Written analysis & communication

1. UNIT – I
BASICS OF COMMUNICATION
Meaning of Communication:
➢ The word ‘communicate’ comes from Latin word ‘Communis’ which means to impart, to
participate , to share to make common.
➢ Source of English word –Common- whatever is common shared by all.
➢ Sharing information, thoughts, feelings, emotions, reactions, propositions, facts, figures,
ideas, beliefs, opinions, attitudes, instructions.
➢ Process by which meanings are exchanged between people through use of common set of
symbols.
➢ Transmission of commonly meaningful information.
Definitions of communication:
“Communication is exchange of facts, ideas, opinions, emotions by two or more persons.”
-W.H.Newman
“Communication is process of passing information and understanding from one person to another.
-Keith Davis
“Communication is process by which information transmitted between individuals and or organizations
so that an understanding results response.
-Peter Little
Business Communication:
Business Communication is information sharing between people within and outside an organization that
is performed for the commercial benefits of organization.
“Business communication is the expression, channeling, receiving and interchanging of ideas in
commerce and industry”
-Brennam
“Exchange of ideas, news and views in connection with business among the related parties is called
business communication”
-W.H.Newman
Nature of Business communication:
➢ Practical
➢ Factual – facts and figures

2. ➢ Target oriented
➢ Clear and brief
➢ Persuasive
➢ Continuous process
➢ Mutual understanding
➢ Interdisciplinary science
➢ Specific
Objectives of Business Communication:
• To exchange information
• To maintain co-ordination
• To achieve goal or target
• To future planning
• To solve problems
• To increase job satisfaction
• To manage human resources
• To facilitate direction and motivation
• To improve relationship
• To attract consumer
Importance of Business Communication:
• Movement of information
• Efficient and smooth running of business
• Promotion of management efficiency
• Proper planning
• Basis of decision making
• Basis of cooperation
• Means of coordination
• Job satisfaction
• Establishments of public relations
• Effective leadership
• Accomplishments of goals
Process of Business Communication:
Process: a systematic series of actions, operation of series of changes directed to some end.
Process of business communication two or more persons must participate a medium that carries
the information or message for a particular purpose mutually understood by both the parties i.e. Sender
and Receiver.

3. Communication process: communication process is the method by which a sender reaches a receiver
with a message.
lasswell Model: who? Says What?...to Whom?...Through Which Channel…With What Effect?
(PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION)
Components of Business Communication:
1. SENDER (communicator): the person who intends to convey the message with
intention of passing information and ideas to others is known as sender or communicator.
2. MESSAGE (communication contents): subject matter of communication- opinion,
attitudes, feelings, views, orders, suggestions.
3. ENCODING (process of packaging ideas): use of certain symbols-words-actions-
pictures creating symbols for meaningful information. Translate ideas into code or
symbols.
4. CHANNEL (medium or method of communication): channel or medium of sending
messages.
5. RECEIVER (communicatee): the person who receive message.
6. DECODING (process of opening ideas): convert symbols of messages into meaningful
information
7. FEEDBACK (response to message): ensuring that receiver has received message and
understood the same.
Barriers to Business Communication:
SENDER
ENCODING
TRANSMISSION
MESSAGE
FEEDBACK
DECODING
RECEIVER
MESSAGE
C
H
A
N
N
E
L

4. Barriers are interfences or an obstacle that prevent movement or access and limits the receiver to
understand the message.
A. Physical Barriers: internal structure of the organization and layout of office machines
and equipment’s creates physical barriers to communicate.
➢ Distortion: message lost during decoding and encoding.
➢ Noise: disruption in environment.
➢ Long Distance: long distance between organizations.
➢ Physical Arrangement: sources-men-money-material-machine.
➢ Time: time lag between foreign countries.
➢ Climate: room temperature or work environment.
➢ Physical disabilities of Employees.
➢ Physical destructions
B. Semantic Barriers: use of difficult and multiple uses of languages, words, figures,
symbols, create semantic barriers.
➢ Language: words of different meaning.
➢ Jargons: technical or unfamiliar languages.
➢ Badly expressed message
➢ Faulty translation
➢ Body language ad gesture decoding
➢ Unclear assumptions
➢ Vocabulary deficiency
C. Organizational Barriers: it is raised from the organizational goals, regulations, structure
and culture.
➢ Poor planning
➢ Structure complexity
➢ Status differences
➢ Organizational distance
➢ Information overload
➢ Timings
D. Psychological Barriers or Personal Barriers: which arises from judgments, emotions
and social values
➢ Perception
➢ Filtering
➢ Distrust
➢ Emotions
➢ Viewpoint
➢ Defensiveness
➢ Attitudes and opinions
➢ All-ness – Know-it-all attitude
➢ Blocked minds
➢ Polarization (Graded Variations)
Example: I Know You Believe Your Understand What You Think I Said, But I Am Not Sure You Realize
That What, Your Heard Is Not What I Meant…!

5. Types of Business Communication:
1. INTERNAL COMMUNICATION: communication within an organization is called
internal communication. Internal communication includes downward, upward, lateral or
horizontal, and diagonal also formal and informal communication.
2. EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION: communication with people outside the company
is called external communication.
I. Outward: communication with customers, banks, suppliers, government
departments and general public.
II. Inward: communication within individuals or Groups in the organization.
3. FORMAL COMMUNICATION: when communication is carried out on structured
organized or official manner is called formal communication.
➢ Maintenance of authority
➢ Clear and effective communication
➢ Orderly flow of information
➢ Easy knowledge of source of information
➢ Smooth communication
➢ Increase in efficiency
➢ Permanent record
➢ Discipline manner
ON THE AREA
OF OPERATION
ON THE BASIS
RELATIONSHIP
ON THE BASIS OF
DIRECTION
ON THE BASIS OF
MEANS
INTERNAL EXTERNAL FORMAL INFORMAL NON-VERBALVERBAL
ORAL WRITTEN KINESICS
VERTICAL HORIZONTAL DIAGONAL
FORMAL INFORMAL
INWARD OUTWARD
PARALANGUAGE
PROXEMICS
SIGN LANGUAGE

6. ➢ Less error and mistakes
➢ Coordination of work
➢ Reliability
4. INFORMAL COMMUNICATION: when communication is carried out through non-
structured unorganized and unofficially manner is called informal communication.
➢ Development of informal communication
➢ Better working environment
➢ Prompt actions/ solutions
➢ Increased efficiency
➢ Quick feedback
➢ Quick transmission
➢ Organizational solidity
➢ Completeness of formal communication
➢ Suitable for emergencies
➢ Fast communication
➢ Free environment
I. Grapevine communication:
Communication like grape pattern within the organization informally.
❖ Single strand:
❖ Gossip:
❖ Probability:
❖ Cluster:
A B C D E
A
B
C
D
E
A
B
C
D
E
A
B
G
C
D
E
F
C
C

7. 5. VERTICAL COMMUNICATION: when flow of communication is from top
management to middle or bottom management is carried out and vice versa is called as
vertical communication.
I. DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION: flow of transmitting information
is from higher management to lower level management is called
downward communication.(Superior to Subordinates)
➢ Transmit vital information
➢ Give instruction
➢ Announce decisions
➢ Seek co-operation
➢ Provide motivation
➢ Boost moral
➢ Increase efficiency
➢ Obtain feedback
II. UPWARD COMMUNICATION: when flow of transmitting information
from lower management to middle or higher management is carried out is
called as upward communication. (Subordinates to Superior)
➢ Exchange information
➢ Express opinion
➢ Provide feedback
➢ Offer ideas
➢ Achieve job satisfaction
6. HORIZONTAL COMMUNICATION: when communication takes between persons of
same rank is called horizontal communication.(Same Level of Hierarchy)
➢ Solving problems
➢ Accomplishing tasks
➢ Improving team work
➢ Building goodwill
➢ Boosting efficiency
7. DIAGONAL COMMUNICATION: when flow of transmitting information is among
different structural level within a organization is carried out is called diagonal
communication. It also called as cross functional communication.(people who are neither
in the same department nor in the same level of hierarchy )
8. ORAL COMMUNICATION: communication by spoken words.
➢ Speech comes before writing
➢ Listing is very important in oral communication
➢ Silence also communicates in different ways
➢ Quick transmission
➢ Immediate feedback
➢ Lack or retention

8. ➢ Lack of legal validity
9. WRITTEN COMMUNICATION: communication by written words.
➢ Written words comes after speech
➢ Writing is not spontaneous
➢ Creative activity of mind
➢ Legal validity
➢ Time and money consuming
➢ Lack of immediate feedback
10. NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION: communication by without using spoken words
or written words
➢ Kinesics or body language- facial expression, eye contact, gestures, head & body
shape, posture, appearance.
➢ Paralanguage or para-linqujistics-
➢ Proxemics
➢ Sign language

9. UNIT – II
SEVEN C’S OF COMMUNICATION: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
Principles are generally accepted rules of action
1. COMPLETEESS: completeness brings the desired responses.
➢ Information should be complete in every aspects
➢ Consider all facts of information
➢ Bear all necessary information
➢ Must include all relevant information
2. CONSISENESS: (WORDINESS)- conciseness save time.
➢ Stick to the point
➢ Keep it brief
➢ Message should be precise
➢ Avoid lengthy sentence
➢ Convey message in least possible words
➢ Avoid repetition of words
3. CONSIDERATION: consideration means understanding human nature.
➢ Take audience into consideration- view points, background, mindsets
➢ Self-respect of audience
➢ Relate to target recipient and be involved
➢ Consider receivers nature
➢ Manifest interest in target audience
4. CLARITY: clarity makes comphrension easier
➢ Emphasize on specific message
➢ Makes understanding easier
➢ Meaning of message should be clear
➢ Exact appropriate and concrete words
➢ Use of simple languages
➢ Easy sentence structure
5. COCRETENESS: concreteness reinforce confidence.
➢ Being particular and clear rather than fuzzy and general
➢ Strengthens the confidence
➢ Supported with specific facts and figures
➢ Messages are not misinterpreted
➢ Your message should be solid
➢ Being definite-vivid-specific
6. COURTESY: courtesy strengthen relations.
➢ Sincerely polite, judicious, reflective and enthusiastic, Friendly, open and honest
➢ Positive message- should not be biased
➢ Being thoughtful, tactful and appreciative
➢ Know/ consider the feelings of receiver
7. CORRECTENESS: correctness in message helps in building confidence
➢ Correct use of grammars. Punctuations, spellings and languages
➢ Accuracy in stating facts and figures
➢ Message should be exact and well-timed
➢ Boost up confidence level

10. WRITING SKILLS
Tips regarding choice or words :
• Use familiar words
• Use concrete words
• Use single words in place of circumlocution
• Use short words in place of long words
• Prefer Saxon words to romance
• Use technical words with care
• Use strong words
• Use active verbs
• Avoid unnecessary use of camouflaged verbs
• Use precise words and idioms
Tips for sentence construction:
• Keep sentence short
• Keep sentence content limited
• Economize on words
• Avoid surplus words
• Avoid cluttering phrases
• Avoid roundabout constructions
• Avoid unnecessary repetition
• Determine emphasis in sentence
• Maintain sentence unity
• Adhering to rules of grammar
Tips for paragraph design :
• Aim at unity
• Make effective use of topic sentence
• Omit unnecessary information
• Keep the paragraph short
• Make paragraph move forward
Five keys to effective writing
 Put the reader first
 Use simple words and short sentences
 Use jargon only when necessary
 Write with verbs and nouns
 Format to improve readability

11. BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE (Letter Writing)
Salient features of business correspondence:
• Simplicity
• Conversational style
• Clarity of goal
• Public relation aspects
• You- attitude
• Courtesy
• Persuasion
• Sincerity
• Positive language
• Due emphasis
• Coherence
• Care for culture
• Tactful approach
• Ethical standard
Layout of Business Letter:
• Indented form:
• Full block
Form:
Name and address of Company
Ref.no……… Date:…………
Name and address of Receiver
Salutation………
Subject:…………………………………….
Body of Letter
Name and Designation of Sender
Name and address of Company
Ref.no……… Date:…………
Name and address of Receiver
Salutation………
Subject:…………………………………….
Body of Letter
Name and Designation of Sender

12. Aryan Fertilizers limited,
Chandrapur Road,
MIDC Gadchroli-442605
Contents of Business letter:
1. Heading : letterhead / name of company and address with telephone number
BHATIA CHEMICALS LIMITED
Reg. office: 26, naraina estate, pune-442604
Phone : 020-2627289
2. Reference number: linking up the chain of letters going out of the organization or
identifying the memos issued by a department within the organization.
3. Date: written on right hand side of letter. Parallel to the Ref.No
4. Inside Address: name and address of the organization to whom the letter is being sent.
Written below the Ref.No.
➢ Addressing individual:
• Mr. or Shri – man
• Miss – unmarried woman
• Mrs. Or Shrimati – married woman
• Ms. – woman whose marital status is not known
• Messrs – plural for Mr.
• Title/rank – DR. P.K.Gupta, Prof.S.B.Bhurase
➢ Addressing by Designation:
• The Finance Manager,
Aryan Fertilizers limited
5. Attention Line: when the writer directs his letter to a particular official in an
organization he may use the phrase ‘for the attention
6. Salutation: salutation is the greeting of the addressee
➢ Sir
➢ Madam
➢ Dear Sir/ Dear Madam
Ref. No: 25/PD/2017-2018
Date: 23rd February 2017
For the Attention of Shri K.P.Sahare

13. (S.B.Bhurase)
➢ Dear Mr. Aryan
➢ Dear Ms. Jones
➢ Dear Sirs
➢ Your Excellency (while addressing the Ambassador or High commissioner of
foreign country)
➢ Gentlemen (when sent to many addressees including a individual, firm, society.
Company etc.)
7. Subject line: enable the reader to quickly identify the subject of correspondence.
8. Body of Letter: body of letter carries its message or content.
➢ Opening paragraph-links up the correspondence and establishes rapport with
reader
➢ middle paragraph- subject matter, elaborated details
➢ Closing paragraph- goodwill ending, leaving doors open for further business.
➢ With regards, with best wishes, with warm regards, thanking you etc.
9. Formal Close: match the salutation as shown below
➢ Dear Sir, Dear Madam, Sir- Yours faithfully
➢ Dear Mr/Ms.P.K.Sahare, - Your sincerely
10.Signature Bloack/Slot: appears just below the complementary close
11. Enclosure (Encl): letter carries along with it some important papers
➢ Enclusures: Three
➢ Encl : 1………………2………………………3…………………….
➢ Enclosed...............................................................................................
12. Postscript: if the writer has forgotten to mention something important in the letter .
13. Carbon Copy Notation: often copies of a letter are supposed to be set to some other
people directly or indirectly concerned with the matter/ subject.
➢ CC: Mr. P.K.Sahare
➢ Copies to Mr. S.K.Bhatia and Mr.T.T.Patil
➢ Copy to Mr. K.K.Khanna.
14. Reference initials: many firms continue to follow the practice of putting typed initials of
the person who dictates the letter ad those of the one who types it. These initials are
useful for office checking. They can be typed adjacent to the left margin in the end like
this:
➢ HSK/NB-HSK are the initials of the person who has dictated the letter and NB of
the person who typed it.
Subject: your July 12 inquiry about………………………………………………..

14. EMAILS
 Use To, cc and bcc carefully
 Subject: Keep messages brief and to the point
 Use the blind copy and courtesy copy appropriately.
 Opening and Closing salutations
 Be informal.
 Dear, Hi, Hello
 Use sentence case.
 Keep sentences simple
 Avoid FULL CAPITAL / full small case
 Don’t use e-mail to avoid personal contact.
 Remember that e-mail isn’t private.
 Be careful with group e-mail.
 Don’t send chain letters or junk mail.
 Your tone cannot be heard in an e-mail.
 Use a signature that includes contact information.
 Summarize long discussions (replies).
 Think who is the reader of email
 Boss / Colleague / Junior / friend or family
 Punctuations, Spellings and basic grammar
 Keep Spell check on
 Font size, type and color
 Use bullets / numbers for reducing the size of email
 When should you reply to email?
 Immediate to 48hrs.
 Reply to , Reply all
 Attachment

15.  Forward
 Don’t hurry – Proof Reading
 Is the sentence formation correct
 Is there any problem in the tone
 Is the email id correct
 Have I attached the correct file
RESUME & CV
 Resume:
 Summary of your education, work history, credentials, and other accomplishments and
skills.
 A resume should be as concise as possible.
 Typically, one page long, although sometimes it can be as long as two pages. Often
resumes include bulleted lists to keep information concise.
 Select a format that best fits the type of job you are applying for.
 Curriculum Vitae (CV):
 CVs are used almost exclusively in countries outside of the United States. In Europe, the
Middle East, Africa, or Asia, employers may expect to receive a curriculum vitae.
 CVs are used primarily when applying for international, academic, education,
scientific, medical or research positions or when applying for fellowships or grants.
• Resume writing:
 Resume represents You..
 It helps employers to know you better
 It gives an idea of your writing skills
 It provides your contact information
• Basic Structure:
 Name – Clear/Bold/Visible
 Contact details
 Career Objective – Effective and To the point
o Who I am

16. o What I want to be
o How can I help in making company successful
• Career Objective:
 To obtain a position that will allow me to utilize my technical skills and experience in making
my organization successful
 Don’t use same objective for different jobs
 Relate your career objective to specific jobs
 Use some words from Job Description.
o Grab attention
o Build relation
 EXAMPLE:
I seek a job as a civil engineer in a construction company where I can use my
knowledge of Auto cad and SAP. I wish to contribute towards the organization
through my technical skills, hard work and creativity.
• Job Description:
 We are a leading Construction company looking for knowledgeable Civil Engineers
o With degree or diploma in Civil Engineering with good knowledge of Auto cad
o Candidates should possess knowledge of civil and construction
o Willingness to work from basic designs to advanced designs
o Innovate, problem solving skills
o Fresher’s/Experienced may apply
o Knowledge of SAP will be added advantage
 Different types of resume for different jobs
 Academics first or Experience first
o Think from Employer’s Point of view
o Campus recruiting
o Fresher’s should give academics first
o Experienced – Work experience should come first
 Projects and Internships

17.  Trainings attended/given
 Skills: Technical, Other skills
 Awards, achievements
• Tips for writing Resume:
 Use Keywords
o Makes easy to get identified – Increases visibility
o Makes your Resume look professional
 Avoid paragraph
o Bullets
 Use Professional Fonts and Size
 Proof Reading
o Take Print
o Check punctuations
o Watch out for numbers
o Ask someone else to read it
• Back up your projects with Qualities and strengths:
 I was selected by my institute as a team leader to direct a group of 50 students during our industry
visit.
 Because of my strong interpersonal and team management skills, I was selected by my institute as
a team leader to direct a group of 50 students during our industry visit.
• Dont’s:
 Don’t use Color paper
o Unless you are into creative field
 No Jargons
 Don’t include Negatives
 Don’t copy from Internet.. Especially career objective
 Don’t fold your resume

18. STATEMENT OF PURPOSE
 Generally used before admissions to foreign universities, application for being a research intern in
foreign universities, or even during job applications
 Only documents that are read by interviewer is CV and Purpose
 It should be into a story format.
 Tips - Statement of Purpose:
 Put your face on the page
 Don’t panic – brainstorm
 Get another perspective
 Let it all flow and edit later
 Keep your writing lively
 Make it clear you have done your homework
 Show you care
 Answer every part of every question
 Make sure your essay reflects your work
 Give yourself time.
• It is a one page document
• Generally not more than 3 paragraphs
• First paragraph (Research Interest/Field of study)
o Match the interest area with what is offered by that university
o Make a story of how did you like this field.
• Second Paragraph (Skills)
o It may include marks obtained in the foundation courses in the area of study/research.
o It may include a project.
o It may include a group or association that you are a member of
o It may include a paper that you might have published in this field.
o Any work experience/volunteer experience.
• Third Paragraph (Trend)
o It should include your opinion on how do you think the trend in this area of study will be.
o “Why” you want to be part of this it.

19. o How can you contribute to this trend.
• How to search the trend
o Most professors explain why they are doing a particular research.
o Mirror their reason why they are doing research in this field and convert it into your own
words.
o This will help them connect to you.
• Spell Check
• Grammar
• Proof reading.

20. UNIT – 3
ACADEMIC WRITING
 Academic Writing:
 Academic writing refers to a style of expression that researchers use to define the intellectual
boundaries of their disciplines and their specific areas of expertise.
 Characteristics of academic writing
o formal tone,
o use of the third-person rather than first-person
o a clear focus on the research problem
o Precise word choice.
o specialist languages adopted in other professions, such as, law or medicine
 Good Academic Writing:
 The Big Picture
o The overall structure of academic writing is formal and logical.
o It must possess a logically organized flow of ideas; this means that the various parts are
connected to form a unified whole.
o The introduction should include a description of how the rest of the paper is organized.
 The Tone
o The overall tone refers to the attitude conveyed in a piece of writing.
o When presenting a position or argument that you disagree with, describe this argument
accurately and without loaded or biased language.
o state the strengths of your arguments confidently, using language that is neutral, not
confrontational or dismissive.
 Diction
o Diction refers to the choice of words you use.
o Awareness of the words you use is important because words that have almost the same
dictionary definition, can have very different implied meanings.
o Therefore, use concrete words [not general] that convey a specific meaning.
o Explain with examples.
 The Language
o Clear use of language is essential in academic writing.

21. o Well-structured paragraphs and clear topic sentences enable a reader to follow your line
of thinking without difficulty.
o Avoid vague expressions that are not specific and precise enough for the reader to derive
exact meaning ["they," "we," "people," "the organization," etc.], abbreviations like
'i.e.' ["in other words"], 'e.g.' ["for example"], and contractions, such as, "don't", "isn't",
etc.
 What needs to be cited?
 Another’s words?
o Yes/No
o If yes, cite his/her name
o If no, still you have to cite the reference.
 Another’s Ideas
o Yes/No
o If No, then no citation is expected
o If yes, cite the source
CITATIONS
 Summarizing the source
 Paraphrasing the source
 Mentioning the source briefly
 Using as Idea from the source

22.  This is required to set the boundaries of ideas.
 Where does the cited idea ends and where does the author’s idea starts
CITATION STYLES
I. MLA Style:
 Modern Language Association
 Recent Citation format
 Currently, MLA style manual is only in its 3rd
edition
 Common style used for Arts and Humanities, Literature, Media and Culture studies, etc

23. II. APA Style:
 American Psychological Association
 Used in Social Sciences
 Most commonly used citation style for management research writings
 1st
APA style was published in 1927
Author’s Name Page Number
Author’s Name Title of paper Place of
Publication
Publisher & Year
Author’s Name & Year Page Number
Author’s Name
& Year
Title of paper Place of
Publication
Publisher

24. III. CSE Style:
 Council of Scientific Editors
 Different from MLA and CSE
 Used in natural sciences, Life sciences, Micro biology, zoology, plant sciences, etc.
 Generally supports two styles of citation
IV. Chicago Style:
 Chicago Manual of Style
 Books, Journals, magazines, “Real world” publications
 Published by University of Chicago Press
 1st
edition came on 1906
 Its is huge in size.. Almost 1000 pages long

25.  It covers not only the style of referencing, but also English, grammar, etc.
SUMMARY ON CITATION

26. ARTICLE WRITING
 What is an article?
 It is a piece which we generally find printed in magazines or newspapers.
 Articles are written on some events, news, Issues of importance for society, etc.
• Format for writing an article?
 Tips for writing a Good Article
 Heading – Title Case –
o Pollution – A Menace
o Heading should be Eye catching
o Should give a crisp idea of central theme
 By Line
o Essential
o Name of the author
o Date and place

27. REPORT WRITING
 What is a Report?
 How to write a report?
 Report writing Format:

28.  How to proceed for writing report:
CASE WRITING
Business Case:
 It is a story of a Problem.
 Much like a film.
 It has facts related to the problem.
 It has people who are affected by the problem
 It has company policies that leads to the problem
 It has other stakeholders and their influence up on the problem.
 It has Financial Information.
 It has product information, etc…
Developing a Business Case:
 Background Information
 Enough information to inform the reader as to why you are bringing it up?
 Objectives / Future state / Desired Outcome
 What is that you are going to deliver
 Current Situation
 Create a compelling argument that highlights the gap between desired state and current
situation.

29. Steps in Developing a Business Case:
 Identify a Problem
 Workplace, Personal reference, Newspapers, Business Magazines, story boards, Social
Media, etc.
 Develop a story to narrate the problem
 Identify the protagonist
 Who is the key person facing the problem
 The person who is responsible to take business decisions.
 Identify the characters
 People who are around the protagonist
 Specify their role and importance in the business scenario.
Developing a Business Case:
 Collect relevant data to support your views
 Financial Information
 Balance Sheet
 Profit and Loss Statement
 Cash Flow statements
 Past Performance
 Stock Prices and their movements
 Marketing & sales and Product/Service Information
 Product information
 Distribution Network
 HR Related Information
 Organization structure
 HR related Quantitative and Qualitative information, etc.
 Build a story that narrates the Pre-Problem scenario
 Provide information on Industry background
 Provide some information on other players in the industry
 Some statistical information

30.  Market Share, Industry growth rate, Economic Policies related to the sector and
that affects the problem
 What led the business to a problem?
 Narrate a story that will give a reader chance to identify various reasons that led the
company to a problem.
 These factors may be inter-related.
 Keep referring to financial information. It shows how important is the problem.
 Give a very attractive title to the case, which will generate curiosity among the readers.
 Title should be attention grabbing.
 It should also provide the area to which the case relates.
 Case should be an interesting story, from start to finish.
 Keep language simple.
 Keep formal tone.
 Write the case from a third person’s point of view.
 Provide easy to read formatting.
 Headers, Images, Bullets, Italics, Tables, etc
 As far as possible, include real numbers
 Every case must have
 A Significant challenge
 A Satisfying solution
 A series of Substantial benefits
 PUBLISH

31. PROPOSAL WRITING
What is a Proposal?
 It is a plan of what your business is all about?
 It is a printed outline of what business you look forward to do.
 Proposal is generally made when the businessman is looking forward to raise funds for business.
 Proposals are generally identified
 Business Proposal
 Research Proposal
 A Proposal must show Thoughtful Planning.
Writing a proposal:
 A good project generally has following features
 It addresses a community demand
 The needs for such kind of project is identified by experts
 Most of the resources for undertaking a planned project are available
 Define your audience
 Who will be reading your proposal? What level of familiarity with your topic will they
have? What might you need to define or give extra background information about?
 What do you want your audience to get from your proposal? What do you need to give
your readers so they can make the decision you want them to make?
 Define your issue
 What is the situation this issue applies to?
 What are the reasons behind this?
 Are we sure that those, and not others, are the real reasons? How are we sure of it?
 Has anyone ever tried to deal with this issue before?
 If yes: has it worked? Why?
 If no: why not?
 Start with a firm introduction
 Make your proposal as purposeful and useful as possible.
 Use some background information to get your readers in the zone. Then state the purpose
of your proposal.

32.  State the problem
 What is the problem?
 What is causing the problem?
 What effects does this problem have?
 Propose Solution
 The solutions section is where you get into how you will address the problem, why you
will do it in this way, and what the outcomes will be.
 Include a schedule and budget
 Your proposal represents an investment. In order to convince your readers that you're a
good investment, provide as much detailed, concrete information about your timeline and
budget as possible.
 When do you envision the project starting? At what pace will it progress? How does each
step build on the other? Can certain things be done simultaneously?
 Make sure your proposal makes sense financially. If you're proposing an idea to a
company or a person, consider their budget. If they can't afford your proposal, it's not an
adequate one. If it does fit their budget, be sure to include why it's worth their time and
money.
 Wrap up with a conclusion
 Summarize the benefits of your proposal and drive home that the benefits outweigh the
costs.
 Leave your audience thinking ahead.
 And, as always, thank them for their consideration and time.
GROUP DISCUSSION
 Group Discussion is a methodology which is used as one of the best tools to select the
prospective candidates in a comparative perspective.
 GD may be used by an interviewer at an organization, colleges or even at different types of
management competitions.
 A GD is a methodology used by an organization to gauge whether the candidate has certain
personality traits and/or skills that it desires in its members.
 In this methodology, the group of candidates is given a topic or a situation, given a few minutes
to think about the same, and then asked to discuss the topic among themselves for 15-20 minutes.

33. Personality traits:
* Communication skills
* Interpersonal Skills
* Leadership Skills
* Motivational Skills
* Team Building Skills/Group Dynamics
* Analytical /Logical Skills
* Reasoning ability
* Different Thinking
* Initiative
* Flexibility
* Creativity
Company's Perspective:
 Companies conduct group discussion after the written test to know more about your:
* Interactive Skills (how good you are at communication with other people)
* Behavior (how open-minded are you in accepting views contrary to your own)
* Participation (how good an active speaker you are & your attention to the discussion)
* Contribution (how much importance do you give to the group objective as well as your own)
Aspects which make up a GD:
* Verbal Communication
* Non-verbal behavior
* Confirmation to norms
* Decision making ability
* Cooperation
Advantages of Group Discussion:
 It helps to shed away the shyness of a candidate and brings his viewpoint amidst all.
 It stimulates to think in a different, new way.
 It helps the candidate in understanding his/ her own strengths and weaknesses.
 It acts as an aid in expansion of the knowledge of the participant.
 It helps to analyse the social or economic issues more logically.
Keys to succeed in group discussion:
 Be as natural as possible. Do not try to be someone you are not. Be yourself. In an attempt to be
someone else, your opinions will not be portrayed.
 Sit with a straight and confident posture.
 Be assertive yet humble. You need to stick to your values and beliefs, but learn to respect the
values and opinions of others too.

34.  Grab the opportunity to speak first, i.e. to start the group discussion with your opinion. It
generally leaves a good impression on the evaluator, but take the move only if you have complete
knowledge of the subject.
 Do not repeat a point, or be lengthy or irrelevant. Also intervene, if someone else is going on an
irrelevant track.
 Facilitate contribution from others. Do not just go on and on and on with only your opinionated
view. Remember, it is a group discussion. Allow others to speak too.
 Make an eye contact with all the participants. It creates more room for conversation. Also keep
nodding, when others speak, it shows receptivity.
 Be an active and dynamic participant. The examiner wants to hear you speak. So do put forth
your views.
 Be positive and prepare your thoughts well but do not be over-confident.
 Think well before you speak. You are being heard and judged upon.
 When raising an objection to a point kept by another speaker, back it up with a solid reason to get
the point across.
 Use quotes, facts and figures, statements, everyday life examples to express a clear chain of
thoughts. Also it might leave a good impression on the examiner and help you score well.
SOFTWARE FOR LEARNING TO ASSESS
SIMILARITIES/ORIGINALITY
Plagiarism:
 Many people think of plagiarism as copying another's work or borrowing someone else's original
ideas.
 According to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary, to "plagiarize" means:
 to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one's own
 to use (another's production) without crediting the source
 to commit literary theft
 to present as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing source
 In other words, plagiarism is an act of fraud. It involves both stealing someone else's work and
lying about it afterward.
Can words and ideas really be stolen:
 Yes
 The expression of original ideas is considered intellectual property and is protected by copyright
laws, just like original inventions.

35.  Almost all forms of expression fall under copyright protection as long as they are recorded in
some way (such as a book or a computer file).
What is considered as Plagiarism?
 Turning in someone else's work as your own
 Copying words or ideas from someone else without giving credit
 Failing to put a quotation in quotation marks
 Giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation
 Changing words but copying the sentence structure of a source without giving credit
 Copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up the majority of your work,
whether you give credit or not
Images, Music, Videos:
 Using an image, video or piece of music in a work you have produced without receiving proper
permission or providing appropriate citation is plagiarism.
 Copying media (especially images) from other websites to paste them into your own papers or
websites.
 Making a video using footage from others’ videos or using copyrighted music as part of the
soundtrack.
 Performing another person’s copyrighted music (i.e., playing a cover).
 Composing a piece of music that borrows heavily from another composition.
Avoid Plagiarism:
 Most cases of plagiarism can be avoided, however, by citing sources. Simply acknowledging that
certain material has been borrowed and providing your audience with the information necessary
to find that source is usually enough to prevent plagiarism.
Challenges to Plagiarism:
 A photograph or scan of a copyrighted image (for example: using a photograph of a book cover to
represent that book on one’s website)
 Recording audio or video in which copyrighted music or video is playing in the background.
 Re-creating a visual work in the same medium. (for example: shooting a photograph that uses the
same composition and subject matter as someone else’s photograph)
 Re-creating a visual work in a different medium (for example: making a painting that closely
resembles another person’s photograph).
 Re-mixing or altering copyrighted images, video or audio, even if done so in an original way.

36. Preventing Plagiarism when Writing:

42. SOFTWARE’S FOR CHECKING PLAGIARISM:
 Modern technology and the development of Internet have given us access to tons of information
any time we desire it and from any place on the planet.
 Original ideas tend to become rare.
 Everybody seems to be reproducing other people's ideas and presenting them as their own.
 Although this practice is not anything new, a lot of people might argue that nowadays it has
reached its peak.
✓ Turnitin
✓ iThenticate
✓ Unicheck
✓ Dupli Checker
✓ Copyleaks
✓ PaperRater
✓ Plagiarisma
✓ PlagScan
✓ Plagiarism Checker
✓ Plagium
✓ PlagTracker
✓ Quetext
✓ Viper

43. UNIT 4
DECISION MAKING
Understanding ‘Decision Making’:
 The thought process of selecting a logical choice from the available options.
 When trying to make a good decision, a person must weight the positives and negatives of each
option, and consider all the alternatives.
 For effective decision making, a person must be able to forecast the outcome of each option as
well, and based on all these items, determine which option is the best for that particular situation.
Levels at which decisions are taken:
 Operational Level
 Managerial Level
 Strategic Level
INDIVIDUAL DECISION MAKING MODELS
I. Rational/Classical Model:
 The rational model is the first attempt to know the decision-making-process.
 It is considered by some as the classical approach to understand the decision-making
process.
 Individuals use Analysis, facts and follow a step-by-step process to arrive at a decision.
 Rational decision making is a precise, analytical process that companies use to arrive at a
fact-based decision.
✓ Features of Rational /Classical Model:
 Problems are clear.
 Objectives are clear.
 People agree on criteria and weights.
 All alternatives are known.
 All consequences can be anticipated.
 Decision makers are rational.
o They are not biased in recognizing problems.
o They are capable of processing ail relevant information
o They anticipate present and future consequences of decisions

44. o They search for all alternatives that maximizes the desired results
✓ Rational Decision making process:
➢ Situation
o Last quarterly results show that the profits from your store are consistently decreasing.
Your boss has asked you to increase the profits of your store or resign.
➢ Define the problem
➢ Identify decision criteria (based on individual values and beliefs)
➢ Allocate weights to criteria
➢ Develop alternatives
➢ Evaluate alternatives
➢ Select the best alternative
II. Administrative / Bounded Rationality Model / Simon’s Normative Model:
 Decision-making involve the achievement of a goal.
 Rationality demands that the decision-maker should properly understand the alternative courses
of action for reaching the goals.
 There should also be a desire to select the best solutions by selecting the alternative which will
satisfy the goal achievement.
 Herbert A. Simon says if appropriate means are chosen to reach desired ends the decision is
rational.
 Bounded Rationality model is based on the concept developed by Herbert Simon. This model
does not assume individual rationality in the decision process.
 Instead, it assumes that people, while they may seek the best solution, normally settle for much
less, because the decisions they confront typically demand greater information, time, processing
capabilities than they possess. They settle for “bounded rationality or limited rationality in
decisions.
✓ Bounded Rationality model concepts:
 This model is based on certain basic concepts.
 Sequential Attention to alternative solution
o Normally it is the tendency for people to examine possible solution one at a time
instead of identifying all possible solutions and stop searching once an acceptable
(though not necessarily the best) solution is found.
 Heuristic

45. o These are the assumptions that guide the search for alternatives into areas that
have a high probability for yielding success.
 Satisficing
o Herbert Simon called this “satisficing” that is picking a course of action that is
satisfactory or “good enough” under the circumstances.
o It is the tendency for decision makers to accept the first alternative that meets
their minimally acceptable requirements rather than pushing them further for an
alternative that produces the best results.
o Satisficing is preferred for decisions of small significance when time is the major
constraint or where most of the alternatives are essentially similar.
✓ Limitation:
 While the rational or classic model indicates how decisions should be made
(i.e. it works as a prescriptive model), it falls somewhat short concerning how
decisions are actually made (i.e. as a descriptive model).
III. Retrospective Decision Model (Implicit Favourite Model):
 This decision making model focuses on how decision-makers attempt to rationalise their choices
after they have been made to justify their decisions.
 This model has been developed by Per Soelberg.
 He made an observation regarding the job choice processes of graduating business students and
noted that, in many cases, the students identified implicit favourites (i.e. the alternative they
wanted) very early in the recruiting and choice process.
 However, students continued their search for additional alternatives and quickly selected the best
alternative.
 The total process is designed to justify, through the guise of scientific rigor, a decision that has
already been made intuitively.
 By this means, the individual becomes convinced that he or she is acting rationally and taking a
logical, reasoned decision on an important topic.
IV. Intuitive Decision making
✓ Intuitive
 Intuition is the ability to grasp a situation or information without the need of reasoning.
 Decisions are based on Intuition and not facts
 In business people use this type of decision making when facts are unavailable or when
decisions are difficult in nature.

46. ✓ Problems with intuition and decision making:
 Flawed information - Intuition decision making will respond quickly to inaccurate, insufficient,
unreliable, or incomplete information based on patterns from previous experiences.
 Short term emotional bias - Cognitive research has shown that even experts' decisions are
influenced by unrelated emotions during the time of making a decision.
 Insufficient consideration of alternatives - Intuition generally relies on pattern recognition and
will point to solutions that have worked well with the current perceived pattern. This will limit
considered options even though you may be dealing with a new decision situation that might
require a novel or unique solution.
 Prejudices - Emotions help form our intuition and can allow flawed experiences to overrule
sound facts and evidence.
 Lack of openness - Every person has a different experience base that provides the platform for
their intuitions. Given that one's intuition is not easily explained, it is difficult to use intuition in a
group context.
 Inappropriate application - People that have good experience, expertise, and intuition in one
area can become overconfident and apply their intuition in an unfamiliar or unrelated area. This
also includes using "Rules of Thumb" that may not match the needs of the current decision
context.
✓ When to use an intuitive decision making style:
 Situations of Trivial or low value decisions
 Decision failure will have little consequence, and intuition will provide for a quick selection.
 Decisions that involve emotions are often subject to a fair amount of intuition and will often play
a major role in personal relationships.
 when speed is critical to a successful outcome, expect to have to rely more heavily on intuitive
decision making.
 Examples include choices made in battle or by first responders arriving at a crisis scene.
GROUP DECISION-MAKING MODELS
 Group decision-making (also known as collaborative decision-making) is a situation faced when
individuals collectively make a choice from the alternatives before them. The decision is then no
longer attributable to any single individual who is a member of the group.
I. Nominal Group Technique:
 Nominal Group Technique (NGT) was developed to help with group decision making by
ensuring that all members participate fully.
 NGT is not a technique to be used at all meetings routinely. Rather, it is used to structure group
meetings when members are grappling with problem solving or idea generation.

47.  It follows four steps.
 First, each member of the group engages in a period of independently and silently writing
down ideas.
 Second, the group goes in order around the room to gather all the ideas that were
generated. This goes on until all the ideas are shared.
 Third, a discussion takes place around each idea and members ask for and give
clarification and make evaluative statements.
 Finally, individuals vote for their favourite ideas by using either ranking or rating
techniques.
 Following the four-step NGT helps to ensure that all members participate fully and avoids group
decision-making problems such as groupthink.
II. Delphi Technique:
 Delphi Technique is unique because it is a group process using written responses to a series of
questionnaires instead of physically bringing individuals together to make a decision.
 The first questionnaire asks individuals to respond to a broad question, such as stating the
problem, outlining objectives, or proposing solutions.
 Each subsequent questionnaire is built from the information gathered in the previous one.
 The process ends when the group reaches a consensus.
 Facilitators can decide whether to keep responses anonymous.
 This process is often used to generate best practices from experts.
III. Majority rule:
 Majority rule refers to a decision-making rule where each member of the group is given a single
vote, and the option that receives the greatest number of votes is selected. This technique has
remained popular, perhaps because of its simplicity, speed, ease of use, and representational
fairness. Research also supports majority rule as an effective decision-making technique (Hastie
& Kameda, 2005). However, those who did not vote in favor of the decision will be less likely to
support it.
IV. Consensus:
 Consensus is another decision-making rule that groups may use when the goal is to gain support
for an idea or plan of action. While consensus tends to take longer in the first place, it may make
sense when support is needed to enact the plan. The process works by discussing the issues,
generating a proposal, calling for consensus, and discussing any concerns. If concerns still exist,
the proposal is modified to accommodate them. These steps are repeated until consensus is
reached. Thus, this decision-making rule is inclusive, participatory, cooperative, and democratic.

48. V. Group Decision Support Systems (GDSS):
 Group decision support systems (GDSS) are interactive computer-based systems that are able to
combine communication and decision technologies to help groups make better decisions.
Organizations know that having effective knowledge management systems to share information is
important. Research shows that a GDSS can actually improve the output of group collaborative
work through higher information sharing
VI. Decision Trees:
 Decision trees are diagrams in which answers to yes or no questions lead decision makers to
address additional questions until they reach the end of the tree. Decision trees are helpful in
avoiding errors such as framing bias (Wright & Goodwin, 2002). Decision trees tend to be helpful
in guiding the decision maker to a predetermined alternative and ensuring consistency of decision
making—that is, every time certain conditions are present, the decision maker will follow one
course of action as opposed to others if the decision is made using a decision tree.
✓ Advantages of Group Decision making:
 Groups can accumulate more knowledge and facts
 Groups have a broader perspective and consider more alternative solutions
 Individuals who participate in decisions are more satisfied with the decision and are more likely
to support it.
 Group decision making processes serve an important communication function as well as a useful
political function
✓ Limitations of Group Decision Making:
 Groups often work more slowly than individuals
 Groups decisions involve considerable compromise that may lead to less than optimal decisions
 Groups are often dominated by one individual or a small clique, thereby negating many of the
virtues of group processes
 Over reliance on group decision making can inhibit management’s ability to act quickly and
decisively when necessary.
✓ Individual vs. Group Decision Making:
 In establishing objectives, groups are probably superior to individuals because of the greater
amount of knowledge available to groups.
 In identifying alternatives, the individual efforts of group members encourage a broad search in
various functional areas of the organization.

49.  In evaluating alternatives, the collective judgement of the group, with its wider range of
viewpoints, seems superior to that of the individual decision maker.
 In choosing an alternative, group interaction and the achievement of consensus usually result in
the acceptance of more risk than would be accepted by an individual decision maker.
 Implementing a decision, whether or not it was made by a group, is usually accomplished by
individual managers.
✓ Errors in Decision making:
 Indecisiveness (Fear of results)
 Postponing the decision until the last moment
 A failure to isolate the root cause of the problem
 A failure to assess the reliability of informational sources
 The method for analysing the information may not be the sound one
 Do implement the decision and follow them.