Volatile oils

 An essential oil is a
concentrated hydrophobic liquid
containing volatile (easily evaporated at normal
temperatures) chemical compounds from plants.
Essential oils are also known as volatile
oils, ethereal oils, aetherolea.
 The volatile oil preexists in the plant and is usually
contained in some special secretory tissues, for
example, the oil ducts of umbelliferous fruits, the oil
cells, or oil glands occurring in the sub-epidermal
tissue of the lemon and orange, mesophyll of
eucalyptus leaves, trichomes (hair growths) of
several plants, etc.

 In few cases the volatile oil does not
preexist, but is formed by the decomposition
of a glycoside. For example, whole black
mustard seeds.
 An essential oil is "essential" in the sense
that it contains the "essence of" the plant's
fragrance (the characteristic fragrance of the
plant from which it is derived).

 Soluble in alcohol and other organic solvents,
practically insoluble in water, lighter than water
(Clove oil heavier)
 Possess characteristic odour and have high
refraction index, most of them are optically active.
 Volatile oils are colourless liquids, but when
exposed to air and direct sunlight these become
darker due to oxidation.
 Unlike fixed oils, volatile oils neither leave
permanent grease spot on filter paper nor
saponified with alkalis.
 The volatile oils dissolve many of the proximate
principles of plant and animal tissues, such as the
fixed oils and fats, resins, camphor, and many of
the alkaloids when in the free state.

 Chemicaly they are derived from terpenes,
their oxygenated compounds and
phenylpropanoids.
 Many of the phenylpropanoids found in
volatile oils are phenols or phenol ethers.

 ‘Terpenoids are the hydrocarbons of plant origin of the
general formula (C5H8)n as well as their oxygenated,
hydrogenated, and dehydrogenated derivatives.’
 Terpenoids are volatile substances which give plants and
flowers their fragrance. They occur widely in the leaves
and fruits of higher plants, conifers, citrus and eucalyptus.
 They are made up of isoprene units (C5H8) and are usually
mono, sesqui and diterpenes with empirical formula as
C10H16, C15H24 and C20H32 respectively.
 Tertraterpenoids form a separate group of compounds
called ‘Carotenoids’.

 Significance in plants: due to disagreeable
taste, volatile oils protect the plants from
grazing animals and in flowers, they attract
the insect for pollination.
 Used as fragrant and flavoring agent in
pharmaceutical preparations, cosmetics,
foods and beverages

 Evaporate from source when
exposed to room temperature
 Colorless liquid, or crystalline or
amorphous solid
 Do not form permanent stain on
paper
 Do not rancidify
 Have distinct odor
 Can be distilled from natural
source
 On exposure to air and light, they
oxidize and resins are formed.
 Can not be saponified
 Mixture of mono and
sesquiterpenes
 Immiscible in water but soluble in
alcohol
 Remain fixed from the source
when exposed to room
temperature
 Some of these oils possess
colors e.g. shark liver oil
 Form permanent stains on paper
 Rancidified on exposure to air
 May or ma y not possess odor
 Can not be distilled
 On exposure to air or light, it
becomes rancid developing
disagreeable odor.
 Can be saponified
 They are esters of glycerol with
long chain fatty acids
 Sparingly soluble in cold alcohol

 Carminative (e.g. umbelliferous fruits)
 Anthelmintic (e.g. chenopodium oil)
 Diuretics (e.g. juniper)
 Antiseptic (e.g. eucalyptus)
 Counterirritant (e.g. wintergreen oil)
 Local anesthetic (e.g. clove)
 Sedative (e.g. valerian)
 Local irritant (e.g. turpentine)
 Insect repellant (e.g. citronella)
 Source of vitamin A (e.g. lemongrass)

 The condition of plant material from which oil
is to be extracted, decides the method of
extraction of volatile oils.
 Three main processes of oil extraction are:
 Distillation
 Scarification
 By using non-volatile solvent
 Bu using volatile solvent

 The distillation is carried out either by water
or steam. The volatile oils from fresh
materials are separated by hydrodistillation,
and volatile oils from air dried parts are
separated by steam distillation. However it is
better to use fresh materials in either case.

 The oils found in large oil glands just below the surface in
the peel of the fruit are extracted by this method. The two
principal methods of scarification are:
 Sponge method: peel is separated from fruit by making
longitudinal cuts and immersed in water for shorter time
period. Then its ready for expression. The operator takes a
sponge in one hand and with the other presses the
softened peel against the sponge, so that the oil glands
burst open and the sponge absorbs the exuded oil, which
is transferred to a collecting vessel. The turbid liquid
consisting of oil and water is allowed to stand for a short
time, whereupon the oil separates from water and is
collected.

 Ecuelle method:In this process, the rinds
are ruptured mechanically using numerous
pointed projections with a rotary movement
and the oil is collected.
 Uses of extraction by scarification: this
method is used for the preparation of lemon
oil, orange oil and bergamot oil.

 A nonvolatile solvent, for example, a fine
quality of either lard (pig fat) or olive oil, is
used in this process.
 Three chief methods are discussed under
extraction by using non-volatile solvent
 Enfleurage
 Maceration
 sprying

 In this a fatty layer is prepared using lard and the
flower petals are spreaded over it, after the
imbibitions is (the uptake of water by a plant or
seed) over, the fatty layer is replaced with fresh
petals. After the saturation of fatty layer the odorous
principles are removed by treating with alcohol and
a triple extract then prepared. When oil is used as a
solvent the flowers are placed on an oil-soaked
cloth supported by a metal grid enclosed in a frame.
Fresh flowers are added as required, and finally the
oil is expressed from the cloths. It may then be
used as perfumed oil, or extracted with alcohol to
produce a triple extract.

 This is also used to extract the volatile matters
of flowers. The lard or oil is heated over a water
bath, a charge of flowers added and the mixture
stirred continuously for some time. The
exhausted flowers are removed, pressed, the
expressed fluid returned to the hot fat, fresh
flowers, added and the process continued until
defined weights of flowers and solvent have
been used. Again, a triple extract is prepared by
extracting the perfumed lard or oil with alcohol.

 In this process a current of warm air is
sprayed through a column of the flowers.
Then oil or melted fat is sprayed over this oil-
laden air which absorbs and dissolves most
of the perfume, the collected oil or fat is then
extracted with alcohol by triple extract
method.

 In this the flowers are extracted by using the
solvent light petroleum and the latter is
distilled off at a low temperature, leaving
behind the volatile oil.

 Natural drugs containing volatile oils can be
tested by following chemical tests:
1. Thin section of drug on treatment with
alcoholic solution of Sudan III develops red
colour in the presence of volatile oils.
2. Thin section of drug is treated with tincture
of alkana, which produces red colour that
indicates the presence of volatile oils in
natural drugs.

 Volatile oils are prone to oxidation on storage in presence of air,
moisture, and light. This oxidation results in colour change,
increase in viscosity, and change in odour. Hence, volatile oils
must be stored in well-closed completely sealed containers and
away from light in cool places.
 For evaluation, Preliminary examinations like odour, taste, and
colour. Physical measurements, which includes optical rotation,
relative density, and refractive index. Chromatographic
techniques are used to determine the proportions of individual
components of certain oils. The ketone and aldehyde content of
oils are determined by reaction with hydroxylamine
hydrochloride (oxime formation) and titration of the liberated
acid. The oil, which passes the above examinations, would be
having good quality and therapeutic value.

 Hydrocarbon volatile oils
 Alcohlic volatile oils
 Aldehydic volatile oils
 Ketonic volatile oils
 Phenolic volatile oils
 Phenolic ether volatile oils
 Oxide volatile oils
 Ester volatile oils
 Miscellaneous volatile oils

 Terpene hydrocarbons usually occur in most
of the volatile oils obtained from natural
sources.
 They are further categorized as:
 Unsaturated acyclic hydrocarbons
 Aromatic hydrocarbons
 Alicyclic hydrocarbons
 E.g. pinene, carene and limonene in
terpentine oil, cubeb

 Synonyms: rectified oil of turpentine, tarpeen
ka tail
 Biological source: Pinus longifolia
 Family: Pinaceae.
 Geographical source: Pinus longifolia is
cultivated in India and Pakistan, the
other species are cultivated in the United
States, France, Europe, and Russia.
 Parts used: oleoresins obtained from plants.

 Collection and preparation: The oleoresins which
are collected are transferred to copper stills, water
is added and heated. The impurities like woody
debris, sand, and other particles float on the
surface of water which is skimmed off. The clarified
resin is then subjected to distillation for obtaining
the oil. The oil obtained is then treated with
aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide. The
treatment with sodium hydroxide removes the
traces of phenols, cresol, and resin acids. This oil
which is produced is called the rectified turpentine
oil.
 Characteristics: Turpentine oil is a colourless to
slightly yellowish trans-parent liquid with a strong
characteristic odour and bitter, pungent taste. It is
soluble in alcohol, insoluble in water, and miscible
with glacial acetic acid, ether, chloroform, and fixed
oil. Turpentine oil should be stored in air-tight
containers and in a cool place.

 Chemical constituents: the chief terpenes
are α- and β- pinene with small quantity of
camphene, limonene, etc.
 Uses: turpentine oil is used as
counterirritant, rubefacient, in swelling,
neuralgia, as mild antiseptic, as an
expectorant in chronic bronchitis, as diuretic,
and urinary antiseptic. When taken internally
it causes irritation of kidney also. In
industries it is used in the preparation of
disinfectants, insecticides, paints, varnishes,
and pine oil.

 Alcohols occur in most of the volatile oils which
are classified as:
 Acyclic (aliphatic) alcohols
 Monocyclic (aromatic) alcohols
 Alicyclic (terpenes and sesquiterpene) alcohols
 E.g. peppermint: menthol
Cardamom: borneol
Coriander: corianderol (linalool)
Rose: Nerol
Sandalwood: santola

 Synonyms: Brandy Mint, lamb mint.
 Biological source: Mentha piperita
 Family: Labiatae.
 Geographical source: It is mainly found in
Europe, United States, and also in damp
places of England.
 Parts used: leaves and sometimes whole
plant.

 Collection and preparation: Peppermint thrives best
in a fairly warm, preferably moist climate, with well-
drained, deep soils rich in humus. Peppermint will
grow successfully, if once started into growth and
carefully cultivated. The growing crop is kept well-
cultivated and absolutely free from weeds and in
the summer when the plant is in full bloom, the mint
is cut by hand and distilled in straw.
 Characteristics: The plant has a characteristic
odour and if applied to the tongue has a hot,
aromatic taste at first and afterwards produces a
sensation of cold in the mouth caused by menthol
present in it. Oil is colourless, yellowish or greenish
liquid, with penetrating odour and a burning,
camphorescent taste. On storage it becomes thick
and reddish but increases the mellowness even if it
is stored for 14 years.

 Chemical constituents: the chief constituent of
Peppermint oil is Menthol, along with other
constituents like menthyl acetate, isovalerate,
menthone, cineol, inactive pinene, limonene,
and other less important bodies.
 Uses: It is stimulant, stomachic, carminative, in
flatulence, and colic, in some dyspepsia,
sudden pains, for cramp in the abdomen and
also in cholera and diarrhoea. Oil of peppermint
allays sickness and nausea, as infants cordial.
Peppermint is good to aid in raising internal
heat and inducing perspiration. It is also used in
cases of hysteria and nervous disorders.

 Synonyms: Fructus coriandri, Coriander fruits,
Cilantro, Chinese parsley.
 Biological source: Coriandrum sativum
 Family: Umbelliferae.
 Geographical source: Cultivated in Central and
Eastern Europe, particularly in Russia, Hungary,
in Africa and India. In India it is cultivated in
Maharashtra, U.P., Rajasthan, Jammu, and
Kashmir. It is also found in a wild state in the
east of England.
 Parts used: dried ripe fruits

 Collection and preparation: The coriander
seeds are sown in dry weather either in March
or in early autumn. Germination is slow. The
flowers are in shortly stalked umbels with five to
ten rays. The seeds fall as soon as ripe and
when the seeds are ripe (about August), the
disagreeable odour is produced. Plant is then
cut down with sickles; the fruits are collected
and dried. During drying fruits develop aromatic
smell and the unpleasant odour disappears.
 Characteristics: The fruit is subspherical in
shape, yellowish-brown in colour. The size of
the fruit is 3 to 4 mm in diameter, with aromatic
odour, and spicy, aromatic taste.

 Chemical constituents: Coriander consist of
about 1% of volatile oil the chief volatile
components are D-inalool (coriandrol), along
with other constituents like, borneol, p-cymene,
camphor, geraniol, limonene, and alpha-
pinenes.
 Uses: It is stimulant, stomachic, carminative,
inflatulence, and colic; in some dyspepsia,
sudden pains, for cramp in the abdomen and
also in cholera and diarrhoea. Oil of peppermint
allays sickness and nausea, as infants cordial.
Peppermint is good to aid in raising internal
heat and inducing perspiration. It is also used in
cases of hysteria and nervous disorders.

 Synonyms: Cardamom fruit, Cardamom
seed, Cardamomi semina, Ilachi, Ailum.
 Biological source: Elettaria cardamomum
 Family: Zingiberaceae.
 Geographical source: It is cultivated in South
India and Ceylon. Like Mysore, Kerala, etc.
 Parts used: dried ripe seeds
The oil is colourless when fresh, but becomes thicker, more yellow and less aromatic on storage. It is soluble in alcohol and rea

 Collection and preparation: It flowers in April and
May and the fruit gathering lasts in dry weather for
three months, starting in October when the colour
turns from green to yellow. (The methods of
cultivating and preparing vary in different districts)
The collected fruits are washed to remove the
impurities like sand, and the fruits are dried quickly
by putting them on trays in thin layers, exposed to
sunlight, with occasional sprinkling of water and
dried.
 Characteristics: They have an ovoid or oblong
shape, rounded at the base, colur is green to yellow
when dried. They should be powdered only when
wanted for use, as they lose their aromatic
properties. The oil is colourless when fresh, but
becomes thicker, more yellow and less aromatic on
storage. It is soluble in alcohol and readily in four
volumes of 70% alcohol, producing a clear solution.
Its specific gravity at 25°C is 0.924 to 0.927.

 Chemical constituents:
 The seeds contain 3 to 6% of volatile oil along with
fixed oil, salts of potassium, a colouring principle,
nitrogenous mucilage, an acrid resin, starch,
ligneous fibre, and ash. The active constituent of
the volatile oil is cineole. Other aromatic
compounds present are terpinyl acetate, terpineol,
borneol, terpinene, etc.
 Uses: Cardamom is used as an aromatic,
carminative, stimulant, stomachic, expectorant,
diaphoretic, digestive, appetizer, and flavouring
agent. It is used in the treatment of respiratory
disorders like asthma, bronchitis, cough, nausea,
vomiting, indigestion, headache, diarrhea, colds, for
flatulence, also used as a spice in cooking.

 Aldehydes provide a soapy-waxy-lemony-
floral effect to the formula and the fragrance
is classified as “Aldehydic”
 E.g. cinnamon: cinnamic aldehyde
Lemon peel: citral
Orange peel: citral
Citronella: citronellal

 Synonyms: Citrus vulgaris, Sweet Portugal
orange, China orange.
 Biological source: Citrus aurantium
 Family: Rutaceae
 Geographical source: It is mainly cultivated
in India, China, Spain, Madeira, Sicily, Malla,
and Morocco.
 Parts used: fresh or dried outer part of the
pericarp.

 Collection and preparation: The tree requires a dry soil,
bears flowers after three years of grafting and the yield is
increasing every year till it reaches its maximum. May is
the flowering season, and the flowers are gathered two or
three times a week, after sunrise. The autumn flowers
(bloomed in october to january) have much less perfume
than those of the spring, and their value is also one-half
the price of May flowers. The yield of oil is greatly
influenced by the temperature and atmospheric conditions
prevailing at the time of gathering. Such as damp, cool,
and changeable weather, considerable diminution
(reduction in yield) is experienced.
 Characteristics: The dried peel is brittle and hard, dark
orange red in colour, the surface is rough with oil glands
which are slightly raised. The inner surface is yellowish
white. It has an aromatic odour, bitter and aromatic taste.
The oil of Bitter Orange Peel is pale yellow liquid; it is
soluble in four volumes of alcohol. Neutral to litmus paper
and specific gravity at 25°C is 0.842 to 0.848.

 Chemical constituents: Bitter orange peel
contains of 1 to 2.5% volatile oil. The principle
component of volatile oil is 90% limonene and
small quantities of aldehydes citral, citronellal,
bitter amorphous glycoside like aurantiamarin
and it’s acid; hesperidin, isohesperidin, vitamin
C, and Pectin.
 Uses: It is used as aromatic, stomachic,
carminative, and flavouring agent, it is used
particularly in fish liver oil preparations and liver
extract. The oil is used chiefly as a flavouring
agent, used in the oil of turpentine in chronic
bronchitis. It is nonirritant to the kidneys and
pleasant to take.

 Synonyms: Fructus Limonis, lemon peel
 Biological source: Citrus limon
 Family: Rutaceae
 Geographical source:
It is cultivated in California. West Indies,
Italy, Spain, Sicily, Portugal, Florida,
California, Jamaica, and Australia; grown all
over India
 Parts used: fresh ripe fruit.

 Collection and preparation: Lemon plant is a
small, 3–5 m high, evergreen thorny tree
with shining leaves. Fruits are collected
before their green colour changes to yellow
in January, August, and November. The
outer dark yellow peel is removed with a
sharp knife.
 Characteristics: Dried lemon peel is spiral,
20 cm long, 1.5 cm wide, 2–3 mm thick,
outer surface is rough and yellow, inner
surface is white. Odour is strong and
aromatic, taste is aromatic and bitter.

 Chemical constituents: Lemon peel contains
volatile oil (2.5%), vitamin C, hesperidin and
other flavone glycosides, mucilage, pectin and
calcium oxalate. The important constituents of
the volatile oil are limonene (90%), citronellal,
geranyl acetate, α-pinene, camphene,
linalool, β-pinene, neral, and geranial.
 Uses: Lemon peel is used as a flavouring
agent, perfumery, stomachic, and carminative.
The oil, externally, is a strong rubefacient and if
taken internally in small doses has stimulating
and carminative properties.

 Synonyms: Daar cheeni
 Biological source: Cinnamomum zeylanicum
 Family: Lauraceae
It is widely cultivated in Ceylon, Java,
Sumatra, West Indies, Brazil, Mauritius,
Jamaica, and India.
 Parts used: dried inner bark of the shoots

 Collection and preparation: Cinnamon is cultivated by
seed propagation method. Cinnamon is an ever-green tree
grows from 20 to 30 feet high, has thick scabrous bark,
strong branches. The bark is loosened and the longitudinal
incisions are made using copper or brass knife. The barks
arc stripped off and made into bundles and wrapped in
Coir. The bundles are kept aside for about 2 hours to
facilitate fermentation due to enzymatic action. The
fermentation helps in the loosening of the outer layer up to
pericycle. Each strip is taken and then they are scraped
using a knife to separate the cork. The pieces are dried
and they are categorized and packed. During drying, the
original pale colour changes to brown due to the presence
of some pholobatannins in the bark.
 Characteristics: The outer surface has yellowish brown
colour. The inner surface is darker than the outer.
Cinnamon has a fragrant perfume; taste aromatic and
sweet.

 Chemical constituents: Cinnamon contains about
10% of volatile oil, tannin, mucilage, calcium
oxalate and sugar. Volatile oil contains 50 to 65%
cinnamic aldehyde, along with 5 to 10% eugenol,
terpene hydrocarbons and small quantities of
ketones and alcohols.
 Uses: It is used as an alterative, aromatic,
carminative, flavouring agent, analgesic, antiseptic,
antirheumatic, antispasmodic, demulcent, digestive,
expectorant, stomachic, diaphoretic, antibacterial,
antifungal, etc. It stops vomiting, relieves flatulence
and is given with chalk and as astringents for
diarrhoea and haemorrhage of the womb. It is also
used in the treatment of bronchitis, colds,
palpitations, nausea, congestion, and liver
problems.

 Chemical tests:
1. A drop of volatile oil is dissolved in 5 ml of
alcohol and to it a drop of ferric chloride is
added, A pale green colour is produced.
Cinnamic aldehyde gives brown colour with
ferric chloride, whereas eugenol gives blue
colour.
2. The alcoholic extract is treated with
phenylhydrazine hydrochloride, it produces red
colour due to the formation of phenylhydrazone
of cinnamic aldehyde.

 Synonyms: Citronella grass
 Biological source: Cymbopogon nardus
 Geographical source: Citronella is native to
Southeast Asia and grown com-mercially in Sri
Lanka, India, Burma, Indonesia, and Java. In
South Florida and southern California it is
grown as an ornamental.
 Parts used: It is the oil obtained by the steam
distillation of fresh leaves.

 Collection and preparation: It is propagated
by seed. It needs a long, warm season and
may not survive cool damp winters. The crop
requires proper irrigation and gets ready for
harvest after eight months of growth.
 Characteristics: The leaves are greyish
green, flat, about 3 ft long, and 1 inch wide.
Citronella oil has a slightly sweet, lemony
smell. It is pale greenish yellow in colour.

 Chemical constituents: citronella oil consist
about 3% limonene, 35% citronellal, 12%
citronellol, 25 % geraniol, 4% citronellyl acetate,
6% geranyl acetate, and 0.8% linalool.
 Uses: It is used as an alterative, aromatic,
carminative, flavouring agent, analgesic,
antiseptic, antirheumatic, antispasmodic,
demulcent, digestive, expectorant, stomachic,
diaphoretic, antibacterial, antifungal, etc. It
stops vomiting, relieves flatulence and is given
with chalk and as astringents for diarrhoea and
haemorrhage of the womb. It is also used in the
treatment of bronchitis, colds, palpitations,
nausea, congestion, and liver problems.

 Ketones invariably occuring in volatile oils
can be classified as:
 Aliphatic ketones
 Aromatic ketones
 E.g. caraway: carvone
Spearmint: carvone
Fennel: fenchone

 Synonyms: Spearmint, Garden mint,
Mackerel mint, Our lady’s mint, Green mint,
jungli pudina.
 Biological source: Mentha spicata
 Family: Labiatae.
 Geographical source: It is originally a native
of the Mediterranean region and was later
introduced into Britain.
 Parts used:dried leaves and flowering tops.

 Collection and preparation: it should be planted in the cool
and damp conditionsWhen the plants are breaking into
bloom, the stalks should be cut a few inches above the
root, on a dry day and before the hot sun takes any oil
from the leaves. All discoloured and insect-eaten leaves
should be removed and the stem tied loosely into bunches
and hung to dry, if intended for sale they are placed in
airtight boxes to prevent reabsorption of moisture. The
leaves may also be stripped from the stems as soon as
thoroughly dried and rubbed through a fine sieve, so as to
free it from stalks as much as possible, or pounded in a
mortar and then powdered, stored in stoppered bottles or
airtight tins.
 Characteristics: it has bright green leaves with fine toothed
edges and smooth surfaces. The plant has characteristic
taste and odour.

 Chemical constituents: It contains about 0.5%
volatile oil containing carvone. It also contains
limonene, phellandrine, dihydrocarveol acetate,
esters of acetic, butyric, and caproic or caprylic
acids. The drug also contains resin and tannins.
 Uses: The drug is used as spice, flavouring
agent, carminative, digestive, spasmolytic,
stimulant, and as a diuretic. Pudina is chiefly
used for culinary purposes. Sweetened infusion
is an excellent remedy for infantile trouble and
also a pleasant beverage in fevers,
inflammatory diseases, etc.

 Synonyms: Gum Camphor, Japan Camphor.
 Biological source: Cinnamomum camphora
 Geographical source: it is native to Eastern
Asia, found widely Sri Lanka, Egypt, South
Africa, Brazil, Florida, Japan, South China,
India, and California.
 Parts used: volatile oil of plant

 Collection and preparation: Old trees possess high
concentration of Camphor. The small wood chips
are treated with steam. Camphor is sublimed and
liquid volatile oil passed away into the receiver.
Excess of Camphor is obtained from the volatile oil.
Camphor is purified by treating it with lime and
charcoal and resublimation into large chambers to
form flowers of camphor. The collected Camphor is
made into blocks by hydraulic pressure.
 Characteristics: Natural Camphor is colourless
translucent mass with crys-talline fracture, Odour is
characteristic, and taste is pungent and aromatic
which is followed by cold sensation. It evaporates at
room temperature and pressure. Camphor has a
peculiar tenacity and cannot be powdered in a
mortar unless it is moistened with an organic
solvent.

 Chemical constituents: Camphor oil contains
camphor, cineole, pinene, camphene,
phellandrene, limonene, and diterpenes.
Camphor is entirely a monoterpenic ketone. Its
basic carbon framework is related to bofneol.
 Uses: Camphor is used externally as a
rubefacient, counterirritant and internally as a
stimulant, carminative and antiseptic. It is a
topical antipruritic and anti-infective, used as 1–
3% in skin medicaments and in cosmetic. It is
also used to manufacture some plastics,
celluloid, in lacquers, varnishes, explosives,
pyrotechnics, as moth repellent, and in
embalming fluids.

 Synonyms: Caraway fruits, Fructus carvi,
Carum, Caraway Seed, sfaid zeera.
 Biological source: Carum carvi
 Family: Umbelliferae
 Geographical source: It is cultivated widely in
northern and central parts of Europe, Turkey in
Asia, India, and North Africa. It is also available
in Canada, the United States, Germany, Russia,
Norway, and Sweden.
 Parts used: dried ripe fruits.

 Collection and preparation: About five seeds are
sown in March or April in drills, 1 ft apart. The
plants when strong enough are thinned out to
about 8 inches in the rows. Proper manure and
weeding is done. When the oldest fruits are
mature and ripe, the plant is cut and the
Caraways are separated by thrashing. They are
then dried either on trays in the sun or by very
gentle heat over a stove with occasional
shaking.
 Characteristics: The fruits are yellowish brown
in colour and are of 4 to 7 mm long, 1 mm
broad, and thick. They evolve a pleasant,
aromatic odour when bruised and have an
agreeable taste.

 Chemical constituents: It has 4–7% volatile oil
which consists of about 60% carvone alone with
dihydrocarvone, carveol, carvacrol, and terpene
limonene. The chief constituent of the oil is a
hydrocarbon termed carvene and an
oxygenated oil carvol.
 Uses: Both fruit and oil possess aromatic,
stimulant, flavouring agent and carminative. It is
recommended in dyspepsia, as a tonic; as
stomachic, for flatulent indigestion, as a
excellent vehicle for children’s medicine and
also as a spice.

 Phenolic volatile oils are classified as:
 Monohydric phenols
 Dihydric phenols
 These type of oils find their vast applications in
pharmaceutical domain because of their
antiseptic and germicidal property and they are
almost employed as flavouring agents in food
as well as pharma industry.
 E.g. Clove: eugenol
Thyme: thymol

 Synonyms: Clove buds, Clove flowers, Laung.
 Biological source: Eugenia caryophyllus
 Family: Myrtaceae
 Geographical source: Clove tree is a native of
Indonesia. It is cultivated mainly in Islands of
Zanzibar, Pemba, Brazil and Sumatra. It is also
found in Madagascar, Penang, Mauritius, West
Indies, India, and Ceylon.
 Parts used: dried flower buds.

 Collection and preparation: Clove tree is evergreen and 10
to 20 m in height. The plant requires moist, warm and
equable climate with well-distributed rainfall. It is
propagated by means of seeds. The seeds are sown in
well-drained suitable soil at a distance of about 25 cm. The
plants should be protected against pests and plant
diseases. The drug can be collected every year starting
from 6 years old till they are 70 years old. Clove buds
change the colour as they mature. The buds are collected
during dry weather in the month of August to December,
separated from the stalks and then placed on coconut
mats for drying under sun. The buds loose about 70% of
its weight, whereas drying and change their colour to dark
reddish-brown. The dried clove is graded and packed.
 Characteristics: reddish-brown in colour, has an upper
crown and a hypanthium (lower sub cylindrical stalk), has
strong spicy, aromatic odour, and pungent and aromatic
taste.

 Chemical constituents: Clove contains 14–21% of volatile
oil. The other constituents present are the eugenol, acetyl
eugenol, gallotannic acid, and two crystalline principles; α-
and β- caryophyllenes, methyl furfural, gum, resin, and
fibre. Caryophyllin is odourless component and appears to
be a phytosterol, whereas eugenol is a colourless liquid.
Clove oil has 60–90% eugenol, which is the cause of its
anesthetic and antiseptic properties.
 Uses: antiseptic, stimulant, carminative, aromatic,
flavouring agent, anodyne, antiemetic, aphrodisiac,
stimulates peristalsis, germicide, stimulating expectorant
in bronchial problems. Dentists use clove oil as an oral
anesthetic and to disinfect the root canals. A few drops of
the oil in water will stop vomiting. The infusion and Clove
water are good vehicles for alkalies and aromatics.

1. To a thick section through hypanthium of clove
add 50% potassium hydroxide solution; it produces
needle-shaped crystals of potassium eugenate.
2. A drop of clove oil is dissolved in 5 ml alcohol and
a drop of ferric chloride solution is added; due to the
phenolic OH group of eugenol, a blue colour is seen.
3. To a drop of chloroform extract of clove add a
drop of 30% aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide
saturated with sodium bromide; Needle and pear
shaped crystals of sodium eugenate arranged in
rosette are produced immediately.

 Examples include:
 Anethol present in Anise and Fennel
 Myristicin in Nutmeg
Oxide volatile oils
 Examples include cinole (eucalyptol) in
eucalyptus.
 Ascaridol (terpene peroxide) found in
Chenopodium

 Synonyms: Anise, Anise fruits, Aniseed, Sweet
cumin, Star anise, Chinese anise, badyaan ka
phool.
 source: Pimpinella anisum
 Geographical source: Anise is native of Egypt,
Greece, Crete, and Asia Minor and at present is
cultivated in European countries like Spain,
North Africa, Italy, Malta, Russia, Germany,
Bulgaria, and Mexico.

 Collection and preparation:
The prorogation is done using seeds; the seeds
are sown in dry, light soil, on a warm, sunny
border during early April. The plant flowers in
July and ripen in autumn. Once the fruits are
ripened the plants are cut down and the seeds
thrashed out.
 Characteristics: The size of fruit varies from 3 to
5 mm long and 1.5 to 2 mm broad. Due to the
presence of short, conical epidermal trichomes
(hairy outgrowths) the fruits exhibit a rough
texture. It has sweet and aromatic odour and
taste. It has greyish brown colour, ovoid-conical
shape.

 Chemical constituents: Anise fruit consist of 2.5 to 3.5% of
a fragrant, syrupy, volatile oil. The chief aromatic
component of the essential oil is trans-anethole, present to
about 90% along with estragole, anisic acid, anisaldehyde.
It consists of coumarins (umbelliferone, scopoletin),
flavonoid glycosides (rutin, isovitexin and quercetin), and
phenylpropanoids. Other constituents of the fruit are lipids,
fatty acids, sterols, proteins, and carbohydrates.
 Uses: Anise is used as expectorant, carminative, aromatic,
antimicrobial, and antispasmodic. It can enhance the
memory, increases lactation, it is used in the treatment of
bronchitis, asthma, relieves menopausal discomforts, in
whooping cough, externally in scabies, flatulent colic of
infants, overcomes nausea, and as a digestive.

 Synonyms: Fennel fruit. Wild fennel, Soonf
 Source: Foeniculum vulgare
 Geographical source: Fennel is indigenous
to Mediterranean countries and Asia, it is
largely cultivated in France, Saxony, Japan,
Galicia, Russia, India, and Persia.

 Collection and preparation:
seeds are sown evenly covered with soil and
propogate during april. The plant bears fruits in
the second year and the bright golden flowers,
flat terminal umbels bloom in July and August.
The fruits are collected by cutting the stems in
September, when the fruits are ripe. The stems
are dried on sheaves under sun and later
beaten to separate the fruits. Yield increases in
well-drained, calcareous soil.
 Characteristics: The fruit is an entire
cremocarps with pedicels, oval-oblong and 5 to
10 mm long, 2 to 4 mm broad. It has greenish-
brown to yellowish brown color.

 Chemical constituents: it contains 4 to 5% of
volatile oil whose principle constituents are 50 to
60% of anethole, a phenolic ester, and 18 to 22% of
fenchone, a ketone. The oil of Fennel has β-pinene,
anisic acid, phellandrine, and anisic aldehyde.
Fennel also contains about 20% fixed oil and 20%
proteins.
 Uses: Fennel is used as stomachic, aromatic,
diuretic, carminative, diaphoretic, as a digestive,
pectoral, and flavouring agent. Anethole may have
estrogen-like activity and inhibit spasms in smooth
muscles. Fennel can increase production of bile,
used in the treatment of infant colic, to promote
menstrua-tion in women, can increase lactation, act
as antipyretic, antimicrobial and antiinflammatory.

 Synonyms: Semen myristicae, Myristica,
nutmeg, jaifal.
 Source: Myristica fragrans
 Family: Myristicaceae.
 Geographical source: A native of Molucca
islands in Indonesia. It is also cultivated in
West Indies, Malayan, Sumatra, and in
Guiana.
 Parts used: dried ripe seeds.

 Collection and preparation: It is cultivated using
seeds and they are protected from wind using
banana plantation in between. The tree does
not flower till it is nine years old, but once it
starts to flower it continues to do so for 75 years
without any attention. The fruits are harvested
twice or thrice a year, that is, in July or August
the next in November and finally in March or
April. The fruit is collected in the morning by
means of a barb attached to a long stick. Seeds
are seperated from fruits, dried and testa is
removed by cracking seeds, finally the drug is
graded and packed.
 Characteristics: shape is ovoid, broadly
elongated, color is greyish brown with
numerous red spots on it.

 Chemical constituents: Nutmeg contains of 5 to
15% volatile oil, lignin, stearin, starch, gum,
colouring matter, and 0.08% of an acid
substance. The volatile oil contains clemicine,
myristicin, geraniol, borneol, pinene.
 Uses: Nutmeg is aromatic, carminative,
flavouring agent, used for flatulence. Graded
nutmeg along with lard is used in ointment for
piles. It has narcotic action and peripherally it
irritates and produces anesthetics action, since
it irritates intestine and uterus it can cause
abortion. Oil of Nutmeg is used to conceal the
taste of various drugs and as a local stimulant
to the gastrointestinal tract.

 Synonyms: Jesuit’s tea, Mexican tea.
 Source: Chenopodium ambrosioides
 Family: Chenopodiaceae.
 Geographical source: It is indigenous to
Mexico and South America. It is also
cultivated in New England, Europe, Missouri,
Austria, and in eastern United States.
 Parts used: volatile oil obtained by the
distillation from the fresh aerial parts.

 Collection and preparation: It is grown in
manured soils. The plant flower from July to
September, and the fruits ripen successively
through the autumn and are collected in
October. The fruits contain volatile oil (1 to
4%).
 Characteristics: The oil is colourless or
yellowish, when freshly distilled, becoming
deeper yellow and finally brownish on long
storage. It has a peculiar, penetrating,
somewhat camphoraceous odour, and a
pungent, bitter taste. Crushed fruits yield 0.6
to 1.0% of oil.

 Chemical constituents: Ascaridole, a terpene
peroxide, to the high percentage of 60 to 70%, an
unstable substance is present in the oil. It also
contains p-cymene, α-perpinene, probably dihydro-
p-cymene, and possibly sylvestrene. Betzine,
choline, glycol, and safrol have also been reported.
 Uses: Chenopodium oil is used as anthelmintic
especially in tapeworm, round worms, and hook
worms. It is also used as active purgative, in the
treatment of malaria, hysteria, and other nervous
diseases. It is employed in veterinary practice in a
worm mixture for dogs, in combination with oil of
turpentine, oil of aniseed, castor oil, and olive oil.

 Synonyms: Eucalyptus, Stringy Bark Tree, Blue
gum, Blue Gum Tree, sfaida.
 Source: Eucalyptus globulus and other species
like E. polybractea, E. viminalis, and E. smithii
 Family: Myrtaceae.
 Geographical source: It is mainly found in
Australia, Tasmania, United States, Spain,
Portugal, Brazil, North and South Africa, India,
France, and Southern Europe.
 Parts used: volatile oil obtained by the
distillation from the fresh aerial parts.

 Characteristics: Eucalyptus is a tall, evergreen tree,
the trunk, which grows to 300 feet high or more, is
covered with peeling papery bark. The leaves on
the young plant, up to five years old, are opposite,
sessile, soft, oblong, pointed, and blue colour. The
mature leaves are alternate, petioled, leathery, and
shaped like a scimitar. The flowers are solitary and
white, without any petals.
 Eucalyptus oil is a colourless or straw-coloured
fluid, with a characteristic odour and taste, soluble
in its own weight of alcohol. According to the British
Pharmacopoeia Eucalyptus oil should contain not
less than 55%, by volume of Eucalyptol, have a
specific gravity 0.910 to 0.930, and optical rotation
–10 degrees to 10 degrees.

 Chemical constituents: Eucalyptus oil contains
volatile oil of which 70 to 85% is 1,8-cineole also
known as eucalyptol. The other constituents
present are p-cymene, α-pinene; small quantity of
sesquiterpenes like ledol, aromadendrene;
aldehydes, ketones, and alcohols. It also has
polyphenolic acids like ferulic acid, caffeic acid,
gallic acid; flavonoids such as eucalyptin and rutin.
 Uses: The oil is used as stimulant, antiseptic,
flavouring agent, aromatic, deodorant, expectorant,
antimicrobial, febrifuge, diuretic, and
antispasmodic. It is also used in the treatment of
lung diseases, sore throat, cold, as a vapour bath
for asthma and various respiratory ailments and in
bronchitis.

Para- cymene
Eucalyptol (1,8- Cineole)
-Pinene

 Wide variety of esters occur in volatile oils.
Most common are the acetates of
terpineolborneol and geraniol.
 Other examples are:
Allyl isothiocyanate in mustard oil
Methyl salicylate in wintergreen oil etc

 Synonyms: Aqleel kohistani, rosemary.
 Biological Source: Rosmarinus officinalis
 Family: Lamiaceae.
 Geographical source: The plant is native to
southern Europe and the oil is produced
principally in Spain and North Africa.
 Parts used: Oil of Rosemary is distilled from
the flowering tops of leafy twigs.

 Chemical constituents: The fresh material yields
about 1–2% of volatile oil containing 0.8–6% of
esters, and 8–20% of alcohols. The principal
constituents are 1,8-cineole, borneol, camphor,
monoterpene hydrocarbons and triterpene alcohols.
It also contains glycosides of luteolin and rosmanol.
 Uses: The oil is mainly used in the perfumery, as a
component of soap liniment, in aromatherapy, for
gastrointestinal disturbances, to enhance urinary
and digestive elimination function and as a
choleretic or cholagogue. Topically, it is applied to
clear nasal passages, for colds, as a mouthwash
and for rheumatic ailments. Rosemary extracts are
used in food technology as antioxidants and
preservatives.

 These are the types of volatile oils in which
the chemical constituents belong to more
than one classes mentiond before.
 Examples include:
 Allium
 Anethum

 Synonyms: Allium, Lehsan, garlic.
 Source: Allium sativum
 Family: Liliaceae.
Garlic occurs in central Asia, southern
Europe, and United States. It is widely
cultivated in India.
 Parts used: volatile oils are obtained from
ripe bulb

 Collection and preparation: Garlic is planted
during October–November in plains and
during February–March in the hills. The
cloves are separated and pressed lightly into
the soil. Garlic requires heavy manuring.
 Characteristics: It is a perennial herb having
bulbs with several cloves, enclosed in a silky
white or pink membraneous envelope.

 Chemical constituents: the active principle of
drug is allicin which decomposes on distilling.
Other constituents reported include alliin,
volatile oils, fatty acids, mucilage and albumin.
Essential oil (0.06–0.1%) contains allyl propyl
disulphide, diallyl disulphide, and allicin.
 Uses: Garlic is carminative, aphrodisiac,
expectorant, stimulant, and used in fevers,
coughs, febrifuge in intermittent fevers,
respiratory diseases such as chronic bronchitis,
bronchial asthma, whooping cough, and
tuberculosis. It is also used in atherosclerosis
and hypertension.

 Synonyms: Fructus anethi, Anethum, dill.
 Biological Source: Anethum graveolens
 Family: Umbelliferae.
 Geographical source: It is native of the
Mediterranean region and Southern Russia.
Also grown in Italy, Spain and Portugal.

 Collection and preparation: The mowing of the
seeds starts as the lower seeds begin; with
proper care taken not to loose any of the seeds
due to shaking. The loose sheaves are built into
stacks of about 20 sheaves, tied together. In hot
weather, thrashing is done in the field,
spreading the sheaves on a large canvas sheet
and beating them. The seeds are finally dried
by spreading out on trays in the sun or on
moderate heat of a stove with occasional
shaking.
 Characteristics: The fruits are yellowish or
slightly brown. The taste of the fruits somewhat
resembles caraway (aromatic and
characteristic). The seeds are small in size, flat
and lighter than caraway and have a pleasant
aromatic odour.

 Chemical constituents: The fruit yields about
3.5% of the essential oil, about 20% of fixed oil
and protein. The essential oil is an aromatic
liquid consisting of a mixture of paraffin
hydrocarbon and 40 to 60% of d-carvone along
with D-limonene and other terpenes.
 Uses: Dill fruit and oil of Dill possess stimulant,
aromatic, carminative, and stomachic, with
considerable medicinal value. Oil of Dill is used
in mixtures, preparation of Dill Water is used in
the flatulence of infants and also as a vehicle
for children’s medicine. Oil of Dill is employed
for perfuming soaps.

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