b.ed thesis

1. i
SOCIAL STATUS OF STUDENT EFFECTS LEARNING
AT PRIMARY LEVEL IN VILLAGE AREAS OF
DISTRICT LAYYAH
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the
Requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of education
Supervised By
Mr. Shozab Raza Abbasi
Submitted By
Nadia BIBI
Roll no: No. Bef 2000434
B.ED SECONDARY (1.5)
United College Layyah
Affiliated with
University of Education Lahore
2022

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DECLARATION
The work reported in this thesis was carried out by me under the supervision of
Shozab Raza Abbasi, Department of education, university of education, Lahore. I
hereby declare that the title of thesis, “SOCIAL STATUS OF STUDENT EFFECTS
LEARNING AT PRIMARY LEVEL IN VILLAGE AREAS OF DISTRICT
LAYYAH’’ and the contents of thesis is my own research and no part has been
copied from any published source (except the references, standard mathematical or
genetic models /equations /formulas /protocols etc). I further declare that this work
has not been submitted for award of any other degree /diploma. The University may
take action if the information provided is found inaccurate at any stage.

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CERTIFICATE APPROVAL
This is certify that research work presented in this thesis, entitled “SOCIAL STATUS
OF STUDENT EFFECTS LEARNING AT PRIMARY LEVEL IN VILLAGE
AREAS OF DISTRICT LAYYAH” was conducted by Ms. Nadia BIBI under the
supervision of Mr. Shozab Raza Abbasi No part of this thesis has been submitted
anywhere else for any other degree. This thesis is submitted to the Department of
Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of B.Ed. (1.5 Year).
Student Name: __________________ Signature: _______________
Examination Committee:
a) External Examiner
Name: ________________ Signature: ________________
(Designation & Office Address)
…………………………………
…………………………………
b) Internal Examiner
Name: _____________ Signature: _______________
(Designation & Office Address)
…………………………………
…………………………………..
c)Supervisor Name: _________________ Signature: ________________
HOD Name: _________________ Signature: ________________

5. v
AKWNLEDGEMENTS
First of all, thanks to my “ALMIGHTY ALLAH” that I have no words to express
my deepest sense of gratitude. I would like to express my heartiest and sincere
appreciation to my supervisor, Shozab Raza Abbasi, for his guidance’s, encourage,
continuous inspiration and suggestions throughout the research work. Without her
kind help, the goal of this research work would not have been realized.
“I wish to acknowledge the support and great love of my family, my parents, my
beloved brother and my sisters,. They kept me going on and this work would not
have been completed without their kind support.”
I wish to acknowledge the courage and help of my friends, my fellow, for their kind
support in my study and thesis work.
May ALLAH bless you all with good health and long lives and be a source of prayer
for me.

6. VI

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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
In modern societies, education is increasingly being seen as the only effective means of
solving social and economic problems. In fact, many developed countries regard
education as a means of safeguarding their very existence. "There is no doubt that the
future of our State will and must greatly depend upon the type of education we give to
our children, ... " stated Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, founder of the nation,
in his message to the first Pakistan Education Conference held during November-
December 1947 (Pakistan: Ministry of Interior. 1983).
The importance of education stems from the fact that it develops the mental
resources of an individual for living an economically productive life, besides
empowering him with the ability to evolve creative and innovative approaches to
face new challenges. It is through education that people acquire the competencies
required for conflict resolution and stress reduction. Primary education occupies a
special nexus both because it provides the individual with fundamental
competencies required for higher studies and because it opens up possibilities for
further development. That is why there is “now general agreement that the State
in its own interests should provide to its boys and girls, universal, compulsory and
free basic education, which is the primary requisite of training in democracy,"
stated Fazlur Rahman, Education Minister, during his inaugural address at the first
Pakistan Education Conference (Pakistan: 1983, p. 9). The article 37 (b) of the
Constitution of Pakistan makes the State responsible for provision of free and
compulsory education up to secondary level.
If education is so critical an undertaking, its outcome cannot be left simply to chance.
The system must evolve a mechanism for ensuring that those receiving education attain
a prescribed minimum level of efficiency in various essential competencies.
Examination has always been an integral part of teaching learning process. Assessment

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of learning outcome, whether through tests, examinations, or anecdotal records, is the
means for keeping a watch on the growth of the learner. Attaining desired learning
9t1tcomes being so very important, nations invest huge amount of their resources on
their system of education. Assessment of the efficiency and effectiveness of the system
thus acquires crucial importance. Learning assessment is increasingly being used,
around the world, to identify strengths and weaknesses of the system. Data on important
factors affecting learning outcome is collected along with student achievement data to
help identify areas needing reform. Improvement/revision of curriculum, textbooks,
teacher training, etc. result from analysis of learning assessment data collected periodically.
Teaching-Learning Process
The basic purpose of the school is to develop certain competencies among students. A
teaching-learning model facilitates the understanding of the process through which these
competencies are developed. When a pupil enters the school he has already reached a level
of development. He brings with him his peculiar intellectual, social, and emotional make-
up, which is the result of the experiences he has had in the family and his immediate
surroundings,. The school, he enters in, has its own peculiar intellectual, social and
emotional environment. The school environment is the result of the interaction of teat: hers,
students, management, and activities undertaken for achieving its objectives. Similarly, each
teacher has a distinct intellectual and emotional make-up. The learning outcome is the result
of a dynamic and complex interaction of a wide variety of factors.
Traditional and Constructivist Approaches to Moral Education
The two most widely discussed approaches in the literature regarding moral education are
usually opposite to eachother, named traditionaland constructivist approaches. The traditional
approach stresses the utilization of reward and punishment. It emphasizes the transmission
of moral values from older to younger or generation to generation through moral education,
character, or value education. The purpose of the traditional approach is to teach the students
in a way that they could use to adopt a good character and values, obey the law of the state,
and become role models for others. The values, such as honesty, hard work, kindness,
patriotism, and sense of responsibility, are important to become a morally strong person. The

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traditional approach mainly relies on conservative strategies, due to which some
contemporary models of moral education are based on the constructivist, or progressive,
approach.
In contrast, the constructivist, or progressive, view was promoted by Jean Piaget and
Lawrence Kohlberg. The term moral education has been strongly associated with this
approach. The objective of moral education according to this approach was to develop
cognition in children and adolescents in an educational environment. Kohlberg described
six levels of cognitive moral development in
his theory, which was the sequenced development of a sense of fairness and justice. This
approach depends on moral reasoning, moral judgment, participation in solving different
problems, and decision making.
Concept of Moral Education in Public and Private Schools
Shafiqua Haq described how moral education in Pakistan mainly builds upon the
teachings of religion, and societal and cultural norms. The responsibility of the teacher is to
encourage the pupils to understand and adopt the morality for the well-being of themselves,
society, and the world at large. The moral education system in Pakistan emphasizes the
teachings of the Quran, which holds wisdom for the people of all times, with no demand of
blind following; rather the encouragement of inquiry, rationality, observation, and
intellectuality through experimentation and exploration. The Holy Prophet Muhammad
(PBUH) is a role model and source of inspiration for Muslims, his teachings, in the form of
Hadith and Sunnah, are another source of moral education in Pakistan. The interpretations of
the Quran and Sunnah by Muslim philosophers like Imam Ghazali and Imam Saadi are also
considered a source of moral education in Pakistan. They accentuated the searching of
knowledge for the development of a good human being. All the educational policies of
Pakistan described the term moral education in the light of Islamic teachings, which is to
promote the obedience of law and loyalty towards Islam and Pakistan.
There are two goals of moral education in Private schools. The first is to fulfill the
social needs of the students by the application of concepts such as patriotism and
encouragement to serve the country, the people, and the society at large. The second goal of
moral education is to address the needs of the students for their personality development and
prosperity. He revealed in his research that in China, socialist values, such as family unity,
harmony, prosperity, and honesty, are considered important while teaching in the classroom.

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Due to political autarchy, government schools, colleges, and universities also promote
political ideology.
A simple teaching-learning model, presented below, brings out the fact that the
teacher, by providing learning experiences, affects changes in the pupil, resulting in
learning out comes. The model highlights the fact that the teaching-learning process
involves a number of teacher-related, school-related and pupil- related factors. The
overlapping of these factors emphasizes the fact that these do not act in isolation. The
teacher-related and the school-related factors interact with one another in a complex
manner, and acting in a peculiar manner upon the student-related factor, produce a
unique and distinct effect upon each student to produce changes in him. The
phenomenon of differential learning achievementof students taught by the same
teacher in the same school can be viewed in proper perspective in terms of this
teaching-learning model.
Teaching-Learning Environment in Primary Schools of Pakistan
Since school-related, teacher-related and pupil-related factors are important determinants
of student achievement, it might be useful to have a pen picture of the primary schools in
Pakistan. The wide divergence in the provision of primary education in rural and urban
Pakistan demands their separate treatment.
(a) Provision of Primary Education in Rural Pakistan
An almost complete absence of environment conducive for student learning
characterizes primary schools in rural areas. In spite of inter- and intra- District differences
in the primary school scenario in rural areas, it is possible to draw a profile that would
closely fit all. This is primarily because all primary schools have been established by
District Education Directorates using a uniform scale of physical facilities and staffing.
Box 1 contains an impressionistic profile of a typical rural primary school, constructed
from anecdotal evidence collected from educators from all provinces.

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(b) Provision of Primary Education in Urban Pakistan
Urban Pakistan presents an unlimited variety of primary educational facilities. This
precluded the possibility of constructing the profile of a typical urban primary school.
The differences among urban and rural primary schools are due to a number of
factors. With growth of demand for education by urban dwellers of all socio-economic
levels and increase in urban population, educational facilities created by the
Education Departments became utterly inadequate. A number of Government
Departments established schools for children of their own employees. A number of
NGOs stepped in to meet the needs of different socio-economic groups. Religious and
philanthropic establish- ments had been operating schools since th days of British
rule.
The adoption of varying scales of facilities and staffing by different service providers
largely contributed to the deepening of urban-rural and socio-economic divide. The
District directorates adopt varying scales for allocation of resources to primary
schools in rural and urban areas. This may be due to differences in demand for
education and survival rates, leading to a higher rate of return on investment in
urban areas. Similarly, different service providers operating mainly in urban areas
adopt different scales, even wheh they were allusing public money.
While barest level of facilities characterizes rural primary school, over- crowding is the
striking feature in urban schools. Almost all classrooms have more students than can be
properly seated. Very often, students occupying a bench or desk have hardly any elbow
space to write or read comfortably. This is because of the burgeoning demand for education
and slower expansion of facilities as compared to the population growth. While rural
primary schools are congested due to sharing of rooms by multiple classes, congestion in
urban schools is due to larger enrolment.
School-level socioeconomic background
While the Coleman Report concluded that schools themselves added little to effect outcomes,
the school environment, in particular the social background of a student’s peers at the school,
has certainly been found to be positively related to student achievement. On average, a

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student who attends a school in which the average socioeconomic status is high enjoys better
educational outcomes compared to a student attending a school with a lower average peer
socioeconomic level.
Relationship between achievement and student socioeconomic background
There is some discussion about the size of the effect, however the relationship between a
student’s socioeconomic background and their educational achievement seems enduring and
substantial. Using data from PISA, the OECD have concluded that 'while many
disadvantaged students succeed at school … socioeconomic status is associated with
significant differences in performance in most countries and economies that participate in
PISA. Advantaged students tend to outscore their disadvantaged peers by large margins' (p.
214). The strength of the relationship varies from very strong to moderate across participating
countries, but the relationship does exist in each country. In Australia, students from the
highest quartile of socioeconomic background perform, on average, at a level about 3 years
higher than their counterparts from the lowest quartile. Over the 15 years of PISA data
currently available, the size of this relationship, on average, has changed little, and over the
now 50 years since the publication of the Coleman Report, the gap between advantaged and
disadvantaged students remains.
How are these effects transmitted?
What the continued gap between advantaged and disadvantaged students highlights is that
despite all the research, it is still unclear how socioeconomic background influences student
attainment.
There are those that argue that the relationships between socioeconomic background and
educational achievement are only moderate and the effects of SES are quite small when
taking into account cognitive ability or prior achievement. Cognitive ability is deemed to be a
genetic quality and its effects only influenced to a small degree by schools. Much of the body
of research, particularly that generated from large-scale international studies, would seem to
contradict this reasoning.
Others have argued that students from low socioeconomic level homes are at a disadvantage
in schools because they lack an academic home environment, which influences their
academic success at school. In particular, books in the home has been found over many years

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in many of the large-scale international studies, to be one of the most influential factors in
student achievement. From the beginning, parents with higher socioeconomic status are able
to provide their children with the financial support and home resources for individual
learning. As they are likely to have higher levels of education, they are also more likely to
provide a more stimulating home environment to promote cognitive development. Parents
from higher socioeconomic backgrounds may also provide higher levels of psychological
support for their children through environments that encourage the development of skills
necessary for success at school.
The issue of how school-level socioeconomic background effects achievement is also of
interest. Clearly one way is in lower levels of physical and educational resourcing, but other
less obvious ways include lower expectations of teachers and parents, and lower levels of
student self-efficacy, enjoyment and other non-cognitive outcomes. There is also some
evidence that opportunity to learn (particularly in mathematics) is more restricted for lower
socioeconomic students, with ‘systematically weaker content offered to lower-income
students [so that] rather than ameliorating educational inequalities, schools were exacerbating
them’.
Community Factors ofQuality of Education (Learners’ Achievement)
The data analysis from parent informants produced a construct, themes and sub-themes in the
framework of analysis as developed for data analysis. The coding of the parents’ data
generated a construct called “characteristics of the community's frame of mind”. The construct
has two themes, namely, basic characteristics and community support and cooperation. Each
theme consists of several sub-themes. The in-depth discussion on these themes and sub-themes
exhibited a comprehensive account of parents’ perceptions on community factors related to
education quality.
Community Environment
Parents perceived that the environment of the community, where the school was located, is
largely influenced by the roles of community leaders and the availability of resources
(financial, social and human) in the community. The environment of the community, in turn,

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provides social networks in the community that help schools in various ways to provide an
achievement trajectory for children. There are some parents’ statements on the issues of
community environment that are presented below:
Good environment both outside and inside the schools is necessary for ensuring quality
education.
I am not satisfied with the results of my son. He does not study well. The environment of the
community is not good. His company with naughty and uneducated children in the community
made him inattentive in the study. Children learn from the community members (such as
adults, peers, etc). The behaviour of inhabitants of a community reflects the climate of that
community. Therefore, the community environment is important for children’s better learning.
Environment of the community influences the children’s learning. As for example, a portion of
our village is occupied by aware and educated people, and more children are attending the
schools from that part of the community. They are comparatively doing well in their education.
On the other hand, unaware and illiterate parents of the poor and uneducated community are
sending their children to work instead of school. They are not aware of the value of education.
But some of the children from this poor and unaware community get a stipend for attending
school.
Many children do not come to school. They watch cinema or play video games in the shop near
school. The community people should take care of these issues and take the necessary
measures to eradicate these activities from the community as these have bad impacts on
children’s earning.
Each of these bullet points communicates a specific message. The first indicates the
importance of community environment for children’s learning. The second expresses the
relation between community environment and children’s education through the eyes of poor
rural parents. The third statement acknowledges the influence of the mental makeup of people
in the community in the creation of the community environment that is suitable for children’s
education. The last one relates to the role of community leaders in creating a good environment
in the community for children’s quality education. These leaders sought the active School
Management Committee (SMC) for their children’s better learning. SMC or the community
leaders can build an environment in the community through active concern and support for
improving the quality of education. Parents emphasized the community’s involvement in

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children’s education and in creating an educational environment and awareness amongst the
community’s population, explaining the value of education and in extending support to
children of poor families. Of course, this depends on the community where the school is
located and functions. In this respect, functionality of the community
Chapter 2
1. Literature Review
Families affect children’s learning behaviors and academic achievement in important ways, as
they are the primary and most significant environments that the children are exposed to.
Coleman’s report (1966) shows that families may play even more important roles in student’s
academic achievement than schools and communities. Since then, the line of empirical
research on family background and children’s achievement has found that the family social
economic statuses may affect children’s academic achievements more than the impact of
schools (Coleman et al. 1966; Peaker 1971; White 1980;Sirin 2005; Cheadle 2008). The
Coleman’s hypothesis has been supported by some research and fieldworks based on some

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Chinese provinces and cities too. For instance, Fang and Feng (2008) found that the family’s
social economic status affects children’s academic scores significantly using the survey data of
the middle school students of Nanjing. Sun et al. (2009) found a significant positive effect of
the parent’s income and educational levels on the academic achievement of primary school
students based on a Longitudinal Survey of Families and Children in Gansu province.
Studies have explored the mechanisms of families affecting children’s academic achievement
based on the study of Coleman, from the human capital theory, cultural capital theory and
social capital theory and so on. The human capital theory claims that education is an important
human capital investment, where the “cost-benefit” framework is the primary principles for
families to make educational investment decision, and the difference in children’s educational
achievement is mainly caused by the difference of family educational investment. Because of
the limitation of family resources, parents of poor families usually are not able to invest
sufficiently in their children’s education, which affects their children’s academic achievement
(Becker 1964). Gross (1993) showed that students’ cognitive skills are positively related to
their parents’ socioeconomic status.
The cultural capital theory stresses that family cultural resources and environment determine
children’s educational aspirations and performances. Compared to families with insufficient
cultural capital, parents with rich cultural capital are more aware of the rules of schools, invest
more cultural resources, pay more attention to cultivate the children’s educational aspiration
and interest, help children with school curriculum, and enable them to perform in academics
outstandingly (Bourdieu and Passeron 1990). Sewell and Hauser (1993) showed that parents’
educational expectations have significant effects on junior students’ academic performances.
Social capital theory emphasizes the participation of parents in education and children’s
learning behaviors and achievement; parents with higher social economic status usually
participate in their children’s learning activities more intensively, pay more attention to
communication with teachers, manage the children’s school absence and other risky behaviors,
and improve the children’ academic performance (Coleman 1988). Empirical studies showed
that parental educational participation, such as discussing school things with children, checking
their homework, and participating in school activities, could improve children’s academic
performances (Pong et al. 2005).
Due to the heterogeneity of allocation of educational resources across rural and urban areas,
districts, and schools, when talking about the relationship between family background and

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educational achievement of children in China, scholars also regard the school quality as an
important factor. The outstanding teaching resources and peers that concentrate in key schools
have important impacts on the accessibility of educational opportunities of the next stage for
children. Families with higher social economic status can make use of their advantages to gain
access to better education opportunities for their children, to enhance their possibilities of
obtaining higher education (Li 2006; Liu 2008; Zhao and Hong 2012). Research shows that the
parental social economic status can affect their children’s schooling quality significantly. The
higher the social economic status of a family, the better schools their children attend
(Wen 2006; Chen and Fang 2007; Li 2008; Wu 2013b).
In spite of the different theoretical perspectives, most research pays attention to the paths and
mechanisms of how the social economic status of a family affects the children’s academic
achievements. Among these, human capital theory stresses the role of the economic resources
of family and educational investment in children’s education, cultural capital and social capital
theory pays more attention to the role of parent’s educational level and participation on
children’s academic performance, and the perspective of school quality argues that the social
economic status of a family affects children’s academic performance and chance of continuing
schooling through affecting school qualities.
Actually, the impacts of any type of factors cannot exist independently. All family economic
resources, family environment and school qualities are important. The issue is that all of them
are exogenous factors which only take effect through students’ behaviors, i.e., through
children’s academic achievements.
The community and parents have important roles in ensuring the quality of education in
schools and such involvement makes a difference (Aronson, 1996; Beveridge, 2005; M.
Chowdhury, Haq, & Ahmed, 1997; IBRD/WB, 2006; Wolfendale & Bastiani, 2000). The
community involvement in schools is, potentially, a rich area for innovation that has benefits
far beyond access. Due to some limitations of the government in providing quality education
(remoteness, bureaucracy, corruption and inefficient management), bridging the values gap
between government initiatives and community desires, and adjusting to the child’s familial
obligations to family interest, would help shift towards ways to mobilize a sense of
community through building relationships among governments, schools and communities
(Cummings & Dall, 1995). In another study, Chowdhury et al. (1997, p. 246) expresses the

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same view that, “ in the wake of the existing problems of failure of the ‘top down’ policy in
educational management, community participation in educational planning and management
has been viewed as a key to success in developing countries in general”.
Parental and community involvement in school affairs has become another strategic drive of
school improvement efforts in Africa (Verspoor, 2005). The literature states that there are
school management committees and parents’ committees that involve parents, guardians and
social elites, both in Bangladesh and African countries but the experiences reveal that such
initiatives weren’t succesfull in the most cases (M. Ahmed, et al., 2005; Carron & Chau,
1996; M. Chowdhury, et al., 1997; Latif, 2004; Verspoor, 2005). However, Huq et al., (2004)
found that the school management committee in high quality schools in Bangladesh showed
great concern for maintaining the quality of education, and contributed to the overall
educational environment of the schools, whereas, the community of low quality schools is
less concerned about the same issues and has no meaningful impact on the quality of
education in schools. Carron & Chau (1996, p. 278) stated that, “it is necessary tobreak out of
this vicious circle whereby parental discouragement is met with teacher defeatism”, and, “the
most urgent task is probably simply to make the school more welcoming for its users”.
Similarly, “the community is likely to reciprocate by showing grater interest in the school
with a partnership gradually forming” (Cummings & Dall, 1995, p.115). Rahman and Ali
(2004) emphasize the role of community in ensuring the quality of education; stating that:
The last entry point to consider here is to strengthen the accountability process
within the system through innovating on community – relevant and community –
validated outcome indices. A shared understanding of quality can serve to reinforce
the sense of community ownership and create the ground for a fuller community
engagement in primary education (p. 68)
The community factors that have direct or indirect effects on ensuring the quality of primary
education are: home environment, support for education, local relevance and ownership to
schools, community’s lack of skills and confidence, community’s lack of cohesion and
experience in contributing to school management (Verspoor, 2005); a values gap between
government initiatives and community desires, children’s familial obligations to family
(Cummings & Dall, 1995); urbanization, public facilities available in the community,
industrial areas, use of modern technology, school location, community leaders, educational
communities, conflicts of interest, donations from the community, a sense of belonging

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(Chantavanich, et al., 1990); the cultural gap between parent and teacher (Carron & Chau,
1996); and economic and social status of the community (UNESCO, 2004).
Given that rural areas are characterized by a situation of poverty, along with
limitations in infrastructure, social services, and economic opportunity, teaching and
learning in the multigrade classrooms is often carried out in very difficult circumstances.
This is due to limited resources and support for teachers who must respond to a wide range
of student developmental and educational needs, as well as other limitations related to
family economic circumstances and limited or no social services (UNESCO, 2003). For all
these reasons, equity of educational opportunity is a concern for students who go to school
in the rural communities, especially those who are located in the most remote parts of the
country. Such remote areas happen to exist in every educational district in the DR, even in
Santo Domingo, the nation´s capital.
The country has a homogeneous educational policy and system that does not fully
respond to the educational characteristics, needs, and challenges of rural areas. This
situation limits the capacity to attain the desired educational outcomes in schools that serve
rural communities. For example, the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and
Technology (MESCyT) indicated in 2016 that the DR has 48 institutions of higher
education and, of these, only 32 fall into the category of university. These 32 universities
all are located in non-rural areas, according to the official demographic classification of
Dominican territories (Del Rosario et al., 2014). Demographic studies, conducted in the
DR, concluded that there are five types of
territories in the country; predominantly urban, significantly urban, in rural-urban transition,
significantly rural, and predominantly rural (Del Rosario et al., 2014). However, teacher
preparation programs do not recognize the importance of these different demographic
contexts in the teacher preparation curricula, nor do they include courses related specifically
to rural education. Teacher preparation programs in the DR are composed of four knowledge
areas: general knowledge, specialized knowledge, psycho-pedagogical knowledge, and
professional practice as stated by the Business Action for Education (EDUCA) in 2016.
None of these include areas addressing courses of educating children in rural contexts.
After teachers finish their training programs, they are randomly assigned by the
Ministry of Education to schools across the country, meaning that there is a possibility of
being appointed to work in a rural school. Reeralal’s (2014) research on rural school
instructional practices found that teachers whose bachelor’s degree curriculum did not

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include aspects that relate to teaching in rural schools, i.e. dealing with multi-age,
multigrade classrooms and differences in family and community characteristics, makes it
difficult for rural schools to retain teachers.
Kline and Walker-Gibbs (2015) found that teachers' preparedness for working in
rural settings is determined by their development of pedagogical expertise, their capacity
for professional engagement with parents and the community, and most importantly, a
broad preparation and positive notions for teaching in rural contexts. Accordingly, research
findings suggest that teachers need to be knowledgeable about rural contexts and strategies
for adapting instructional practices to address issues of rural communities. However, since
teacher preparation is done almost exclusively by institutions located in the urban centers,
these aspects of teacher preparation are not addressed.
Each school has characteristics that represent unique challenges to teachers in order
to meet the needs of each student, and these challenges increase when the context in which
schools are located have social, demographic, economic, and cultural limitations. However,
this should not be an obstacle if teachers develop professional competencies during their
teaching preparation programs to address the characteristics and culture of all the contexts in
which they might serve. These competencies include the ability to implement matching
pedagogical practices and strategies to ensure students achieve the proposed learning
outcomes for each grade.
Education and Socioeconomic Status
Socioeconomic status (SES) encompasses not just income but also educational attainment,
financial security, and subjective perceptions of social status and social class. Socioeconomic
status can encompass quality of life attributes as well as the opportunities and privileges
afforded to people within society. Poverty, specifically, is not a single factor but rather is
characterized by multiple physical and psychosocial stressors. Further, SES is a consistent and
reliable predictor of a vast array of outcomes across the life span, including physical and
psychological health. Thus, SES is relevant to all realms of behavioral and social science,
including research, practice, education and advocacy.
SES Affects Our Society
SES affects overall human functioning, including our physical and mental health. Low SES
and its correlates, such as lower educational achievement, poverty and poor health, ultimately

21. 21
affect our society. Inequities in health distribution, resource distribution, and quality of life are
increasing in the United States and globally. Society benefits from an increased focus on the
foundations of socioeconomic inequities and efforts to reduce the deep gaps in socioeconomic
status in the United States and abroad.
SES and Educational Issues
Research indicates that children from low-SES households and communities develop academic
skills slower than children from higher SES groups (Morgan, Farkas, Hillemeier, & Maczuga,
2009). For instance, low SES in childhood is related to poor cognitive development, language,
memory, socioemotional processing, and consequently poor income and health in adulthood.
The school systems in low-SES communities are often underresourced, negatively affecting
students’ academic progress and outcomes (Aikens & Barbarin, 2008). Inadequate education
and increased dropout rates affect children’s academic achievement, perpetuating the low-SES
status of the community. Improving school systems and early intervention programs may help
to reduce some of these risk factors; therefore, increased research on the correlation between
SES and education is essential.
SES and Family Resources
Literacy gaps in children from different socioeconomic backgrounds exist before formal
schooling begins.
 Children from low-SES families are less likely to have experiences that encourage the
development of fundamental skills of reading acquisition, such as phonological awareness,
vocabulary, and oral language (Buckingham, Wheldall, & Beaman-Wheldall, 2013).
 Children’s initial reading competency is correlated with the home literacy environment,
number of books owned, and parent distress (Aikens & Barbarin, 2008; Bergen, Zuijen,
Bishop, & Jong, 2016). However, poor households have less access to learning materials and
experiences, including books, computers, stimulating toys, skill-building lessons, or tutors to
create a positive literacy environment (Bradley, Corwyn, McAdoo, & García Coll, 2001; Orr,
2003).
 Prospective college students from low-SES backgrounds are less likely to have access to
informational resources about college (Brown, Wohn, & Ellison , 2016). Additionally,

22. 22
compared to high-SES counterparts, young adults from low-SES backgrounds are at a higher
risk of accruing student loan debt burdens that exceed the national average (Houle, 2014).
Research indicates that school conditions contribute more to SES differences in learning rates
than family characteristics do (Aikens & Barbarin, 2008). Researchers have argued that
classroom environment plays an important role in outcomes.
 Students who were randomly assigned to higher quality classroom in grades K-3 earned more,
were more likely to attend college, saved more for retirement, and lived in better
neighborhoods (Chetty et al., 2011).
 A teacher’s years of experience and quality of training are correlated with children’s academic
achievement (Gimbert, Bol, & Wallace , 2007). Children in low-income schools are less likely
to have well-qualified teachers (Clotfelter, Ladd, & Vigdo, 2006).
 The following factors have been found to improve the quality of schools in low-SES
neighborhoods: a focus on improving teaching and learning, creation of an information-rich
environment, building of a learning community, continuous professional development,
involvement of parents, and increased funding and resources (Muijs, Harris, Chapman, Stoll, &
Russ, 2009).
 Schools with students from the highest concentrations of poverty have fewer library resources
to draw on (fewer staff, libraries are open fewer hours per week, and staff are less well
rounded) than those serving middle-income children (Pribesh, Gavigan, & Dickinson, 2011).
SES and Academic Achievement
Research continues to link lower SES to lower academic achievement and slower rates of
academic progress as compared with higher SES communities.
 Children from low-SES families enter high school with average literacy skills five years behind
those of high-income students (Reardon, Valentino, Kalogrides, Shores, & Greenberg, 2013).
 In 2014, the high school dropout rate among persons 16–24 years old was highest in low-
income families (11.6 percent) as compared to high-income families (2.8 percent; National
Center for Education Statistics, 2014).
 The success rate of low-income students in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
disciplines is much lower than that of students who do not come from underrepresented
backgrounds (Doerschuk et al., 2016).

23. 23
 According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2014), individuals within the top family income quartile
are 8 times more likely to obtain a bachelor’s degree by age 24 as compared to individuals
from the lowest family income quartile.
Psychological Health
Increasing evidence supports the link between lower SES and learning disabilities or other
negative psychological outcomes that affect academic achievement.
 Low SES and exposure to adversity are linked to decreased educational success (McLaughlin
& Sheridan, 2016). Such toxic stress in early childhood leads to lasting impacts on learning,
behavior, and health (Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health et al.,
2012).
 Children from lower SES households are about twice as likely as those from high-SES
households to display learning-related behavior problems. A mother’s SES is also related to
her child’s inattention, disinterest, and lack of cooperation in school (Morgan et al., 2009).
 Perception of family economic stress and personal financial constraints affected emotional
distress/depression in students and their academic outcomes (Mistry, Benner, Tan, & Kim,
2009).
SES and Career Aspirations
Social class has been shown to be a significant factor in influencing career aspirations,
trajectory and achievement.
 Diemer and Blustein (2007) found that racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic barriers generally
hinder individuals’ vocational development. Career barriers are significantly higher for those
from poor backgrounds, people of color, women, those who are
level by aligning instructional practices and objectives to the context in which they serve
(Saigal, 2012).
Teachers are placed in schools throughout the country after their completion of a
standardized teacher preparation program and some begin to practice in more challenging
teaching contexts, such as rural schools. Teachers who are placed in Dominican rural

24. 24
schools are likely to experience limited technology access, high rates of grade repetition,
multigrade and multi-age classrooms, and low student attendance rates throughout the
school year due to school location and lack of public transportation, among other
limitations as described by the Secretary of State for Education (SEE) in 2005. Working in
such conditions may reveal limitations on the teacher's preparation and readiness to respond
to the needs of rural schools. Cornish and Jenkins (2015) argued that teachers should not
only be trained with a realistic vision of the rural context, but should also be trained with an
impartial vision that allows them to address emergent situations, typical of a rural context.
Without specific preparation for teaching in rural contexts, however, many of the above-
mentioned characteristics of rural schools are likely to take novice teachers by surprise and
find them ill prepared to adjust.
Currently, there is a teacher recruitment deficiency in the DR school system, and this
situation has forced the ministry of education to create even more complex school
configurations, such as multigrade and overpopulated classrooms (MINERD, 2004). This is
especially prevalent in rural schools that find it even more challenging to attract teachers to
fulfill school needs. This condition denotes that rural schools seem to be forgotten by an
educational system that delivers limited opportunities for students in rural areas when the
opposite should happen. According to Masinire et al. (2014), "quality teachers are the
touchstone for sustainable education and rural development" (p. 148). Therefore, teachers
should develop

25. 25
competencies and acquire knowledge that enable them to meet the need of each context in
which they serve.
The same argument can be made when prospective teachers from rural areas migrate
to the city to obtain their professional degree and end up being placed for their preservice
teacher training in urban school settings. Not only may these teachers who come from
remote rural areas be unprepared for teaching in classrooms that serve more urban raised
children, but the lack of an opportunity to do preservice training in schools that serve rural
populations also limits their opportunities to develop professional readiness for teaching in
rural contexts as well. This does not mean that there should be competing teacher
preparation programs. Instead, studies suggest that teacher preparation programs should
include complementary courses to specifically address the challenges of both rural and
urban teaching, and that teacher development programs should include both residential and
fieldwork for teacher interns, so they acquire experience in both urban and rural settings
(Masinire et al., 2014).
Other study findings indicate that preservice teachers’ rural experiences produce
some significant attitudinal changes for teaching in rural contexts, vanishing misconceptions
about living and teaching in rural communities (Hudson & Hudson, 2008). Moreover,
researchers discovered that preservice teaching experiences in rural settings contributed
positively to urban preservice teachers’ perceptions toward working and living in rural
communities (Azano & Stewart, 2015; Ajayi, 2014; Azano & Stewart, 2016; Bales &
Barbara, 2004; Blake, 2009; Cornish & Jenkins, 2015; Jones, 1987; Kline et., al. 2012;
Masinire et al., 2014). Findings from additional studies support the fact that to have teachers
who are willing and professionally prepared to teach and live in rural communities, they
must first experience what is like to teach in a rural school and live in communities with
characteristics that greatly differ from those in an urban setting (Adie & Barton, 2012).
These studies suggest that including curriculum and field experiences for teaching in both
rural and urban settings could improve new teachers’ understanding, willingness, and
preparation for making more informed decisions about where to seek and accept teaching
positions.

26. 26
While studies that look into teacher preparation for serving both high poverty
rural and high poverty urban schools offer general insights into the importance of
specific preparation for the unique contexts that teachers might serve, these studies
have been conducted primarily outside of the Dominican context. Thus, there was a
need for specific understanding of the challenges that teachers prepared by the
Dominican teacher preparation system face when they are assigned to teach in remote
and high poverty rural communities. This is especially important to inform both future
changes to the teacher preparation system and the MINERD´s professional
development and support for rural teachers already serving those communities. In
order to gain insight into the specific challenges these teachers encounter in their rural
school assignments and develop policy responses that address those challenges,
further studies were needed.
FinancialPosition
Community involvement in children’s education is seen in various ways (Sanders, 2001)
and parental involvement is one of the important concepts of community involvement.
Therefore, the financial position of families in the community also reflects the financial
position of that community overall, as well as its effect on the children’s education. It is
reported that poverty among guardians and the community population is the main cause
of poor support in the community (Haq, et al., 2004). The parents of the schools
involved in this research were poor and with a high rate of illiteratcy and, therefore, they
did not know how to account for the effect of the financial position of the community on
children’s learning comprehensively. However, they felt that community involvement
both in local and non-local schools are necessary for maintaining education quality.
They realized that the financial position of families or communities is a matter of

27. 27
extending support and cooperation to the school or family for children’s educational
development. According to some parents:
Many children of poor families do not come to school due to lack of note-books, pencils
and other costs of schooling. They do not study well. In this case, the affluent people of
the community can assist these poor children by providing pencils, note books or dresses
to the children of poor families for ensuring their education.
We need money for treatments if children become sick, they also need good clothes. If
parents are not able to provide good clothing, then it has an impact on their mindsets.
Children need to pay various fees in schools and need to pay for their books, work
books, and pencils needed for their studies. If they don’t get these materials in proper
time then they are embarrassed in school. Therefore, parents have to keep ready these
materials for their children’s smooth study. That is why they need money for children’s
education.
If there is more children in a low income family, then, in that case, parents are not able
to provide education to all children equally.
This study suggests that financial crises of families keep many children away from
attending school due to a lack of books, pencils, note-books, school dresses, and an
inability to pay fees and other hidden costs. In these situations, parents suggested that
the community’s population should assist economically disadvantaged families.
The literature shows that although primary education in Bangladesh is free, there are
still some costs that families need to bear. This is an extra burden for poor rural families.
It was found that many children came from the families who do not have proper
dwellings and good environment for their studies. There is no one to guide them in their
studies at home. This results in many children of poor families leaving their studies at an
early age (CDRB, 2004). In an impact study of the School Feeding Programme (SFP), it
was found that SFP improves academic achievement of children (A. U. Ahmed, 2004).
This study stated that most of the children in the SFP come from poor families—69 % of

28. 28
programme households in the rural area earn less than US$ 0.50 a day per capita. These
families cannot afford adequate food, and both malnutrition and short-term hunger likely
affect their learning.
Therefore, this study confirms that the financial status of both family and community
affect children’s learning. The financial position of family directly affects the children’s
achievement. A family’s economic factors are related to these issues of the community
and vice-versa.
EducationalPositionof the Community
Parent informants corroborated that, in addition to financial position and the
environment of the community, educational status is another factor of the community
which affects children’s learning. Their statements connected to education in the
community that are related to children’s learning were considered to fall under the
“education position of the community” and are are quoted below:
Uneducated people are not aware of their children’s education. They are not aware of
the value of education. If parents have at least a grade nine or ten education, then, they
have at least an understanding about their children’s education and well-being. Usually,
educated parents have a good intention to send their children to schools.
Educated guardians can provide the necessary support to their children. But many
illiterate and unaware parents cannot. I do advise that illiterate parents not marry off
their talented daughters at an early age. Of course, the parents who are aware like me do
not do this.
The community are now more eager to send their children to schools than before. As for
an example: my son read in class three. He can read books fluently. On the other hand,
after completion of study in class four, one of my nephews had to stop his study due to
his parents’ unawareness about education. However, I took him to school and he is now

29. 29
doing well in his study. I am taking care of his study. In fact, if the community is
educated, then, each parent in the community becomes aware of their children’s
education. They should send their children to schools regularly and help in the
preparation of homework or arrange for private tuition.
These statements illustrate the roles (positive and negative) of educational status in the
community on children’s learning. The positive roles include educated guardians
helping with their children’s learning, and providing additional support to their
children’s education. The negative roles include children becoming inattentive in study
in order to imitate their uneducated peers of the community. Uneducated parents do not
understand the value of education and the illiterate cannot provide the necessary
supports to children for their learning.
Parents perceived that educated guardians are more aware of their children’s education
and that they valued their children’s education. The rural community’s people extend
support and cooperation to schools and the community’s children. They also
acknowledged that the absence or lack of education in the community can have an
adverse effect on children’s achievements. Therefore, they saw the education of the
community itself as an important factor for children’s learning.
Communication and SchoolSupport
The analysis of the data reveals that community participation in the rural schools of
Bangladesh happens through participation in the School Management Committee (SMC)
and Parent Teacher Association, although, support and contribution of the SMC to
schools for children’s better learning is limited.. Parents expressed their views that the
SMC has a potential role in schools for helping children achieveme their goals.. Parents
added that the community population need to extend support and cooperation to schools
in many ways. In this connection, the following parents’ statements are worthy of
mention:

30. 30
SMCs do not cooperate much with schools. If these are cooperative then it would be
helpful for schools’ management. If the SMC meetings were held four to five times in a
year, then, it would be possible to identify school problems and their solutions. In fact,
local support is important for children’s success.
There should be a good communication between school and community. Regular parent-
teacher meetings are a good practice for children’s learning and development. Through
this, parents are able to know the performance of their children on a regular basis and if
there is any shortfall, parents can take remedial action for improving their children’s
education.
SMC has important roles for school success in rural schools. As for example, in the
winter, it is observed that many teachers sit at the outdoor patio of schools without
taking class. Teachers could not be absent from the classes just sitting lazily if members
of SMC visit schools regularly (1 or 2 days per week). SMC can look after children’s
attendance in schools.
The above statements clearly reflect parent’s dissatisfaction with community support
and cooperation as they are now practiced. They saw the community supports to schools
only through the participation of the community in the SMC. They put value on the
community support in rural schools in Bangladesh for achieving quality in education.
How the SMC can help schools in ensuring children’s success is also explained by
parents. As a result, parents can take remedial measures for their children’s
development. The community, acting through the SMC, can bring any problems to the
SMC for solution.
According to parents, the community communication with schools is very limited and
this limited invovlement through SMC/PTA has yet to bring fruitful results for
children’s achievements. It is probably due to the negligence of community leaders,
misuse of power and authority by persons in the community, and the selection of
inappropriate people in the SMC. However, parents admitted that community
communication and support for schools has enormous potential to assist children’s
success.

31. 31
Caring for Children in the Community
Parents feel that the community can extend support to the participants in the education
process, such as schools, children, parents and community members to ensure quality of
education. Parent informants explained how the members of the community can extend
support to children for their learning. They indicated that taking care of children’s
learning both in schools and communities by community leaders or parents is an
important element for education quality. According to Parents informants:
In fact, many guardians do not know in which class their children study. In reply to a
question like “In which class does your child read”? They replied “I don’t know”.
However, they are aware of their goats —whether these are coming back from the field
after grazing or whether their poultry are laying eggs or not; but they are not aware of
their children’s education – the most valuable wealth in the world.
Parents and community leaders should visit schools at least once a month. This would
enable them to learn how students are progressing in their studies or how well they are
studying in schools. It is often noted that many children of poor families do not attend
school or don’t achieve good results due to lack of note-books, school dresses, pen-
pencils or other hidden costs of their study — as noted before. The community leaders
should consultat with one another to solve these problems, in order to ensure the
attendance of poor children in schools. It would also help them attain quality learning at
home.
It is also observed in rural communities that many children play and otherwise move
around during school hours. This creates a distracting environment and hampers
children’s learning. If each parent was aware of this and took measures to discipline
their children, the problem could be solved easily.
Therefore, this research supports the idea that community support can contribute to
elevate children’s educational achievements (Epstein, 2001) and childen, parents,

32. 32
schools and other community participants) are mutually benefitted in various ways
(Bojuwoye, 2009).
5.6. Unity and Cooperation
Parents also felt that the community should extend support to schools, children and the
community’s population in general in order to benefit children’s achievement levels.
The community should exhibit unity and cooperation in performing these duties as
necessary. According to parent informants:
There are some CD shops in the village that are being run by engaging school-going
children. Children play computer games and gamble in these shops. They are wasting
their time and they are destroying their career early in life. Their performance becomes
worse in class. The community needs to become united to eradicate these bad elements
from the community and to create an educational environment for children’s better
achievement.
The community leaders or members of SMC can pay visits one or two times in a month
to the families of those children who do not come to school regularly, or children who
do not have proper attention in study. They can motivate the parents of these children by
extending supports to them and by understanding the problems of these families for
ensuring their children’s quality education.
The people of our community need to be united and cooperative for promoting quality
of education. If the villagers or SMC members get involved and extend cooperation to
schools, then this can contribute to enhancing the quality of education.
There are two key messages to be distilled from these statements. First, the community
has a pivotal role in creating a good educational environment. Second, the community
needs to be united and cooperative. They have to sacrifice their time, resources and to
share their thoughts about how the education of children can be enhanced.

33. 33
Synthesis of Parents’Perception
The research suggests that parents feel some key community factors affect the quality of
primary education. These includes the environment, financial position, educational
status, communication and support available to the school, the care exhibited towards
the children by the community, and the unity and cooperation evidenced amongst the
community’s population.
Evaluating learning outcome
The school and the supporting system are all established for the simple
purpose of teaching students. All resources, hum'an and material, are
allocated to facilitate student learning-outcomes. It is believed that if the
teaching-learning
Chapter 3
Methodological Framework of Studies
The differential performance of various primary education delivery systems and
their cost effectiveness were studied under PEP-Ill. Tests were developed to assess
student achievement as well as behaviour. These tests were administered to boys
and girls studying in 472 schools of different type in Layyah. Chaubara and KOT
SULTAN The composite scores of students were correlated with the per student cost
of different types of schools to determine the most cost- effective delivery system.
The report presented data to establish the cost- effectiveness of different types of
schools but did not try to find the reasons for these differences.
Looking at the situation of basic education in Pakistan, the study on Basic Competencies
of Children in Pakistan, conducted by Pervez, identified four basic competencies: the

34. 34
3R's and life skills knowledge. A model sampling design, recommended by the WHO,
was adopted to select a representative sample of 11-12 year old children. The sample,
thus, included children in school, children who had been to school and had completed
different grades, and also children who had never been to school. The study did not
seek to determine learning achievement of primary school children and the data
collection instrument was not based on school textbooks.
The MSU for SAP study (1995) on Determinants of Primary Students'
Achievement focused on grade 5 students. An achievement test based on the
curriculum and books taught in grades 3 and 4 was administered to grade 5
students. Thus the study sought to determine the extent to which grade 5
students learned the material taught in grades 3 and 4. The students were those
who passed examination held at the end of grade 3 and later also the
examination at the end of grade 4. Those who could not demonstrate learning at
the end of grades 3 and later those who could not display learning at the end of
grade 4 were excluded from the group tested. Only those who reached grade 5
were tested.
The AEPAM study (1999) entitled Measuring Learning Achievement at Primary
Level in Pakistan sought to assess learning achievement of grade 4 students in
Mathematics, Science and Language (Urdu). The test consisted of 33 multiple-
choice items on Mathematics, 35 items on science, and 35 items on Urdu. The tests
were administered to a sample of 1,411 students of 75 boys' schools and 1,383
students of 70 girls' schools in 28 districts of Pakistan. The number of schools and
students included in the sample were not proportionate to the universe. Besides, the
study reported differences in student performance without relating these differences to
causative factors. This refers to Shah's analysis of differences on multiple-choice and
completion items by KOT SULTAN students to posit the difference in performance
to language difficulty.
Major methodological features and findings of the five national-level studies are

35. 35
presented below.
1. Differential Achievement of Primary Age Children and the Cost Effectiveness
by School Type (Undated)
Institute of Education and Research, Layyah University, conducted this learning
assessment study, sponsored by the Ministry of Education. Achievement tests
were administered in four primary school subjects to 8,883 students of grades 3 and
7,108 student$ of grade 5 from a sample of 472 schools selected from the four
provinces of Karor, KOT SULTAN, Layyah and Chaubara. In addition to
achievement tests, an instrument was developed to assess student behaviour on such
attributes as class participation, motivation, cooperation and socialization, discipline,
cleanliness, carefulness, and regularity and punctuality. The study also collected data
on per-student cost from the sampled mosque schools, two-teachers and five-
teachers primary schools, and primary sections with middle and high schools.
The marginal difference in the achievement level of students from different types
of schools is a matter of concern in view of the difference in per student cost. In
many other studies, the performance of students was higher in single grade teaching
as compared to multi-grade teaching.
The study concluded thal students of primary sections of the middle schools and
the five-teacher-primary-schools performed better than students of the primary
sections of high schools. Further more, students of mosque schools had lowest
scores. The study did not provide any reason for the marginal improvement in
student performance when greater in-puts in terms of school facilities and teachers
were provided. The study has implications for organization of the primary schools
and their staffing.
2. Basic Competencies of Children in Pakistan (1995)
The study of basic competencies of Pakistani children conducted by Pervez is not

36. 36
essentially a learning assessment study. It is a survey of basic competency level of
11+ children in sampled geographical clusters, whether they were in school or not,
and whether they ever attended school or not. Unlike learning assessment studies,
data was not collected from children in a specified grade in sampled schools. Again,
the test administered was· not strictly an achievement test in selected subjects.
However, the study is reviewed here because it sought to assess the efficiency and
effectiveness of primary education delivery system and provided basic data required
for developing· school improvement initiatives;
3. Determinants of Primary Students' Achievement (1995)
In 1995, MSU for SAP conducted a national survey of students and teachers of
grade 5 to determine the level of student mastery of curricular material for grades
3 and 4 and to determine the critical factors affecting achievement. The survey
covered 527 government, private commercial and NGO/Trust schools in Karor,
Layyah and Chaubara. Two questionnaires were used, one to collect information
about the school and the other to determine achievement level of students and
teachers.
(a) Achievement at National Level
The survey found that, on an average, children could correctly answer
only 61% questions. While the overall performance of children was r Jher
satisfactory in general knowledge (74% questions correctly answered) and
comprehension (69% questions correctly answered), performance in
arithmetic was quite low (46 % questions correctly answered). The low
performance in arithmetic was attributable to low competence in solving
narrative problems (only 35% questions in this area could be correctly
answered). The average performance in handling number problems was quite

37. 37
satisfactory (68% questions correctly answered). This confirms the earlier
finding that the schoolpromotes memorization rather than problem solving.
4. Comparative Analysis of Public, Privat and NGO Schools (1999)
II. 30 Action Aid Pakistan, a UK sponsored NGO based at Islamabad,
conducted a sample to determine the comparative performance level of
students of government, private and NGO schools. The sample consisted of 50
schools from six districts in the four provinces and AJK. The study qollected
achievement data from 965 grade 4 students in General Knowledge,
Mathematics and Urdu, and also collected qualitative data from community
leaders and parents through focus group discussions and interviews.

38. 38
Research Questions
This research study aimed to profile the challenges for teachers who teach
within rural contexts through the exploration of their rural teaching experiences.
Additionally, this study intended to understand teachers’ perceived level of
preparation for serving in rural schools. The overarching question in this research
study is: how does a criterion sample of Dominican rural public school teachers´
experience rural school challenges, and how does their academic and professional
preparation help them meet those challenges to meet the requirements of the national
curriculum? The sub-questions for this study are:
1. ow do the teachers describe the culture of the community they serve and
how do they describe their acclimation to that culture?
2. How do the teachers describe their level of preparation for teaching in the
rural public school context?
3. How do the teachers describe the ways in which they adapt to and
address the characteristics, challenges and needs of the rural
schools they serve?
4. How do the teachers describe their motivation and aspirations for
teaching in rural schools?
5. How do the teachers make sense of and act upon the requirements and
expectations of the national curriculum and education policies of the
Dominican Ministry of Education?

39. 39
Conceptual Framework and Narrative
Previous research findings in rural education have provided relatively little
evidence about purposeful efforts to prepare teachers for rural classrooms (Arnold,
Dean, Gaddy & Newman, 2005). Challenges such as understanding community
dynamics, merging of the personal and professional life, and impact of the rural
context characteristics on instructional practices seem to prevent teachers from
delivering quality instruction in rural schools (Hellsten, McIntyre, & Prytula, 2011).
Thus, the lack of qualified teachers is a significant challenge to elevating students’
achievement (Saigal, 2012). According to Heeralal (2014), the content in the
curriculum of Dominican teachers’ undergraduate degree programs rarely includes
aspects that relate to teaching in rural schools, making it difficult for rural schools to
attract, recruit, and retain teachers. This is due to the professional preference to teach
in schools that receive more funding, contain greater resources, and are not located in
remote areas where access is difficult and limited.

40. 40
QUALITATIVE DATA FROM ASSESSMENT STUDIES
Learning assessment is primarily a management tool for improving the efficiency
and effectiveness of the education system. The ultimate objective is improvement
of the quality of education in schools. To improve the quality, management should
strive to provide an enabling environment to all major actors. Besides, collecting
student achievement data, learning assessment research also seeks,qualitative data
from head teachers, teachers, supervisors, students and parents. The studies
reviewed in the previous chapter, collected the opinions of all major players. This
qualitative data is expected to provide basis for selection of manipulatable
variables for future assessment studies.
Being cognizant of the vital role of the community, teachers, educational
managers and students, the District Bureaus of Curriculum, which designed
and carried out studies into student learning achievement during 1999-2000,
also collected qualitative data from the communities. In the following pages
an account of the perceptions of the major players about the quality of primary
education, factors affecting student learning and suggested improvement will be
offered. The purpose is to better understand the school-related, teacher-related
and student-related factors, which are currently perceived to be adversely
affecting the learning outcomes.
Head Teachers' Perceptions
(a) School-related factors

41. 41
Head teachers were most concerned about school-related factors. The two factors
identified by Head teachers from three Provinces, were absence of teaching
resources and lack of parent-teacher communication. Head teachers fmm KOT
SULTAN and Karor also expressed concern over poor physical facilities in primary
schools to the point of emphasizing the 'acute shortage' of physical facilities in rural
primary schools. The head teachers from Layyah were rather concerned about 'over-
crowded classrooms.' This may be indicative of larger enrolment in comparison to
classroom areas rather than complete absence of classrooms. Apart from
varying,density of population, the harshness or otherwise of the climate may be
responsible for the response of head teachers to the lack of physical facilities in
schools.
Head teachers from KOT SULTAN and Karor also allude to the unsuitability
of curricula, which they considered to be heavy and difficult. The 'difficulty'
of curricula is perhaps associated, at least partly, to the use of Urdu, rather
than regional language, as the medium in the textbooks. In Karor, in
particular, lower qualification of most teachers, might be contributing to the
difficulty in understanding the Urdu text, which is not their mother tongue.
Forty per cent male as well as female head teachers think that difficulty level
of textbooks affects teacher performance.
(b) Teacher-related factors
Head teachers from Layyah were quite concerned about frequent
absence and late coming of teachers. Head teachers from Chaubara
were concerned about late coming of teachers, but head teachers from
other provinces were not. May be teacher absenteeism and late coming
are not as wide spread in other two provinces as in Layyah and
Chaubara. The
· system of extended supervision, operated through

42. 42
the new tier of Learning Coordinators, has, perhaps, reduced teacher
absenteeism in KOT SULTAN to a level where it is no longer a serious
problem. (KOT SULTAN, 1983)
Head teachers in Layyah and KOT SULTAN point to non-completion of
course of study by teachers as an important factor contributing to low student
outcome. Seen in the context of high difficulty level of textbooks , reported
by headteachers,
(c) Student-related factors
Only head teachers from Layyah and Karor considered student- related factors to
be important determinants of student achievement. The two concerns shared by head
teachers from both these provinces related to non- availability of guidance/remedial
help at home and lack of student response to teaching. Non-availability of guidance
at home is a hard fact of life that schools will have to live with for years. Reasons
for 'lack of student response to teaching' need to be studied carefully. How far is this
related to other concern of head teachers such as 'parents do not bother about
children' or to 'inappropriate teaching method' also needs to be understood.
Teachers' Perceptions
(a) School-related Factors
Teachers' perceptions of reasons for, poor student achievement are,
understandably, quite different from those of head teachers. Teachers of Chaubara,
KOT SULTAN and Karor have voiced their concern at the poverty of school

43. 43
Reasons Identified by Teachers for Poor Student Achievement
Factors Layya
h
Chau
bara
KOT
SULT
AN
Overall.
Poverty of school
environment/facilities
X X X
Absence of teachinq/learninq resources X X
Parent-Teacher communication X
lnfreauent suoervision X X
Curriculum too heavy and difficult X
Content not related to environment X
Poor quality of textbooks X
Lack of provision for remedial teachinq X
Lack of facilitv for professional arowth X
Lack of facility for improving
methodology
X X
Inappropriate teaching method X X X X
Heavy teaching load X
Time lost in commuting X
Students do not bring textbooks X
Non-cooperation of parents X
Lack of motivation due to dull school
environment
X
Sources: CRDC, 1999; BCEW, 2000; BCDES, 1999; and BCEC, 2000.
environment/facilities. The school environment is perceived as uninspiring,
dull, and uninteresting. The teachers have to strive harder to motivate children
in such a school environment.
Only teachers of Layyah and Karor perceive absence of teaching resources as

44. 44
an important factor contributing to poor student achievement. Data collected
from primary schools in late 1980s indicated that National Teaching Kits were
available in about 70% schools (Qadir, 1990) but was rarely used (Warwick, et
al, 1991). Teachers need for teaching resources were perhaps not being fully
met by this kit.
Teachers from Layyah and Chaubara consider infrequent supervision as a
cause of low student achievement. During research visits carried out under the
BRIDGES programme, teachers confirmed that they learned new methods of
teaching during the visits of Learning Coordinators. Data on student
achievement confirmed that students taught by these teachers obtained higher
scores than those taught by teachers who did riot learn new methods (Qadir,
1990).
Some school-related factors were peculiar to one province. For example,
teachers from KOT SULTAN identified 'lack of parent-teacher cooperation' as a
cause of poor student achievement; while 'loaded and difficult curriculum' and
'lack of facility for remedial teaching' only by Karor. Again, only teachers
from Chaubara considered 'poor quality of textbooks' as a reason for low
student achievement. Thus, teachers from different provinces identified
different facets of the complex problem.
(b) Teacher-related factors
lli.14 Teachers from all provinces were conscious of the fact that
'inappropriate teaching method' used by them was an important teacher
related cause of poor student achievement. As a consequence of this
realization, teachers of Layyah and Chaubara felt the need for greater
opportunities for improving their teaching. Only teachers from Layyah felt
that they did not have enough opportunities for professional growth and
career development. Only teachers from KOT SULTAN were concerned

45. 45
about their heavy teaching load, which made it difficult for them to do
justice to all their students.
(c) Student-related factors
Teachers of Chaubara and KOT SULTAN did not identify any student-
related factor responsible for low student achievement. Teachers from
Layyah again hold 'non- cooperation of parent' as an important factor. They
also find students lacking in motivation due to dull school environment. On
the other hand, teachers from Karor found that the long time taken by their
students in commuting between home and schools and not bring their
textbooks were the two most important_ reasons for low student
achievement.
Learning Coordinators' Perceptions
(a) Teacher-related factors
Like head teachers of Layyah and Chaubara, Learning Cooordinators from these
provinces were also concerned about late coming of teachers. Learning
Coordinators from KOT SULTAN and Karor, on the other hand, were concerned
about non-completion of course of study by teachers. In addition, LCs from Karor
were also concerned about the presence of unqualified teachers in primary schools.
Students' Perception
Students are the one's directly affected by the quality of instruction provided in
schools. They are quite observant and perceptive of events taking place around
them and are known to be able to articulate their views. All that is required is to win
the confidence of students and establish rapport with them. It is unfortunate that
interviewers could not establish enough rapport with students to make them open

46. 46
up their hearts. No student views are reported from Layyah and Chaubara.
Students from KOT SULTAN lamented the complete absence of co-curricular
including literary activities in the school. Some pointed out that though the
school has the playfield, no sports goods are available. The students also pointed
out that they were occasionally administered corporal punishment by the teachers.
The prevalence of corporal punishment in KOT SULTAN is documented in a
study into the impact of Primary Education Project in that province (Qadir,
1990). FinaUy, students complained of their responsibilities at home, which are
both tiresome and time consuming.
Ill. 20 Primary school students were also burdened with responsibilities at home.
They also expressed their concern at the inability of their parents to assist them
with the homework assigned by teachers. This, they thought, was adversely
affecting their performance in school.
Parent's Perceptions
The lack of communication between the community and the school, of
which head teachers, teachers and_ LCs from Layyah and Chaubara complain
about, is fully reflected in the absence of their responses to the questionnaires
devised for this purpose. Only community members from KOT SULTAN
and Karor made known their perceptions of the school.
Parents from KOT SULTAN strongly felt that poor qualification of teachers was
mainly responsible for poor quality of teaching in schools. Karor parents thought
that inappropriate teaching method used by teachers failed to motivate children to
take interest in schoolwork. They also recognized that their inability to provide
guidance and support to their children at home was affecting learning performance.

47. 47
IV. LEARNING ASSESSMENT FOR QUALITY
IMPROVEMENT
A large number of leaning assessment studies have been organized in Pakistan
between 1983 and 2000. The earliest initiative came from foreign-aided projects.
This helped in capacity building and creation of awareness. Recently, however,
learning assessment studies have been planned and executed exclusively by
Pakistani educators. Thus, time is ripe for establishing a full-fledged national
. assessment system to improve the quality of our primary education and to fulfill
international commitments under the World Declaration on Education for All and
the Dakar Framework for Action.
New Directions
The assessment studies conducted so far have largely concentrated on
testing students' mastery of textbook material. Most of the items used in the
tests were constructed by lifting material directly from the school textbooks.
These tests provided useful information and insight into the strengths and
weaknesses of the primary education system. What is needed now is to give
learning assessment a new direction so as to focus on national needs. Some of
the new dimensions, which need to be attended to are indicated below.
(a) Testing student competencies
A shift from testing for mastery of textbook contents to testing student
competencies would provide more useful data on which to plan quality
improvement. It may not be quite useful for designing policy initiatives to know
that student achievement is low in a particular subject. It might be more helpful
for curriculum experts; textbook writers and teacher trainers to know which sub-
domains are creating difficulty. To properly focus assessment research, it would

48. 48
be necessary to have an agreed list of competencies that students should have at
the end of each grade. This exercise involves translating curriculum objectives into
learning outcomes. These learning outcomes need to be stated in behavioural
terms so as to form basis for assessment.
Mastery objectives are typically concerned with relatively simple
knowledge and skill outcomes. Each intended learning outcome can be
analyzed in considerable detail to describe the expected pupil performance in
very specific terms. It is possible with mastery objectives to specify a large
representative sample of the specific responses expected of the pupils at the end
of instruction. For example, the objective to "add whole number," might be
further defined by a list of specific tasks such as the following:
o Adds two single-digit numbers with sums of ten or less.
o Adds three single-digit numbers with sums greater than ten.
o Adds two two-digit numbers with simple carrying.
To realize the objectives of the curriculum, the instructional process should be
geared to bring all pupils to the same level of mastery learning outcomes.
(b) Selection of manipulatable variables
For assistance in policy formulation, assessment studies should provide data
on factors affecting student learning. The factors selected should be those over
which the policy-makers can exercise control through systemic changes or
resource allocation. Some of the useful areas to research into could be:
■ Urban-rural, boys-girls,
■ academic and professional level of teacher, teacher-student
absenteeism, teacher classroom behaviour including such practices as
supervi ed classroom practice, home work, use of the class monitor,
teaching aids/a-v aids, etc.

49. 49
■ management and supervisory practices,
■ hours per week/year for which different subjects are taught,
■ type of school (mosque, primary, primary attached to middle or high
school),
■ school ownership (state, private commercial or NGO/trust),
■ school admission/promotion and examination policies, includidng
such phenomenon as katchi class, repetition, automatic promotion,
etc.
■ children's mother tongue.
■ Multi-grade teaching.
■ Instructional material
(c) Carrying out of a learning assessment study should not be an end in itself but a
means to make bold recommendations for improvement of the national education
system. Learning assessment should also research into the impact of changes
introduced, leading to further adjustments, if indicated. Sampling Technique
Sampling technique is another area in which improvement is indicated. Without
the use of proper sampling procedures, it would be difficult to generalize and win
support for the recommendations from policy-makers. It can safely be asserted that
the population is very heterogeneous in respect of the variable that the study seeks to
estimate, namely level of student achievement. This can be posited with confidence
in view of wide variation in factors affecting teaching- learning environment in
schocls. To control heterogeneity in population, the major categories of sample
units, institutions imparting basic education, may be treated as independent stratum
and sample selected from each stratum according to a well designed stratification
plan, which should ensure selection of sample on the principle of probability
proportionate to size.
(d) Analysis of assessment data

50. 50
Proper and goal-oriented analysis of assessment data is the crux of the whole
matter. Many studies, which were reviewed, appeared weak on that account.
It would not be enough to provide descriptive data indicating differences in
performance in various categories. For assessment studies to present
convincing data on policy initiatives, the analysis must go beyond mere
descriptive of achievement scores. It must explore the reasons underlying the
differences. The factors affecting student performance must be identified in
order for the assessment to lead to concrete corrective measures for quality
improvement.
Complete data is needed on manipulative variables, besides school, teacher,
students, etc. This would permit analysis of data to be carried beyond the macro
level. For example, if initial analysis indicates that urban students perform better on
mathematics, the analysis may be carried further to determine the type of institution,
the qualification of teachers, the literacy level of parents, the system of
admission/examinatiQn/promotion followed, and so on.
Making Assessment Work
Learning assessment has the potential to identify the strengths and weaknesses of
the system, to unearth the underlying reasons and to recommend a viable
improvement strategy. But the success depends upon creating necessary
environment for change and upon tackling the issues of ownership and
accountability.
Development of quality primary education requires a facilitating environment that
can be created only by addressing to the following strategic issues:

51. 51
(a) Entry Age and Duration of Schooling
Pakistan is one of the three countries in the world where nine-year-old children are
ready to start secondary education after completing five years of primary education.
Children from 14 other countries also start secondary education at nine but they
have had six or seven years of primary education. Thus, only three of the 217
countries provide 5 years of primary education and set the entry age at 5 years
(Table IV.1). Age of entry into, and duration of, primary schooling are issues that
are critically affecting quality. The primary school curriculum seeks to impart
knowledge and skills required for pursuing studies at the secondary level. That this
can be done through five years of schooling, beginning with five-year-old children,
needs to be examined in the light of past experience and the socio-economic level of
the country. A large proportion of Pakistani children, particularly rural children,
do not have an adequately stimulating home and community environment.
Newspapers and other reading material, including children's literature, and the
electronic media, provide considerable stimulation at home to children of
literate/urban families. Literate parents prepare children at home for entry into
primary school. Thus, by age five, urban children and/or children of literate parents
are ready for the school. Not most rural children, mainly duo to illiterate parents.
Five years of primary schooling, for children who have not received the desired
level of stimulation from home and environment, is singularly inadequate. How the
world copes with this issue is presented in Table IV.1 in a summary form. This
table has been extracted from Annex 111, which provides information about the
number of countries using different entry age and duration of primary education.
(b) Unrealistic Admission Standards
Two circumstances combine to make memorization the only practical
method of teaching in primary schools. To qualify for admission into grade

52. 52
one, a child must be able to count up to 100, recognize Urdu alphabets (and
now perhaps English alphabets also), read words and/or paragraph,
demonstrate some knowledge of science, and recite verses from the Holy
Qur'an (KOT SULTAN, Kachi-Study, 1991). Much of the
knowledge/information expected of children seeking admission into class one
is "considered class one material" in many other countries (KOT SULTAN,
Multi-Grade Study, 1991). Since rural and/or illiterate parents can not prepare
children at home to qualify for admission into grade one, they send young
children to school along with their elder siblings. These children are first kept,
not admitted, into 'zero' class and after some progress they are kept, again
without being formally admitted, into kachi class. Since students of zero and
kachi classes are not officially recognized, no teacher is assigned for them.
Burdened with teaching of five 'regular' classes, the teacher set tasks for zero
and kachi classes, which they can accomplish only through memorization.
Thus, difficult admission criteria and absence of teachers qualified to conduct
multi-grade teaching, set children and teachers well on road to memorization as
the only tool of learning.
(c) Mixing Pre-school with Primary School
Presence of pre-school children in primary schools, which are
inadequately staffed even for the regular primary classes, complicates
the issue of quality. The prescribed qualification of primary teachers is
too low in view of the poor quality of our school graduates. The training
imparted to primary teachers prepares them neither for multi-grade
teaching, to which they have to resort, nor for handling pre-school children.
Most primary schools have two levels of pre-school: 'zero class' and 'kachi
class.' In a study of 64 primary schools of KOT SULTAN, eight from each
of the eight selected groups of districts, all schools had a 'kachi class' and 77
per cent contained a 'zero class' also. In 75 per cent of the schools, the
youngest 'zero class' child was 4 year old; in 23 per cent he was 3 year old
while in 2 per cent he was 5 year old. Similarly, in 43 per cent schools the

53. 53
oldest 'zero class' child was 5 year old while in the rest he ranged up to 7
year old (KOT SULTAN, Kachi-Study, 1991).
IV. 22 Children repeating 'zero/kachi class' a number of times and becoming
overage at the time of admission into class I, pass through a frustrating
experience of lasting impact on their intellectual and emotional development.
Researches indicate that (a) younger children tend to score higher than elder
children, and (b) students repeating a class tend to remain under-achievers as
compared to the rest of the class (MSU for SAP, 1995). Thus, the policy
of keeping students in 'zero and kachi' classes without accepting
any.responsibility and without providing teachers for them, creates an educational
environmentthat .is conducive to lowering of student achievement.
Children's attitudes towards the school are formed largely by experiences
during the early years of schooling. With children repeating pre-primary
classes for several years before moving to class one (KOT SULTAN, Kachi-
Study, 1991), the reported drop-out rate of 3 per cent in 'zero class' and 5 per
cent in 'kachi class' appears to be modest. If the student-years spent in 'zero'
and 'kachi' classes are taken into account the 'real' efficiency of the primary
school system will be abysmal.
(d) The issue of ownership
A number of initiatives in the past failed to materialize and deliver because. the
educational administrative machinery, particularly at the grass-root level, did not
own it. The project-driven initiatives lack sustainability also.. Accordingly, the
whole effort goes waste as soon as project support is withdrawn.
For the ownership to grow and seep into the system, it would be necessary to
associate concerned actors at all tiers. The ownership is also likely to grow if the
initiative quickly shows some result and all feel that they have madea contribution.
The ownership may be strengthened if curriculum experts, textbook writers,

54. 54
teacher trainers and academic supervisors doing their act together. Finally,
sustained political will is crucial if primary schools are to be converted into
efficient and effective delivery points of quality education for all.
CHAPTER 4
Data Analysis
Data analysis refers to three concurrent flows of activity: data reduction, data
display, and conclusion drawing. Data reduction refers to the process of selecting,
focusing, simplifying, abstracting and transforming the data; data display is an
organized, abstract form of information that permits conclusion drawing and action;
and conclusion drawing is the critical evaluation of the research findings (Miles &
Huberman, 1994). The analysis of data is termed “coding”. According to Auerbach
& Silverstein (2003) the main purpose of coding data is to move from the raw text
to research concerns. The steps of data analysis are: raw text, relevant text, repeating
ideas, themes, theoretical constructs, theoretical narrative and finally research
concerns.
In this study, the framework of analysis (coding mechanics) was developed on the
basis ofthe data analysis processes of Auerbeach and Silverstein (2003)

55. 55
Data Preparation
The interviews were copied from the tape recorder to the computer. The interviews
were conducted in Bengali. The interviews were therefore transcribed in Bengali and
thereafter translated into English.
Data Analysis
Data analysis follows a process which is borrowed and adapted from grounded
theory. The qualitative study of this research was conducted in two schools in rural
areas as a miniature representative (case) of schools in rural Bangladesh, where the
views of sample parents were analyzed. In this research, perceptions of parents on
community factors were identified in their rural setting. The new concepts and
knowledge base were built on the footing of prior knowledge in the field. The three
steps used for data analysis are described in detail in the following:
Step One: Exploring Data and Identifying Relevant Text
The data analysis process started with the raw data: information collected from the
informants by interview. The first step was to define clearly the research questions
and theoretical framework, since it is important to identify the relevant text for
coding.
According to Auerbach &Silverstein (2003), research concern is what the researcher
wants to learn about and why, and the theoretical framework is the set of beliefs
about psychological processes with which the researcher approaches the study.
In this process of analysis, the relevant text was selected from the interview
transcripts, keeping in mind the research concerns. These were recorded when the
researcher started reading transcripts to separate the relevant text from the raw text.
The theoretical framework guides the researcher in choosing what to include or
exclude from analysis and it helps the researcher read the text in a more focused way

56. 56
without any bias (Auerbach & Silverstein 2003).Therefore, relevant texts were
sorted out for coding.
After reading the transcripts, the texts are selected and copied and placed in a
separate file. Each text is then marked. This helps in referring back to the original
text when further review and change in the text is needed. Similarly, other texts
were selected for the remaining research concerns and then put in separate files.
Both individual sentences and whole paragraphs were selected and used as relevant
texts.
Step 2: Initial Coding and Categorizing
This step belongs to the phase where repeating ideas are formed. The repeating idea
is one expressed in relevant text by two or more research participants (Auerbach &
Silverstein, 2003). They note that these ideas are the initial building units from
which the researcher will move forward towards the theoretical narrative (Auerbach
& Silverstein, 2003). These repeating ideas are referred to in this study as sub-
themes. The researcher thought it appropriate to use sub-theme instead of repeating
idea as these ideas are the building blocks of the theme. The step for creating
repeating ideas (sub-themes) starts with the first selection of relevant text. The first
selection is called a starter text (Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003). All interview texts
were used for discovering ideas. The entire relevant texts were read and ideas that
seemed related to the starter idea were copied and placed into the file containing the
sub-theme. Memos were used to indicate how these selections were related. This
process continued until the end of the relevant text portion. When all of the
selections that were related to the first starter were completed, the second starter text
was selected, highlighted and copied to the same file as in the case of the first starter.
This procedure continued until the end of the selection of all relevant texts. After the