketch after failure.(same for cast iron )
 ACI Code Safety
 Reinforcement ratio Disadvantages of RC
 Working Stress Design
 Doubly Reinforced Design
 Precast Concrete Construction RCC Design Procedure
 Reinforcement Books
 Reinforcement Detailing in Concrete
Observations and Calculations:

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Related Theory:
1. Torque:
Twisting effect of couple or force is called as torque. It is denoted by double head arrow.
2. Torsion:
Torque applied in a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a member is called as
torsion.
3. Difference between Torque and Moment:

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4. Twisting Moment:
It is the summation of torque either left or right of the section.
5. Bending Theory:
6. Torsion Theory:
Assumptions:
1. Material is homogeneous.
2. Circular section remains circular and do not warp.
3. A plane section of a material perpendicular to its longitudinal axis remain plane and do not warp
after the torque is applied.
4. Shaft is loaded by a couple or torque in a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the plane.
5. Shear stress is proportional to shear strain, it means that Hook’s Law is applicable.
6. In circular shafts subjected to torque shearing strain varies linearly.

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Where,
t, Shearing stress in MPa
r, Radius of the shaft in mm.
T, Twisting moment.
J, Polar moment of inertia.
G, Modulus of rigidity.
θ Angle of twist.
L, Length of the specimen / Shaft
7. Polar moment of inertia:
The geometric rigidity of the X-sec is termed as polar moment of inertia. It is the resistance against
twisting, summation of 2 moment of area about x-axis.
Circular Section:

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For Hollow Shaft:
Torsional Rigidity / Modulus of Rigidity / Modulus of Elasticity in Shear:
"When material is subjected to pure twist loading, the slope of shear stress verses shear strain curve
is termed as modulus of rigidity ( modulus of elasticity in shear, torsional rigidity)
9. Poison’s Ratio:
The ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain when material is subjected to axial loading and
always less than 1.

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10. Relation between yield strength in tension to torsion for mild steel:
The relationship between yield stress in simple tension and that in pure shear can be found from
VON MISES for a yield criteria.
11. Torsional Strength:
 It is the ultimate strength of a material subjected to a torsional loading.
 It is maximum torsional stress that a material sustains before rupture.
 It is similar to the tensile strength.
12. Torsional Deformation:
Angular displacement of specimen caused by specified torque in torsion test. It is equal to angle
of twist in radians divided by gauge length or effective length.
13. Torsional Strain, y:
Strain corresponding to specified torque in torsion test. It is equal to torsional deformation
multiplied by the radius of the shaft. It's units are radians.
14. Torsional Stress, T:
Shear stress developed in a material subjected to a specified torque in torsion test for a circular
shaft. It can be calculated using the expression.

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15. Expected failure for Mild Steel and Cast Iron Specimens and
reasoning:
Fracture in torsion for ductile materials generally occur in the plane of maximum shear stress
perpendicular to the axis of bar where as for the brittle material failure occurs along 45° hilux to
the axis of bar due to tensile stress across that plane.

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Universal Testing Machine and Components of
UTM
A machine used to test specimens for tensile strength, compressive strength, shear strength and to
perform bend test along other important laboratory tests. The primary use of the testing machine
is to create the stress strain diagram. Once the diagram is generated, a pencil and straight edge or
computer algorithm can be used to calculate yield strength, Young's Modulus, tensile strength or
total elongation.
Components of UTM
It consists of two main parts, called:
1. Loading Unit
2. Control Unit
Loading unit
In this unit actual loading of the specimen takes place - consists of three cross heads namely
upper head, middle head and lower head. Using appropriate cross heads tensile, compressive,
shear, bending load with the help of different attachment can be applied. Loading unit of a UTM
consists of:
1. Upper cross head - To clamp testing specimen from top
2. Lower cross head - To clamp testing specimen from below
3. Table - to place the specimen, used for compression test
Control Unit
The load is applied and recorded by this unit. The load is applied with control valve and released
by release valve. The load is applied with the help of hydraulic pressure.
Extensometer
An instrument used to measure elongation in the material
Tests UTM can perform
1. Tensile Tests
2. Adhesion Tests
3. Cycle tests with momentary stops
4. Pull-Out Tests
5. Creep Tests
6. Hysteresis Tests

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Displays Test Traces and Values
Test Traces: An ongoing test can be displayed as either:
1. Load/Displacement
2. Load/Position
3. Load/Time
4. Position/Time
5. Displacement/Time
Digital Indicating Windows: The following are displayed:
1. Maximum Load (peak hold)
2. Current Load (during a test)
3. Cross head Position
4. Displacement (from the start of a test)
Applications of Universal Testing Machine
Universal Testing Machine can be used and applied to perform tests on the following samples:
1. Rope
2. Steel Rope
3. Winches
4. Steel Wire
5. Electrical Wire
6. Webbing
7. Spring
8. Slings
9. Cable
10. Nylon Rope
11. Links
12. Chain
13. Steel Chain
Tensile Strength or Tension Test
Tensile Test - Tensile Strength or Tension Test
Definition:
Tensile strength of a material is the tension stress at which a material breaks or permanently
deforms (changes shape)
sUTS = Pmax/Ao

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There are three stages of Tensile Strength:
1. Yield Strength
2. Ultimate Strength and
3. Breaking strength
Tensile strength of a material is the tension stress at which a material breaks or permanently
deforms (changes shape) Toughness, Resilience, Poisson's ratio can also be found by the use of
this testing technique. This data is plotted as load vs elongation and then converted to
engineering stress (load/original area) vs engineering strain (fractional change in length over the
test section assuming the deformation is uniform)
Procedure of Strength Test:
A standard test piece (gauge length 8ft) is gripped at both ends in the jaws of UTM - Universal
Testing Machine which slowly exerts an axial pull so that the steel is stretched until it breaks.
The major parameters that describe the stress-strain curve obtained during the tension test are
the:
1. Ultimate tensile strength (UTS)
2. Yield strength or yield point (sy)
3. Elastic modulus (E)
4. Percent elongation (?L%) and
5. The reduction in area (RA%).

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Toughness, Resilience, Poisson's ratio can also be found by the use of this testing technique. This
data is plotted as load vs elongation and then converted to engineering stress (load/original area)
vs engineering strain (fractional change in length over the test section assuming the deformation
is uniform.
Engineering Stress:
Stress s = P / Ao ( Load/Initial cross-sectional area)
Strain = e = dl / lo (Elongation/Initial gauge length)
Engineering stress and strain are independent of the geometry of the specimen.
If the true cross section is measured during the test the True Stress and True Strain may be
calculated. Tensile tests are applied on materials such as concrete, metals, plastics, wood, and
ceramics etc.
Units of Measurement:
Tensile testing systems use a number of different units of measurement. The International
System of Units, or SI, recommends the use of either Pascals (Pa) or Newtons per square meter
(N/m²) for describing tensile strength. In the United States, many engineers measure tensile
strength in kilo-pound per square inch (KSI).
To Find out the Reaction of Simply Supported
Beam
Apparatus:
Spring balance, Stands, Leveling deices, weights and hangers.
Principle:
 Condition of equilibrium for vertical parallel forces acting on a body is
 Sum of all the force s should be zero.
 It should satisfy the principle of moments .
 If we take moment about a point on moments should be equal to anti clockwise moments.
Procedure:
1. Set the apparatus accordingly
2. Then hang the beam on the hooks and weights on bam with hangers.
3. Note the distance of weight jaws from the support and value of weights.

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4. Using the two condition of equilibrium calculates R1 & R2.
5. For this one should know values o weight of beams, length of beams and weight of
hanger
Observation and Calculations
Weight of hanger = 0.1 lb
Weight of rod W3 = 5.84 lb
Length b/w the supports = 42 in
W1 W2 L1 L1/ L2 L2/ RA RB
0.6 lb 0.6 lb 10 in 32 in 32 in 10 in 3.5 lb 3.5 lb
Laboratory Investigation of Hooke’s Law
Apparatus:
UTM , test specimen, divider, vernier caliper, scale.
Procedure:
1. Prepare the test specimen that is steel bar and find its diameter at tree different places and
find its man value.
2. Mark two points 8" a part of 2 ft long steel bar.
3. Insert the bar in jaws for gripping the steel bar and select suitable bar on UTM. Place the
steel bar and fix it.

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4. Start t machine and start applying load.
5. There will be gradual increase in length which will be directly proportional to applied
load.
6. During this load application measure change in length at different load, till the steel bar
breaks.
7. Find the stress and strain at those points and investigate the law by drawing the graph
between stress and strain
S
No
Dia
of
Bar
Load(Tons) Elongation Area of
Bar
Stress =
Load/Area
Strain=
Elongation/Gauge
Length
01 ¾ in 3.68 0 in 0.
441 in2
8.34 Psi 0
02 ¾in 6.84 0 in 0.
441 in2
15.51Psi 0
03 ¾ in 10.28 0 in 0.
441 in2
23.31 Psi 0
04 ¾ in 10.72 1/8 in 0.
441 in2
24.30 Psi 0.0156
05 ¾in 11.82 3/16 in 0.
441 in2
26.80 Psi 0.0234
06 ¾in 12.04 ¼ in 0.
441 in2
27.30 Psi 0.031
07 ¾in 13.04 5/16 in 0.
441 in2
29.56 Psi 0.039
08 ¾in 13.78 7/16 in 0.
441 in2
31.24 Psi 0.054
09 ¾in 14.34 9/16 in 0.
441 in2
32.51 Psi 0.070
10 ¾in 14.88 11/16 in 0.
441 in2
33.74 Psi 0.085
11 ½ in 12.6
(Rupture)
-------------- 0.
196 in2
64.28 Psi ---------------------
12 ½ in 15.86
(Ultimate)
2 ¼ in 0.
196 in2
80.91 Psi 0.218
Determination of Deflection in Over Hanging
Beams

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Apparatus:
Model of beam, Weights, Deflection Gauge, Weight Hangers.
Objective:
The purpose of this experiment is to record the deflection in beam experimentally and then
compare it with theoretical value.
Deflection:
Deflection is a term which is defined as the distance moved by a point on the axis of beam before
and after application of force
Determination bar:
Those bars in which unknown reactions can be found using available egs of equilibrium are
called determination.
Procedure of Experiment:
1. Take the beam model and place it on the table. it should be kept horizontally and firmly.
2. Determine the length of the beam and also dimension of cross section.
3. If the model is an over hanging bema then also determine the length of over hanging
portion.
4. Set the deflection gauge at a point where deflection is to be measured.

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5. Make the reading of the deflection gauge dial indicator to zero before applying the load
on bar.
6. Now apply the load with the help of load hangers and record the loaded weights location
from left side of the beam.
7. Now record the deflection 1st of all at the smaller dial of the gauge. It should be read as it
shows the number of rotations.
8. One complete rotation is equal to 1mm deflection
An Experiment on Hydraulic Jump
Objectives of the experiments:
1. To create the hydraulic jump.
2. To verify the questions of fluid flow.
3. To determine the slatrility & characteristics of the hydraulic jump obtained in the lab
using Impulse momentum & specific energy equations.
4. To compare measured flow depths with theoretical results.
Theoretical background:
Hydraulic jumps are very efficient in dissipating the energy of the flow to make it more
controllable & les erosive. In engineering practice, the hydraulic jump frequently appears
downstream from overflow structures (spillways), or under flow structures (slvice gates), where
velocities are height. A hydraulic jump is formed when liquid at high velocity discharges into a
zone of lower velocity only if the 3 independent velocities (y1, y2, fr1) of the hydraulic jump
equation conform to the following equation:
Y2 = y1/2 [-1+√1+8Fr2 ]
Fr2 = 92/9y3
Apparatus:
 Glass walled flume with sluice gates & a spillway arrangement
 Point gauges
 Manometer & scales
 Pump
Procedure for Hydraulic Jump Experiment:
1. I started the pump to supply water to the flume.
2. Then I closed the tail gate to allow water to accumulate and to develop hydraulic jump.
3. I adjusted the position of the hydraulic jump by adjusting the amount of closure of slvice
gate.

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4. I then measured the depth of the bed of flume by using a point gauge.
5. In the next step , I measured water surface level before it had crossed the spillway.
6. Then I measured height of spillway & the depth of water over the spillway.
7. Using the point gauges I then determined the water surface levels downstream of the
jump.
8. Then I measured y1 & y2.
9. I repeated the measurement steps again for a different flowchart.
Results:
S.No Hm(m) Y1(mm) Y2(mm) Lj(m) H(mn) H1(mn) H2
1 0.8 342 46 2 6.5 24 106 0.45
Sources of errors:
Human errors:
1. Errors occurred during measurements i.e. by taking erroneous reading of depths or in micrometer.
2. Errors occurred in operation of slvice gates.
Instrumentation error:
 Leakage from the flume
 Assumptions of ideal conditions did not prevail:
 Ideal conditions which prevailed in the theoretical equations were not there and frictional forces
also had some effect on the experiment.
Determination of Particle Size Distribution by
Sedimentation Analysis
Apparatus:
Hydrometer, sedimentation jar, balance, stopwatch.
Procedure:
1. A 50gm soil sample is used which is passed through sieve#200.
2. The soil sample is mixed with distilled water in a beaker to form a smooth thin paste.
3. To have proper dispersion of soil, 8gm of sodium hexameta phosphate is added to the solution per
50gm of soil sample.
4. The solution is passed in sedimentation jar. Then it is shaken vigorously while kept vertical.
5. The stopwatch is started and the hydrometer is slowly inserted in the jar and readings are taken at
2, 3 and 10 minutes interval.
6. The diameter of grains and the %age passing is calculated by using formulas and plotting a curve

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Precautions:
 The soil suspension is opaque, so take the readings corresponding to the upper level of meniscus.
 The time interval between readings should be such that the hydrometer is stable at the time of
next reading
Observations & Calculations:
Time(min) Hydrometer reading, Rh
and the neck of the
bulb(H) (cm)
Effective depth(He)
(Cm)
Diameter
D
(cm)
% finer
0 60 0 6.2 1.9273
02 51 09 15.2 1.6382
05 47 13 19.2 1.5097
15 44 16 22.2 1.4133
Concrete Slump Test - Theory and Lab Test

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Definition
 Slump is a measurement of concrete's workability, or fluidity.
 It's an indirect measurement of concrete consistency or stiffness.
A slump test is a method used to determine the consistency of concrete. The consistency, or
stiffness, indicates how much water has been used in the mix. The stiffness of the concrete mix
should be matched to the requirements for the finished product quality
Concrete Slump Test
The concrete slump test is used for the measurement of a property of fresh concrete. The test is
an empirical test that measures the workability of fresh concrete. More specifically, it measures
consistency between batches. The test is popular due to the simplicity of apparatus used and
simple procedure.
Principle of Slump Test
The slump test result is a measure of the behavior of a compacted inverted cone of concrete
under the action of gravity. It measures the consistency or the wetness of concrete.
Apparatus
 Slump cone,
 Scale for measurement,
 Temping rod (steel)
Procedure of Concrete Slump test:

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1. The mold for the slump testis a frustum of a cone, 300 mm (12 in) of height. The base is 200 mm
(8in) in diameter and it has a smaller opening at the top of 100 mm (4 in).
2. The base is placed on a smooth surface and the container is filled with concrete in three layers,
whose workability is to be tested .
3. Each layer is temped 25 times with a standard 16 mm (5/8 in) diameter steel rod, rounded at the
end.
4. When the mold is completely filled with concrete, the top surface is struck off (leveled with mould
top opening) by means of screening and rolling motion of the temping rod.
5. The mould must be firmly held against its base during the entire operation so that it could not move
due to the pouring of concrete and this can be done by means of handles or foot - rests brazed to
the mold.
6. Immediately after filling is completed and the concrete is leveled, the cone is slowly and carefully
lifted vertically, an unsupported concrete will now slump.
7. The decrease in the height of the center of the slumped concrete is called slump.
8. The slump is measured by placing the cone just besides the slump concrete and the temping rod is
placed over the cone so that it should also come over the area of slumped concrete.
9. The decrease in height of concrete to that of mold is noted with scale. (usually measured to the
nearest 5 mm (1/4 in).
Precautions in Slump Test

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In order to reduce the influence on slump of the variation in the surface friction, the inside of the
mould and its base should be moistened at the beginning of every test, and prior to lifting of the
mould the area immediately around the base of the cone should be cleaned from concrete which
may have dropped accidentally.
Types Of Concrete Slump
The slumped concrete takes various shapes, and according to the profile of slumped concrete, the
slump is termed as;
1. Collapse Slump
2. Shear Slump
3. True Slump
Collapse Slump
In a collapse slump the concrete collapses completely. A collapse slump will generally mean that
the mix is too wet or that it is a high workability mix, for which slump test is not appropriate.
Shear Slump
In a shear slump the top portion of the concrete shears off and slips sideways. OR
If one-half of the cone slides down an inclined plane, the slump is said to be a shear slump.
1. If a shear or collapse slump is achieved, a fresh sample should be taken and the test is repeated.
2. If the shear slump persists, as may the case with harsh mixes, this is an indication of lack of
cohesion of the mix.
True Slump
In a true slump the concrete simply subsides, keeping more or less to shape
1. This is the only slump which is used in various tests.

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2. Mixes of stiff consistence have a Zero slump, so that in the rather dry range no variation can be
detected between mixes of different workability.
However , in a lean mix with a tendency to harshness, a true slump can easily change to the shear
slump type or even to collapse, and widely different values of slump can be obtained in different
samples from the same mix; thus, the slump test is unreliable for lean mixes.
Applications of Slump Test
1. The slump test is used to ensure uniformity for different batches of similar concrete under
field conditions and to ascertain the effects of plasticizers on their introduction.
2. This test is very useful on site as a check on the day-to-day or hour- to-hour variation in
the materials being fed into the mixer. An increase in slump may mean, for instance, that
the moisture content of aggregate has unexpectedly increases.
3. Other cause would be a change in the grading of the aggregate, such as a deficiency of
sand.
4. Too high or too low a slump gives immediate warning and enables the mixer operator to
remedy the situation.
5. This application of slump test as well as its simplicity, is responsible for its widespread
use.
Degree of
workability
Slump Compacting
Factor
Use for which concrete is suitable
mm in
Very low 0-25 0-1 0.78 Very dry mixes; used in road
making. Roads vibrated by power
operated machines.
Low 25-50 1-2 0.85 Low workability mixes; used for
foundations with light
reinforcement. Roads vibrated by
hand operated Machines.
Medium 50-100 2-4 0.92 Medium workability mixes;
manually compacted flat slabs
using crushed aggregates. Normal
reinforced concrete manually
compacted and heavily reinforced
sections with vibrations.
High 100-175 4-7 0.95 High workability concrete; for
sections with congested
reinforcement. Not normally
suitable for vibration
Table : Workability, Slump and Compacting Factor of concrete with 19 or 38 mm (3/4 or 11
/2 in)
maximum size of aggregate.

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Difference in Standards
The slump test is referred to in several testing and building code, with minor differences in the
details of performing the test.
United States
In the United States, engineers use the ASTM standards and AASHTO specifications when
referring to the concrete slump test. The American standards explicitly state that the slump cone
should have a height of 12-in, a bottom diameter of 8-in and an upper diameter of 4-in. The
ASTM standards also state in the procedure that when the cone is removed, it should be lifted up
vertically, without any rotational movement at allThe concrete slump test is known as "Standard
Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic-Cement Concrete" and carries the code (ASTM C 143) or
(AASHTO T 119).
United Kingdom & Europe
In the United Kingdom, the Standards specify a slump cone height of 300-mm, a bottom
diameter of 200-mm and a top diameter of 100-mm. The British Standards do not explicitly
specify that the cone should only be lifted vertically. The slump test in the British standards was
first (BS 1881-102) and is now replaced by the European Standard (BS EN 12350-2).
Tests Applied on Concrete for Strength and
Workability

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SAMPLING The first step is to take a test sample from the large batch of concrete. This should
be done as soon as discharge of the concrete commences. The sample should be representative of
the concrete supplied. The sample is taken in one of two ways: For purposes of accepting or
rejecting the load: Sampling after 0.2 m3 of the load has been poured. For routine quality checks:
Sampling from three places in the load.
a) Concrete Slump Test
This test is performed to check the consistency of freshly made concrete. The slump test is done
to make sure a concrete mix is workable. The measured slump must be within a set range, or
tolerance, from the target slump.
Workability of concrete is mainly affected by consistency i.e. wetter mixes will be more workable
than drier mixes, but concrete of the same consistency may vary in workability. It can also be
defined as the relative plasticity of freshly mixed concrete as indicative of its workability.
Tools and apparatus used for slump test (equipment):
1. Standard slump cone (100 mm top diameter x 200 mm bottom diameter x 300 mm high)
2. Small scoop
3. Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm long x 16 mm diameter)
4. Rule
5. Slump plate (500 mm x 500 mm)
Procedure of slump test for concrete:
1. Clean the cone. Dampen with water and place on the slump plate. The slump plate should
be clean, firm, level and non-absorbent. Collect a sample of concrete to perform the slum
test.
2. Stand firmly on the footpieces and fill 1/3 the volume of the cone with the sample. Compact
the concrete by 'rodding' 25 times. Rodding means to push a steel rod in and out of the
concrete to compact it into the cylinder, or slump cone. Always rod in a definite pattern,
working from outside into the middle.
3. Now fill to 2/3 and again rod 25 times, just into the top of the first layer.
4. Fill to overflowing, rodding again this time just into the top of the second layer. Top up the
cone till it overflows.
5. Level off the surface with the steel rod using a rolling action. Clean any concrete from
around the base and top of the cone, push down on the handles and step off the footpieces.
6. Carefully lift the cone straight up making sure not to move the sample.
7. Turn the cone upside down and place the rod across the up-turned cone.

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8. Take several measurements and report the average distance to the top of the sample.If the
sample fails by being outside the tolerance (ie the slump is too high or too low), another
must be taken. If this also fails the remainder of the batch should be rejected.
b) Concrete Compression Test
The compression test shows the compressive strength of hardened concrete. The compression test
shows the best possible strength concrete can reach in perfect conditions. The compression test
measures concrete strength in the hardened state. Testing should always be done carefully. Wrong
test results can be costly. The testing is done in a laboratory off-site. The only work done on-site
is to make a concrete cylinder for the compression test. The strength is measured in Megapascals
(MPa) and is commonly specified as a characteristic strength of concrete measured at 28 days after
mixing. The compressive strength of concrete is a measure of the concrete’s ability to resist loads
which tend to crush it.
Apparatus for compression test
Cylinders (100 mm diameter x 200 mm high or 150 mm diameter x 300 mm high) (The small
cylinders are normally used for most testing due to their lighter weight)
1. Small scoop
2. Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm x 16 mm)
3. Steel float
4. Steel plate
How to do Compression Test?
Procedure for compression test of concrete
1. Clean the cylinder mould and coat the inside lightly with form oil, then place on a clean,
level and firm surface, ie the steel plate. Collect a sample.
2. Fill 1/2 the volume of the mould with concrete then compact by rodding 25 times.
Cylinders may also be compacted by vibrating using a vibrating table.
3. Fill the cone to overflowing and rod 25 times into the top of the first layer, then top up the
mould till overflowing.
4. Level off the top with the steel float and clean any concrete from around the mould.
5. Cap, clearly tag the cylinder and put it in a cool dry place to set for at least 24 hours.
6. After the mould is removed the cylinder is sent to the laboratory where it is cured and
crushed to test compressive strength

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Find Dissolved Oxygen in given Sample by Azide
Modification
Reactants:
1. MnSO4
2. Alkali
3. Iodide Azide (NaoH + NaH3 + NaI)
4. H2SO4 conc.
5. Starch Indicaoter,
6. Na2S203(N=0.025)
7. Oxygen is required for all living organisms for growth (metabolism) 21% in air quantity
directly related with atm pressure and inversly proportional to temp for trout 7.5 mgl
required
8. BOD (vol= 300 ml)
Procedure:
1. Add 2ml alkali iodide azide if becomes yellow = oxygen present while no oxygen ppt will
be created let it settle ( Na2S03, Sodium sulphride) brings oxygen to zero
2. Add NaSO3 to another sample (oxygen become zero)
3. Add MnSO4 add alkali iodide axide color while means no oxygen.
4. Add 2ml H2SO4 ro disolve (in first sample) color becomes as mastard oil
5. Remove 100ml from the sample
6. Add 1ml starch indicator to the remaining sample => color = blueish
7. Take NaS2o3 in burrette
8. Titrate the sample against it until it becomes colorless ==> initial reading=4ml ==> final
reading=12.6ml ==> 12.6-4=8.6ml
9. ++ (oH) 1ml of Na2SO3 = 1mgk of dissolved oxygen it contains 8-6 mgk of dissolved
oxygen Mn + H2o => M(oH)2
10. Mn (oH)2 + 1/2 o2 =>Mno2+H2o
11. Mno2 + 2i + 4H + => Mn + i2 +2H2o
Determination of Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Of Wastewater
Theory:
Bio oxygen demand (B.O.D) is the amount of oxygen required for the microorganisms (bacteria)
present in the waster water to convert the organic substance to stable compounds such as CO2 and
H2O,

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Organic substance + oxygen bacteria --> CO2 + H2O
Bacteria placed in contact with organic materials will utilize it as a food source in the utilization
the organic material will be oxidized to CO2 H2O. B.O.D is considered to be the measure of
organic content of the waste, the B.O.D determination has been done by measuring the amount of
oxygen utilized by the micro-organic has in the stabilization of waste water for 5 days at 20 C. For
domestic sewage the 5 days B.O.D value (B.O.D) is represent approximately 2/3 of the demand to
be consumed of all the oxidization materials were in fact oxidized for measurement of high B.O.D
values the waste is required to be dilute the diluted water is carefully manufactured and contains a
mixture of salts necessary for biological activities plus a phosphate buffer to maintain neutral PH.
The water is activated before mixing with sewage.
Apparatus:
Bottle burette, pipette, pipette filter, graduated cylinder
Chemicals:
Manganese sulphate alkali iodide acid concentrated sulphate acid standard hio sulphate and star
itch indicator.
Procedure:
1. Take two B.O.D tubes and half fill it with distilled water.
2. Add 3ml of waste water (polluted water) to the B.O.D tubes with the help of pipit.
3. Now filled the tubes with distilled water and fix stopper on it.
4. Put one of the tubes in incubator at 20 C for 5 days.
5. Add 2ml of alkali iodide oxide and shake well if oxygen is present the color will be brown
otherwise while)
6. Add 2ml of concentrated H2SO and shake well which will give a color which is in
resemblance to mustard oil.
7. Take 200ml from this solution in a graduted cylinder and add 1ml of strach indicator to it
which will give a yellowish color.
8. Put the gragraduated cylinder below the burette containing standard solution of sodium this
sulphate and note the initial reading.
9. Fill dissolved oxygen of the first tube the dissolved oxygen is found in similar way.
10. Find the B.O.D by using the formula
B.O.D (mg/lit) = (zero day D.O - 5 days D.O ) x 300/ml of sample
The BRCES (British Royal Commission Effluent Standard) allows a B.O.D of 20 mg/lit in a
treated sewagr to be discharged to body of water.

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Measure COD of WasteWater Using Closed
Reflux Method
Apparatus
2. COD Reactor
3. Spectrophotometer
4. Premixed Reagentsin Digestion Vessel (vials)
5. K2g2O7
7. HgSO4
8. Ag2SO4
Procedure:
1. Place Approximately 500ml Of Sample In a clean blender bowl and homogenizze at high
speed for two minutes. blending the sample ensures a auniforum distribution of suspended
4. While holding The vial at a 45 degree angle carefully pipet 2 ml sample into the vial.
6. Holding the vial by the cap in an empty sink, gently invert several times to mix the contents
they will become very hot during mixing.
7. Place the vial in prehented COD reacton.
in place of sample.
10. Turn off the reaction off and alllow the vials to cool to 120 degree and less. invert each vial
several times while still warm place vial in a cooling reach and allow them to room temp.
11. Measure the COD using spetrcophotamctrum method.
Find Coliform Bacteria By Multiple Tube
Fermentation Technique
Theory:
Many bacteria are found in water. most of them are totally harmless (non pathogenic) and
few are harmful (pathogenic), which causes diseases e.g. typhoid, fever, parathyphoid,
dysentery, and cholera etc. The ground water at great depths is free from these bacteria.
The sanitary engineer is not concerning all of them. The Coliform group is one of the most

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important types and includes aero genes, Acrobatic Cloace, eschroica coli. Therefore
Coliform may be define in part as including all of the aerobic and facultative green non-
spore bacilli, which formate lagtode with gas formation within 48 hours at 3.5 C. Coliform
themselves are harmless bacteria. But they are not indication of bacteria pollution of
water , but also because their absence or presence and their number can be determine
by routine laboratory test.
The number of Coliform May be found by following test:
 Pour plate total amount method
 Membrane filter method
 Multiple tube fermentation method
The last method based on the Coliform ferment lactose with gas formation. Appropriate
quantity of water to be tested is placed in sterile tube containing lactose. The Tubes are
incubated for 24 hours and then examined in the presence or absence of gas is noted
and recorded. If no gas is formed within 24 hours then wait for 48 hours. If the gas is
formed then Coliform is confirmed. To find the number of Coliform from this method the
result from various size of portion if the sample are noted the most probable number
(MPN) of the Coliform in the water is obtained by applying the laws of the statics to the
result of the test. For this purpose the most provable number charts are available.
WHO Guideline Value for Bacteria Coliform
According to WHO the water is divided into the following classes depending upon the
amount of Coliform bacteria present in it.
Class Status Coliform per 100ml
01 Excellent 0
02 Satisfactory 1-3
03 Suspicious 4-10
Apparatus:
Fermentation tube, Durham,s tube, Cotton, Beakers, autoclave (steam sterilizer) and
pippete filter.
Chemicals:
Water samples, lactose, and bullion solution.
Procedure:
This test is carried in three stages: We will confine our selves to the first stage
(Presumptive test) which is performed in the following steps.

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1. Take 15 test tubes and make 3 sorts of them each having 5 test tubes
2. Fill each of them with 10ml of lactose broth solution
3. Insert Durham,s tubes upside down in all test tubes and they are gently shaken to remove
air.
4. Clog all the tes tubes with cotton
5. Sterelize all the test tubes at 121C"in autoclave for minute.
6. Take out the tube after sterilization and the tube is cooled down
7. 1ml and 0.1 ml of sample is added respectively to 2nd and 3rd set of tubes.
8. Incubate all these test tubes at 350" for 24 hours in an incubator.
9. After 24 hours each test tube it is said to be positive presumptive test other wise negative.
Finding Alkalinity of Water Sample by Indicator
Method
Theory:
Alkalinity is the measure of the ability of a solution to neutralize acids
Importance:
Alkalinity is an important determination to the water treatment plant operator because some of the
coagulants used to clarify water and prepare it for filtration required sufficient alkalinity to insure
a proper reaction. The alkalinity may be increased by adding lime or NA2CO3. Excessive
alkalinity may be however interfere with coagulants.
WHO Guideline Value:
World health organization suggested a guideline value for alkalinity:
 Low alkalinity < 50mg/lit as CaCO3
 Medium alkalinity 50 - 250 mg/lit as CaCO3
 High alkalinity > 250 mg/lit as CaCO3
Relationship Table of Alkalinity:
Result of
titration
Hydroxide
(OH)
Carbonate
(CO3)
Bicarbonate
(HCO3)
p = 0 Nil Nil T
p > t/2 2p - T 2(T - p) Nil
p = t/2 Nil 2p Nil
p < t/2 Nil 2p T - 2p
p = T p Nil Nil
Where P= phenolphthalein alkalinity, T= Total alkalinity

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Apparatus:
Stand, burette, funnel, conical flask, beaker etc.
Chemicals:
Phenolphthalein indicator solution, brome cresel green, methyl red solution, standard solution
(H2SO4) having normality 0.02
Procedure:
1. Take 50 ml of water sample in a flask. Add six drops of phenolphthalein indicator in the
sample (water), note the initial reading of the burette containing H2SO4 (N=0.02)
2. Start the titration till the color changes and note the reading of the burrete, Calculate the
phenolphthalein alkalinity using the formula alkalinity = (final reading - initial reading) X
100/50
3. Now add six drops of brome cresol green in the methyl solution which turns the color to
greenish one. note the initial reading of the burette and start the titration till the color
changes to gray and note the final reading.
4. Calculate total alkalinity by using the formula,
Total alkalinity = (final reading - initial reading) x 100/50
Determination of Suspended Solids in Water
Theory:
The total dissolved solids mainly consist of the test that acts as a check on detailed analysis.
Another useful aspect is that electric conductivity can be continuously recorded. Any sudden
change indicate a change of water. A treatment method can be there fore instantly detected.
Determination of total solids is used in two operations. In developing a potential source for public
water supply we must know about total solids. This is the factor to divide the type or method to be
used in softening water.
Drinking water standard recommends the following:
 Max desirable criteria = 500mg/lit as dissolved solids
 Max permissible criteria = 500 mg/lit as dissolved solids
 W.H.O guideline value = 1000 mg/lit as dissolved solids
Apparatus:

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Filter media paper, filter glass, suction motor and pumps. The suspended solids in a turbid river
consist of finely divided silt silica and clay having specifc gravity ranging from 2.65 for sand to
1.03 for tlocculated mud particles containing 95%water suspended impurities are bacteria algae
and silt causing tubidity while dissolved impurities are salt of calcium magnesium sodium nitrogen
and H2S are also dissolved impurites. Mostly rain water have suspended solid contents usually
well below 200mg/lit but the contents of large river in tropical countries are sometimes over
200mg/lit
Procedure:
Take a filter glass of known size and weight let it is W1 put the filter glass on the filter assembly
attached with a suction motor pump, pour waste water sample ofover 50ml over the filter glass and
switch on the water pump remove the filter paper after waste paper filter through it and put in
dissector bring down the temperature. find out the weight of the filter glass along with the sample
remain on the filter let it would be W2.
Find the amount of suspended solids = (weight of filter + sample - (weight of filter)) x 100
Volume of Sample = (W2-W1) X 1000
Finding Total Hardness Of Water Using EDTA
Method
Theory:
Hard water is generally considered to be one which requires considerable amount of soap to
produce foam or leather. Hard water cause scale formation in boilers heaters and hot water pipes.
The rain water catches CO2 from the atmosphere when the water pass through CaCO3 rock in the
Soil, these compounds make the water hard. Calcium and magnesium chlorides and sulphates also
cause hardness
There are two types of hardness:
1. Temporary Hardness
2. Permanent Hardness
Temporary Hardness:
This type of hardness is mostly caused by Ca(HCO3) or Mg(HCO3) OR both, therefore it is also
called carbonate hardness, these compounds dissolve in water and form Ca2, Mg+2 and HCO3
ions which cause hardness
H2O+ CO2--> H2CO3

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CaCO3 + H2CO3 --> Ca(HCO3)2
Temporary hardness can be removed by Clark's method by adding limewater,Ca(OH)2 to the
hard water.
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca (OH)2 -->2CaCO3 + 2H2O
Mg (HCO3)2 + Ca (OH)2 --> Mg CO3 + CaCO3 + 2H2O
As the magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate are insoluble in water and settles down,
Permanent Hardness:
It is also known as non carbonate hardness and it is caused by CaCl2.MgCl2, CaSo4 and MgSO4,
the ion exchange method is used for the removal of the permanent hardness sodium zeolite is added
to hard water due to which calcium or magnesium zeolite is formed which is insoluble in water.
Ca + 2Na (zeolite) --> Ca (Zeolite ) + 2Na + 2
Disadvantages of hard water:
Total hardness = (Final hardness reading - Initial reading) 1000/50. The following values give
the type of hard water:
Hardness mg/lit
as CaCO3
Hardness (mg/lit
Type of water
0 - 75 Soft water
75 - 150 Moderately hand
water
150 - 300 Hard water
above 300 Very hard water
W.H.O guideline values:
W.H.O guideline value of hardness is 500mg/lit as CaCO3
1. Greater amount of soa is used.
2. Scale formation reduces the life of boilers.
3. Effect the digestive system of it contains MgSO2
Apparatus:
 Conical Flask
 Funnel
 Burette
 Sand

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 Beaker
Chemicals:
Buffer solution of hardness ferrochrome black tea EDTA solution of 0.02normality.
Procedure:
1. Take 50ml of water sample in conical flask.
2. Add 1ml of buffer solution (Aluminum Hydroxide n Ammonium Chloride) of hardness1.
3. Add 3 drops of ferrochrome black tea to the flask and shake well.
4. Place the flask below the burette containing EDTA (Ethylene diamine tetra-acitic acid)
solution of 0.02 normality.
5. Note the initial reading of the burette and open the tape of the burette to allow the solution
to flow in the flask.
6. Note The Final Reading when the color of the water in the flask turn bluish.
7. The total harness (temporary + permanent hardness) is found by using the following
formula.
Turbidity of Water sample Using Nephelometric
Method
Theory of Water Turbidity Test:
Water is said to turbid when it is seen containing materials of suspension inside it. While turbidity
may be defined as the measure of visible material in suspension in water, turbidity may be caused
by algae or other organisms. It is generally caused by silt or clay. The amount and character of
turbidity depends upon two things:
1. Type of soil over which flows
2. The velocity of flowing water
When water becomes stationary, the heavier and larger suspended particles settle down quickly
and the lighter and finely divided particles settles very slowly and even takes months.
Ground water is less turbid because of low velocity of water. turbidity may be helpful for
particles. When water becomes stationary, the heavier and larger suspended particles settle down
quickly and the lighter and finely divided particles settles very slowly and even takes months.
Ground water is less turbid because of low velocity of water. Turbidity may be helpful for
particles.

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There are Various units for the measurement of turbidity which are:
1. Standard turbidity unit[mg/lit or ppm]
2. Jackson turbidity unit [J.T.U]
3. Nephelometric turbidity unit [N.T.U]
A device called nephelometric turbidity measures the turbidity of water in N.T.U the intensity of
light after passing through the water gives a measure of turbidity of water.
WHO guideline value:
WHO suggested a guideline value for turbidity as [N.T.U]for disinfection the turbidity of water
should be less than 1 N.T.U.
Apparatus:
W.H.O Nephelometric turbidity meter formazine solution of the sample by multiplying the scale
reading by 0.9 N.T.U, 9 N.T.U, 99 N.T.U, test tubes and water samples.
Procedure of Turbidity Test:
1. Switch on the power supply and check the battery of the turbidimeter,
2. Press the 1 N.T.U button and coincide the scale with zero by using focusing template.
3. Again press 1 N.T.U button and coincide the scale with zero using the focusing template.
4. A Standard formazine solution of N.T.U is placed on tubidimeter in the path of rays and
scale is brought 9 n.t.u
5. The Water sample is taken in a test and is placed in turbidimeter.
6. Use A Cell rise if the turbidity is more than 100 N.T.U and get the turbidity dilution factor.
Bacterial Classification in Wastewater Treatment
Microbiology in Waste Water Treatment:
It is the branch of biology which deals with micro organisms which is unclear or cluster of cell
microscopic organisms.
MICROORGANISMS:
Microorganisms are significant in water and wastewater because of their roles in different
transmission and they are the primary agents of biological treatment. They are the most divers
group of living organisms on earth and occupy important place in the ecosystem. Are called
OMNIPRESENT.

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Classification of Bacteria in Waste Water Treatment
Process
1. Classification of bacteria based on Oxygen requirements (ORP)
The heterotrophic bacteria are grouped into three classification, depending on their action toward
free oxygen (O4) or more precisely oxygen-reduction potential (ORP) for survival and optimum
growth.
1. Obligate aerobe or Aerobes or bacteria are micro-organisms require free dissolved oxygen to
oxidize organic mate and to live and multiply. These conditions are referred to as aerobic processes.
2. Anaerobes or anaerobic bacteria are micro-organisms oxidize organic matter in the complete
absence of dissolved oxygen. The micro-organisms take oxygen from inorganic sates which contain
bound oxygen (Nitrate NO3, Sulphate So4
2-
, Phosphate PO4
2-
). This mode of operation is termed as
anaerobic process.
3. Facultative bacteria are a class of batter that use free dissolved oxygen when available but can also
Respire and multiply in the absence. "Escherichia Coli" a facile coli from is a facultative elaterium.
(Facultative Bacteria = Aerobic anaerobic bacteria)
2. Classification of Microorganisms by Kingdom:

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Microorganisms are organized into five broad groups based on their structural functional
differences. The groups are called “Kingdoms”. The five kingdoms are animals, plants, protista
fungi and bacteria.
Representative examples and characteristics of differentiation are shown:
3. Classification by their preferred Temperature Regimes:
Each specie of bacteria reproduces best within a limited range of temperatures. Four temperature
ranges for bacteria:
1. That best at temperatures below 20°C are called psychrophiles.
2. Grows best in between 25°C and 40°C are called Mesophiles.
3. Between 45°C and 60°C thermopiles can grow.
4. Above 60 °C stenothermophiles grow best.
BACTERIA:
The highest population of microorganisms in a wastewater treatment plant will belong to the
bacteria. They are single-called organisms which use soluble food. Conditions in the treatment
plant are adjusted so that chemosererotrophs predominate. No particular species is selected as best.
Metabolism:
The general tern that describes all of the chemical activities performed by a cell is metabolism.
Divided into two parts:
a. Catabolism:
Includes all the biochemical processes by which a substrate is degraded to end produces with the
release of energy.
b. Anabolism:
Includes all the biochemical processes by which the bacterium synthesizes new chemical
compounds needed by the cells to hire and reproduces.
To Determine Bend Test on Steel Bar
Apparatus:
UTM, test specimen, bending table support pin.

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Procedure:
1. Take a test specimen of the steel rod.
2. Measure the diameter of the steel rod. Take at least 3 readings and calculate the mean.
3. Now place the test specimen in the bending table specimen should be kept in the bending
table in such a way that the plane
4. Intersecting the longitudinal ribs is parallel to the axis of the pin.
5. Select suitable rang of scale.
6. Start the machine and start applying load continuously and uniformly throughout the
bending.
7. As the load is applied on the rod it will start bending.
8. Discontinue the application of load when the angle of bent specified in the material
specimen has been achieved before rebound.
9. Take out the specimen and examine the tension surface of the specimen for cracking.
Specification for Angel in Bend Test:
Bar # 3 to Bar #11 should bend up to 180o without crack
Bar # 14 & Bar # 18 should bend upto90o without crack
This all specification has been given in AASHTO (American Association for Sate Highway and
Transportation Officials)
Bend Test Requirements:
Bar No Grade 40 Grade 60 Grad 75
3, 4, 5 3 ½ db 3 ½ db -------------------
6 5 db 5 db -------------------
7, 8 ------------------- 5 db -------------------
9, 10 ------------------- 7 db -------------------
11 ------------------- 7 db 7 db
14, 18 ------------------- 9 db 9 db
To Determine Yield & Tensile Strength of a Steel
Bar
Apparatus:
UTM, Test Specimen, Vernier Calipers, Ruler etc.
Description of UTM:

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A machine designed to perform tensile, compression, bend and shear tests, is called UTM,. It
mainly consists of two parts.
 Loading Unit, control unit. In addition to these units, there are certain accessories like bending
table, jaws for gripping recorders etc.
 Loading unit consists of two crossheads i.e upper cross head and lower cross head and a table
Procedure:
1. Prepare a test specimen of at least two feet.
2. Measure caliper at least at three places and then find average.
3. Insert the suitable jaws in the grip and select a suitable load scale on UTM.
4. Insert the specimen in the grip by adjusting the cross heads of UTM.
1. Start machine and continue applying the load.
2. At a point when the values of the load at that point this is called yield point.
3. When the specimen breaks stop the machine.
4. Note the ultimate value of the load.
5. Determine the yield strength and tensile strength of load dividing the yield load &
ultimate load by cross sectional area of the bar.
Gauge length = 8 inch
Determine the yield strength by the following
methods:
Offset Method

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To determine the yield strength by the this method, it is necessary to secure data (autographic or
numerical) from which a stress-strain diagram with a distinct modulus characteristic of the
material being tested may be drawn. Then on the stress-strain diagram, lay off om equal to the
specified value of the offset (i.e. yield strength ~0.2%), draw mn parallel to OA, and thus locate
r, the intersection of mn with the stress-strain curve corresponding to load R, which is the yield
strength load. In recording values of yield strength obtained by this method, the value of offset
specified or used, or both, shall be stated in parentheses after the term yield strength.
Figure - Stress-strain diagram for the determination of yield strength by the offset method.
Secant Method
This method is also referred as the tangent, secant or chord modulus for the line drawn from the
shear stress-shear strain curve at 5% (1/20) and 33% (1/3) of the maximum compressive shear
stress. This region usually lies well within reasonably linear part of the curve. Lower part of the
curve, representing a straight region being associated with closing up the interfaces between
mortar and units is ignored, as they normally close up due to self weight in real structures.
Calculations for Ec are as follows.
Ec = ∆ Shear Stress / ∆Shear Strain
∆ Shear Stress = (Shear stress corresponding to 1/3 of the compressive strength) - (Shear stress
corresponding to 1/20 of the compressive strength)
∆ Shear Strain = Difference of the Shear strain at corresponding values of Shear stress.
ASTM Standards
Strength Grade 40 Grade 60 Grade 75
Minimum Yield Strength 40,000 Psi 60,000 Psi 75,000 Psi
Maximum Yield Strength 60,000 Psi 90,000 Psi 1,00,000 Psi
Elongation = 9.8 – 8 = 1.9
S
No
Dia of
Bar
Yield
Load(Tons)
Ultimate
load(Tons)
Area of
Bar,
A=∏ D 2
/4
Yield
Strength=Yield
Load *2204/
Area
Tensile
Strength =
Yield
Load*2204/
Area
1 ½ in 5.97 9.28 0.196 in2 67132.04 Psi 104352.
65 Psi
2 ½ in 4.86 7.65 0.196 in2 54650.20 Psi 86023.
46 Psi

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3 ½ in 5.47 8.11 0.196 in2 61509.62 Psi 91196.
12 Psi
4 ½ in 5.43 8.313 0.196 in2 61059.85 Psi 93445.
10 Psi
5 1/8 in 7.05 10.95 0.306 in2 50778.43 Psi 78868.
62 Psi
To Measure COD of WasteWater using Open
Reflux Method
History of COD :
KMnO4 was used as oxidizing agent for many time pb with KMnO4 was that different value of
COD obtained due to strength change of KMnO4. BOD value obtained greater than COD with
KMnO4 means KMnO4 was not oxidizing all the substances. Tthen ceric sulphate potassium
loadate and potassium dichromate all tested separately and at the end potassium sichromate was
found practical.
Pottassium dichromate is used in excess a mount to oxidize all the organic matter, this excess
aomunt can be found at the end by using ferrousiion.
Method for cod test :
1. open reflux (drawback: end product is dangerous and cannot be discharged in open draws)
2. close reflux (same chemicals as for open reflux but sample and chemicals used in less quantity)
spectro photometric (septrophotometer) titremetric ( titration)
Chemicals/ regents in open reflux method:
1. Potassium di-chromate (oxidation agents)
2. Sulphuric acid.
3. Mercuri sulphate (Hgs04)
4. Ferrous ammonium sulphate (Fe NH4)2 (So4)2 0.25 N used as tritrante,
5. Fezroin indicator.
Limitations of COD:
 cannot differentiate between biodegradable and non-biodegradable material
 N-value cannot be accurately found.
Advantages of COD:
1. can be performed in short time i.e 30 min can be correlated with BOD with a factor.

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2. More biological resistant matter, more will be the difference in Bod and Cod results,
Apparatus
2. COD Reactor
3. Spectro-photometer
4. Premixed Reagents in Digestion Vessel (vials)
5. K2G2O7
7. HgSO4
8. Ag2SO4
Procedure:
1. Place Approximately 500ml Of Sample In a clean blender bowl and homogenize at high
speed for two minutes. blending the sample ensures a uniform distribution of suspended
4. While holding The vial at a 45 degree angle carefully pipette 2 ml sample into the vial.
6. Holding the vial by the cap in an empty sink, gently invert several times to mix the
contents they will become very hot during mixing.
7. Place the vial in preheated COD reaction.
in place of sample.
10. Turn off the reaction off and allow the vials to cool to 120 degree and less. invert each
vial several times while still warm place vial in a cooling reach and allow them to room
temp.
11. Measure the COD using spetrcophotometer method.
Calibration Of Rectangular Notch
Apparatus:
 Hydraulic bench
 Stopwatch
 Rectangular notch
Concepts:
NOTCH:

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A Notch is regarded as an orifice with water level below its upper edge. Notch is made of a metallic
plate and its use is to measure the discharge of liquids. These are used for measuring the flow of
water from a vessel or tank with no pressure flow. Since the top edge of the notch above the liquid
level serves no purpose therefore a notch may have only bottom edge and sides.
SILL “OR” CREST OF A NOTCH:
The bottom edge over which liquid flows is known as Sill or Crest of the notch.
RECTANGULAR NOTCH:
The notch which is Rectangular in shape is called as the rectangular notch. Coefficient of discharge
(Cd): It is the ratio between the actual discharge and the theoretical discharge. Mathematically:

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Procedure:
The stepwise procedure is given below:
1. Fix the plate having rectangular notch in the water passage of Hydraulic bench.
2. Turn the hydraulic bench on; water will accumulate in the channel.
3. When the water level reaches the Crest or sill of notch stop the inflow and note the reading, and
design it as H1.
4. Restart the bench and note the volume and time of water that accumulates in the volumetric tank
of bench, from this find the discharge, and also note the height of water at this point.
5. Find H = H2 – H1 This will give you the head over the notch.
6. Find the width of the notch.
7. Take different readings by changing the discharge head over the notch, using the above
procedure.
8. Plot a graph between Log10H and Log10Q and find K from graph equation.
Find Cd from the following formula. Cd = 2 / 3 x k / √2g x b
b = 3 cm
S.No H1 (cm) H2 (cm) H (cm) Volume
(Litre)
Time
(Sec)
Q (C
m3
/sec)
Log10H Log10Q
1 8.6 11.3 2.7 5 16.58 301.56 0.431 2.47
2 8.6 12.6 4 5 9.26 539.95 0.602 2.73
3 8.6 13.7 5.1 5 6.82 733.13 0.707 2.86
4 8.6 14.600 6 5 5.01 998.003 0.778 3
To Determine The Metacentric Height Of a Ship
Model
Apparatus:
1. Water bulb
2. Metacentric height apparatus
3. Scale or measuring tube
Concepts:
Metacenter:
When a floating body is given a small displacement it will rotate about a point, so the point at
which the body rotates is called as the Metacenter.
“OR”

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