Kuhnian Perspective

1. KUHNIAN
PERSPECTIV
E IN THE
S&T

2. Thomas Samuel Kuhn, a significant twentieth-
century philosopher of science,introduced a
new style of philosophy that aligned with the
history of science.His 1962 book, The Structure
of Scientific Revolutions, argued that science
experiencesperiods of stable growth and
revisionaryrevolutions. Thomas Kuhn argued
that sciencedoesnot evolve gradually toward
truth. Science has a paradigmthat remains
constant before going through a paradigm
shift when current theories can't explain some
phenomenon, and someone proposes a new
theory.

3. Paper. As early as 3000 B.C., Egyptians had
developed a techniquefor making paper
from the pithof the papyrus plant, a common sight
along the bank of the Nile. Long
stripswere woven together and weighteddown to
bind them into a strong, thinsheet.
The Egyptians also inventedpens made of cut reeds,
which were strong enough to
write on the papyrus, and mixed soot or other
organic material with beeswax and
vegetablegum to make ink. These ancient
papermakers knew what they were doing:
Many of these papyrus sheets inscribedwith
Egyptian hieroglyphicsremain intactand
readable, even aftermore than 5,000 years.
Eye Make-Up. Ancient Egyptians knew all
about the power of a smoky eye. Way back
in 4000 B.C., they started making kohl to
linetheir eyesby mixing soot with galena,
a mineralwith a metallicbluish, gray or
black hue. In some ancient paintings,
Egyptians are depicted wearing greeneye
makeup, a shadethey achievedby mixing
another mineral,malachite,with the
galena.Both women andmen wore kohl
eye makeup in ancientEgypt. Theybelieved
it hadhealingproperties, as well asthe
power to protect
the wearerfrom the evil eye
News Paper. The Acta Diurna (or “daily acts”),
which first appeared around 131 B.C.,
served as a gazette of political and social
happenings in ancient Rome. News of events
such as military victories, gladiatorial bouts and
other games, births and deaths and
even human-interest stories were inscribed on
metal or stone and posted in areas with
heavy foot traffic, such as the Roman Forum.
Later on, during the first consulship of
Julius Caesar, the Acta Senatus began
chronicling the activities of the Roman Senate.
The Acta Diurna, which continued publication
under the Roman Empire (after 27 B.C.),
can be considered the prototype for the modern
newspaper
ANCIENT PERIOD

4. Concrete The frighteningly durable
substance known as opus cementation, or
Roman concrete, first emerged some
2,100 years ago, and would make
possible the
architectural frenzy that began with
Augustus, the first Roman emperor, in 27
B.C. The Romans mixed limestone with
volcanic ash to form a mortar, then packed
this thick substance together with chunks
of brick or volcanic tuff to form the basic
material for roads, bridges, aqueducts,
buildings and other structures—including
such enduring behemoths as the
Pantheon and the Colosseum. Today’s
scientists have concluded that Roman
concrete, though weaker than modern
cement, is astonishingly long lasting,
remaining relatively intact even after
The ancient wheel, invented around
3,500 B.C., was initially used as potter's
wheels in Mesopotamia. They were
ingenious and took 300 years to develop
into chariots. Early wheels were simple
wooden disks with axle holes, often made
from horizontal tree trunk slices. The
Paleolithic era saw heavy, round objects
being easier to move by rolling.
The shadoof, or sweep, was an early
crane-like tool used in irrigation since 3000
BCE. It was used by Mesopotamians,
Egyptians, Minoans, and Chinese. The
sweep lifted water from rivers or lakes, and
is still used in Africa and Asia. It is common
in rural India and Hungary's Great Plain.
The term "shadoof" was also used in
Mishnaic Hebrew.

5. MIDDLE AGES
Between the collapse of roman empire in
5th century AD and the colonial expansion
of Western Europe in the late 15th
century AD, major advances in scientific
and technological development took place.
These include steady increase of new
inventions, introduction of innovations in
traditional production, and emergence of
scientific thinking and method. The
Middle Ages was not as stagnant as
alternate terms such as the “Medieval
Period” or “Dark Ages” suggest. In fact,
many medieval
universities at the time stirred scientific
thinking and built infrastructures for
scientific communities to flourish. As such,
some of humanity’s most important
present-day technologies could be traced
back to their historical antecedents in the
Middle Ages
The first mechanical clock was created
in 723 A.D. by I-Hsing, an astronomical
clock. It was called the "Water Driven
Spherical Birds-Eye-View Map of The
Heavens". However, the bronze and
iron mechanism corroded, and the
water would freeze in cold weather. In
976 A.D., Chang Su Hsiin built a
similar clock using mercury, but few
details survive. Su Sung, an
astronomer, built a 30 feet tall clock in
1090, used to clock planets and stars
and track time. The clock was powered
by a large water wheel, which
controlled puppets' movements.
The invention of the heavy plough
revolutionized European agriculture,
allowing for the cultivation of clay
soil, which was previously
uncultivated due to its heavy weight.
This led to rapid economic prosperity
in Northern Europe, resulting in
higher yields and more efficient
practices, particularly in fields with
heavy, fatty clay soils.

6. Gunpowder. Around 850 AD, Chinese
alchemist accidentally invented black powder
or gunpowder. Multiple accounts suggest that
the gunpowder might have been an
unintended by-product of attempts made by
the Chinese to invent the elixir of life, which is
why the Chinese called it huoyao, roughly
translated as “fire potion”. Prior to the
invention of the gunpowder, swords and
spears were used in battles and wars.
Towardsthe end the 13th century, the
explosive invention crept into most parts of
Europe and Asia. Since it invention, the
gunpowder has allowed for more advanced
warfare. From fiery arrows to cannons and
grenades, the gunpowder has prompted
foundation for the
functionality of almost every new weapon used
in war since its invention. It ushered in an
unprecedented advancement in warfare and
Paper Money. Although it was not until the
17th century that bank notes began to be
used in Europe, the first known version of
paper money could be traced back to the
Chinese in 17th century AD as an offshoot
of the invention of block printing, which is
similar to stamping. Before the
introduction of the paper money, precious
metals, such
as gold and silver were used as currency.
However, the idea of assigning value to a
marked piece of paper did not
immediately become popular. In fact,
when the Mongols
attempted to introduce paper money in
the Middle East market in the 13th
century, it did not gain immediate
success. Nonetheless, traders and
merchants eventually realized
the huge advantage of using paper money
Spinning Wheel. Another important
invention of the Middle Ages is the
spinning wheel,
a machine used for transforming fiber into
thread or yarn and eventually woven into
cloth on a loom. Although no consensus
could be made regarding the origin of the
spinning wheel, it is theorized that the
Indians invented the spinning wheel
between 6th
and 11th century AD. Prior to the invention
of the spinning wheel, weaving was done
predominantly through the more time-
consuming and tedious process of hand
spinning.
According to White (1974), the invention
of the spinning wheel sped up the rate at
which
fiber could be spun by a factor of 10 to
100 times. Thus, White argued that this

7. MODERN AGES
As the world population
steadily increased, people of
the Modern Ages realized
the
utmost importance of
increasing the efficiency of
transportation,
communication and
production.
Industrialization took place
with greater risks in human
health, food safety
and environment which had
to be addressed as scientific
and technological progress
unfolded at an
unimaginable speed.
Compound Microscope. A Dutch
spectacle maker named Zacharias
Janssen is credited for the invention of the
first compound microscope in 1590.
Together with his father Hans, Zacharias
began experimenting with lenses by
putting together several lenses on a tube.
This led to an amazing discovery that an
object, when placed near the
end of the tube, can be magnified far larger
than what a simple magnifying lens ca do.
Janssen's compound microscope was an
important progression from the single lens
microscope. It was capable of
magnifying objects three times their
size when fully closed and up to ten
times when extended to the maximum.
Today, the compound microscope is an
important instrument in many scientific
studies, such as in the areas of medicine,
forensic studies, tissue analysis, atomic
Galileo Galilei invented the practical
telescope, which revolutionized the
study of astronomy during the Modern
Ages. Initially used for Earth-bound
observations, Galileo focused on
refining the instrument, eventually
achieving magnification of objects up to
thirty times. His findings had a
significant impact on scientific
knowledge, and his invention was not
exclusive to Galileo. He also used the
printed book and printed design to
present his research to the learned
community, making his ideas stand the
test of time. This story highlights the
role of technologies in enabling
scientific advancements.

8. Television. The Scottish engineer John
Logie Baird is largely credited for the
invention
of the modern television. Baird
successfully televised objects in outline in
1924,
recognizable human faces in 1925 and
moving objects in 1926 and projected
colored
images in 1928. Baird’s television
technology caught on really swiftly. In fact,
the British
Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) used this
for its earliest television programming in
1929. Despite being the first television
invented, Baird’s television was later
criticized for
its fuzzy and flickering images, primarily
because it was mechanical compared to
electronic versions that were developed
Engine-Powered Airplane. Orville Wright and
Wilbur Wright are credited for designingand
successfully operating the first engine-
powered aircraft. The Wright
brothersapproached the design of powered
aircraft and flight significantly. Orville and
Wilburproved that aircrafts could fly without
airfoil-shaped wings. They demonstrated this
intheir original Flying Machine patent (US
patent #821393), showing that slightly-tilted
wings, which they referred to as
aeroplanes, were the key features of a
poweredaircraft. Their pioneering success
marked an age of powered flights. Sans
modernknowledge of aerodynamics and a
comprehensive understanding of the
working ofaircraft wings, the Wright
brothers were brilliant scientists who
paved the way formodern aircraft
technology
INVENTIONS BY FILIPINO SCIENTISTS
The Philippines boasts of its own history
and tradition of scientific and technologica
innovations. Filipinos have long been
known for their ingenuity. As with all other
inventions, necessity has always been the
mother of Philippine inventions. Most of
these inventions appealed to the unique
social and cultural context of the
archipelagic
nation. Throughout Philippine history,
Filipinos are responsible for developing
many
scientific and technological innovations
focused on navigation, traditional
shipbuilding,
textiles, food processing, indigenous arts
and techniques, and even cultural
inventions.
The following are some of the most

9. The e-jeepney, a popular mode of
public transportation in the
Philippines, was introduced in Metro
Manila and Bacolod City as a
response to criticism of traditional
jeepneys. These environmentally
friendly vehicles run on electricity,
eliminating noise and air pollution,
and are more economically viable
than diesel, allowing drivers to earn
more profit.
Erythromycin, an antibiotic, was
invented by Ilonggo scientist Abelardo
Aguilar from Streptomyces erythreus
strain. However, Aguilar was not
credited by Eli Lilli Co., his US
employer. Fe DelMundo, a Filipino
paediatrician and national scientist,
invented the incubator and jaundice-
relieving device. She was the first
woman to be admitted to Harvard
University's School of Medicine and
founded the first pediatric hospital in
the Philippines. Her improvised
incubator addressed the lack of
electricity in rural communities.
INVENTIONS BY FILIPINO
SCIENTISTS
The Philippines boasts of its
own history and tradition of
scientific and technological
innovations. Filipinos have long
been known for their ingenuity.
As with all other
inventions, necessity has
always been the mother of
Philippine inventions. Most of
these inventions appealed to
the unique social and cultural
context of the archipelagic
nation. Throughout Philippine
history, Filipinos are responsible
for developing many
scientific and technological
innovations focused on
navigation, traditional
shipbuilding,
textiles, food processing,
indigenous arts and techniques,
and even cultural inventions.
The following are some of the
most important inventions by
Filipino scientists.

10. Banana Ketchup. Filipino food
technologist, Maria Orosa, is credited for
the invention
of banana ketchup, a variety of ketchup
different from the commonly known
tomato
ketchup. Her invention appeals
particularly to Filipinos who love using
condiments to go
along with their food. Historical accounts
posit that Orosa invented the banana
ketchup
at the backdrop of World War II when
there was a huge shortage of tomatoes. As
a
result, Orosa developed a variety of
ketchup that made use of mashed banana,
sugar,
vinegar and spices which were all readily
available. Orosa’s banana ketchup is
brownish-yellow in natural color, but is
Mole Remover. In 2000, a local invention that
had the ability to easily remove moles
and warts on the skin without the need for
any surgical procedure shot to fame.
Rolando De La Cruz is credited for the
invention of a local mole remover that made
use
of extracts of cashew nuts (Annacardium
occidentale), which are very common in the
Philippines. The indigenous formula easily
caught on for its accessibility, affordability
and painless and scarless procedure. Dela
Cruz won a gold medal for this invention in
the International Invention, Innovation,
Industrial Design and Technology Exhibition
in
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia in 2000.