An objective claim is a statement about a factual matter-one that can be proved true or false. For factual matters there exist widely recognized criteria and methods to determine whether a claim is true or false. A subjective claim, on the other hand, is not a factual matter; it is an expression of belief, opinion, or personal preference. A subjective claim cannot be proved right or wrong by any generally accepted criteria.

1. Truth, Objectivity and Bias
Professor Joel Hayward

2. By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
 Understand that our beliefs are often merely opinions or value judgements,
rather than observations that accord with reason, reality and evidence
 Assess the impact of personal values and cultural bias on research
 Assess the role of values and bias in the selection and critique of evidence
 Assess the importance of seeking “critical distance” during research

3. People are of equal worth, but their assertions are not
There are strong and weak assertions
Weak assertions:
 Are based on incomplete or inaccurate information
 Or are based on insufficient or weak evidence
 Or ignore, minimize or exaggerate facts because of subjectivity and bias
 Or contain flawed logic

4. Two working definitions of “Truth”:
Truth is “the best available description of reality”
Truth is “knowledge that is justified”
What about this: “Truth is knowledge that is accepted and agreed”
Michael Glanzberg. 2018. The Oxford Handbook of Truth. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

5. When did the Second World War begin?
1 September 1939 22 June 1941

6. Scholars try to solve the dilemma of truth by highlighting the difference between
objectivity and subjectivity
This doesn’t mean:
“Everyone has values, interests and tastes so everything is merely subjective”
The worst form of this claim is: “Everyone is entitled to their opinion”

7. An objective claim contains truth or falsity regardless of who perceives it and
independent of perceptions of value
The properties of a subjective claim depend on who perceives it and what value
they imbue it with

9. Object
Subject

10. An objective statement does not depend for its truth on who is perceiving it
Claim: The dog lies on the floor

11. So what is an “objective” claim?
Objective claims meet three criteria:
1. Objective truths have a truth value
2. One can create a rational method for determining whether the claim is true
or false
3. In the event of disagreement about the claim’s truth/falsity, someone must
be wrong

12. Criteria 1. Truth value
This means that something is either true or false
If we say that a claim has a truth value, we simply mean it is the type of claim that
is capable of being true, or it is the type of claim that is capable of being false
This claim has a truth value of truth

13. Truth value
This means that something is either true or false
If we say that a claim has a truth value, we simply mean it is the type of claim that
is capable of being true, or it is the type of claim that is capable of being false
This claim has a truth value of falsity

14. Claim: The dog lies on the floor
Does this claim have a truth value?
Yes! Either it is true that the dog lies on the floor or it is not

15. Criteria 2. A rational method for determining whether the claim is true or false
Can one create a logical way to determine whether the dog is lying on the floor?
Sure! We can compare dog postures to establish that this dog is lying (not standing or
sitting) and we can compare house surfaces to establish that this is a floor

16. Criteria 3. In the event of disagreement about the claim’s truth/falsity,
someone must be wrong
With objective claims, they cannot both be right
Either the dog is lying on the floor or it is not
The dog is lying
on the floor
No, it’s standing

17. The Great Pyramid
is in Egypt
No it is not. It is
Greece

18. Abu Dhabi is the
capital of the UAE
Dubai is the
capital of the UAE

19. Thus the claim “The dog lies on the floor” satisfies the three criteria for objectivity
1. It has a truth value
2. One can create a rational method for determining whether the claim is true or
false
3. In the event of disagreement about the claim’s truth/falsity, someone must be
wrong

20. Subjective claims are dependent on the personal feelings, preferences, tastes, or
values of a subject (ie, an individual)
The person might genuinely and totally consider their preference to be true
i.e. “New Zealand is the most fabulous country on earth”
but that does not create a factual truth except in the sense that the
person has been honest in the intention of the statement
i.e. it’s an honest belief

21. Subjective claims
1. They do not have objective truth values
2. One cannot create a rational method for determining whether claims are true
or false because no truth value (in the objective sense) exists in those claims
3. People can disagree without anyone being wrong
fail all three of the aforementioned criteria for truth

22. A subjective claim: The dog is adorable
But wait: I agree that this dog IS adorable (says Joel)
Agreeing with a statement does not create a truth value
It does not make a subjective claim objective, and does not make it true

23. There can be no rational method for determining whether claims are true or false
because there is no truth value in those claims
How might we create such a method?
Polling / Survey?
All we would learn is how many people agree with the statement

24. People can disagree without anyone being wrong
The dog is
adorable
No it’s not. I prefer
smaller dogs

25. Jaguar XJ 2020 3.0L 50th Edition LWB

26. Lotus Evora 2020 400

27. Maserati Ghibli 2020 3.0T V6 S

28. The Jaguar XJ 2020 3.0L is a better car than either the Lotus Evora 2020 400 or
the Maserati Ghibli 2020 3.0T V6 S
The Jaguar is more beautiful than the Lotus or the Maserati
 The Jaguar is faster than either the Lotus or the Maserati
 The Jaguar is more fuel efficient than either the Lotus or the Maserati
 The Jaguar is more reliable than either the Lotus or the Maserati
 The Jaguar is more popular in the UAE than either the Lotus or the Maserati

29. Claim A: Saddam Hussein was an Iraqi leader

30. Claim B: Saddam Hussein was the greatest Iraqi leader in recent centuries

31. People who believe in ghosts are crazy
A majority of New Zealanders believe in ghosts
Some people in the US carry concealed weapons
People who carry concealed weapons are troublemakers
Canada promotes the value of tolerance
Canada’s level of tolerance towards indigenous people is inadequate
Iran sponsors other fighting forces outsides its borders
Iran should not have supported the Syrian government of Bashar Al-Assad

32. On the other hand, … just because a claim is objective does not make it true
 Vampires live in Rumania and kill many people
 Bill Gates is the fastest runner in the world
Each statement satisfies the criteria for objectivity:
1. It has a truth value
2. There can be rational methods for determining whether the claim is true or false
3. If there is disagreement about the claim’s truth/falsity, someone must be wrong

33. Two overstated views about objectivity and subjectivity:
“Because everyone possesses feelings, preferences, tastes, and values, there’s
no point bothering to be objective”
“Objective truth does not exist or is limited to the very smallest claims”

34. Some scholars (esp. “interpretivists”) take a view like this
They argue that humans operate in such a complicated web of social, behavioral,
and cultural variables that:
 quantitative analysis provides a better method for gaining meaning than
qualitative analysis
 and allows the researcher to remain detached from any human subjects

35. “Empiricists” (sometimes call Positivists) like me favor a dependence upon what
we call facts that derive from observation and the scientific method
We don’t deny the negative potential influence of values and bias,
and don’t believe that total objectivity is possible,
but believe:
 We can train ourselves to avoid using our personal feelings, preferences, tastes,
or values as criteria for how we understand, select, prioritize and use evidence
 We can train ourselves to limit our claims to the criteria for objectivity
mentioned in this lecture

36. Christchurch has buses
— What might a rational method for determining whether the claim is true or
false?
Christchurch has red buses

37. Christchurch has red buses
Most buses in Christchurch are red
All buses in Christchurch are red
Almost all buses in Christchurch are red, as are many cars
Almost all buses in Christchurch are red, as are many cars and some motorcycles
Almost all buses in Christchurch are red, and most are made by the German
company MAN. Many cars in Christchurch are also red. They are manufactured
by different companies. Some motorcycles are also red, and are likewise made by
various companies. Honda makes both cars and motorcycles used in
Christchurch, as does Suzuki.

38. Knowledge has a commonsense nature
It would be unreasonable to assert that no-one can assert
anything because, after all, we cannot prove that the buses
we see as red are “objectively” red
i.e. we all just think they are red
“Communis opinio” = The acceptance that the reality
perceived by common understanding is be accepted unless
there is a reason to believe otherwise
We live our lives as though the perceived reality is the reality

39. Personal values
These provide an internal reference for what is just, fair, good, right, useful,
beneficial, desirable, beautiful, important, and constructive
Values (along with needs, habits and interests) largely create our self-perception
and behavior and influence our choices

40. Cultural or societal values
Individual cultures emphasize, promote and sometimes demand values which
all or most of their members broadly share
Both sets of values shape our “vantage points” or “viewpoints” or
“perspectives”

41. Vantage Point / Viewpoint

44. Bias
An inclination or prejudice for or against a person, group or thing, especially in a
way considered to be unfair
A pattern of deviation from the way your mind ordinarily forms judgments,
whereby inferences may be created unreasonably
Jennifer L. Eberhardt. 2020. Biased: Uncovering the Hidden Prejudice That Shapes What We See, Think, and Do.
London: Penguin.

45. Hindsight bias
The tendency to perceive events that have already taken place as having been
more predictable than they actually were before the events occurred

46. Outcome bias
The tendency to perceive actions as reasonable and smart (or not) based on
whether in fact they succeeded

47. Anchoring bias
The tendency to rely on the first piece of information encountered when
forming an argument or judging’s something’s worth

48. Confirmation bias
The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that
confirms one’s existing beliefs while giving disproportionately less attention to
information that contradicts it
Attribution bias
The tendency to assume that the actions of other people are the result of internal
factors such as personality flaws, and the corresponding tendency to assume that
assume that our own actions arise as responses to external circumstances

49. Halo effect
Seeing one aspect of a person, organization or entity so positively that we see all
or most other things about it positively and may even overlook negative aspects
(reverse = “Horn Effect”)

50. What it means for researchers?
We need to learn and practice how to:
1. Create and express objective claims
2. Avoid making subjective claims
3. Build our argument upon evidence, and
4. Constantly reflect on the influence of our potential values and biases and
prevent them from distorting our thinking and research

51. This distortion can occur:
 While we select evidence or when we attribute weight or reliability to them
 While we choose what to include and exclude as topics of analysis
 When we choose how to develop and express our argument

52. All sources reflect the originator’s personal feelings, preferences, tastes, or values
One must therefore approach all sources with healthy skepticism. Ask the
following:
 Is it authentic?
 Who produced it?
 What was his or her status or role?
 What was influencing him or her at the time?
 Why was it produced?
 Who is its intended readers?
 What personal or cultural values and biases might it reflect?

53. 1453: The Capture of Constantinople

54. What the sources say

55. What the sources say

56. Concluding Thoughts:
We will create better research and be able to identify other people’s strong and
weak arguments if we:
 Try constantly to be objective and not subjective
 Reflect upon who we are and what we believe
 Understand the key forms of bias and try avoid them
 Remember than even the evidence we use is not value-free or bias-free

57. Thank you